The Evolution of U.S. Military Policy from the ...

COR PORAT ION

The Evolution of U.S. Military Policy from the Constitution to the Present

Gian Gentile, Michael E. Linick, Michael Shurkin

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Preface

Since the earliest days of the Republic, American political and military leaders have debated and refined the national approach to providing an Army to win the nation's independence and provide for its defense against all enemies, foreign and domestic. Based on a larger RAND study of the history of U.S. military policy from the Constitution to the present, this report provides historical background to understand the evolution of the fundamental laws that have shaped the organization of the Army and its employment at home and overseas from the colonial era to the present day. Through archival research of primary sources and a survey of the historical literature, the report traces the evolution of U.S. military policy, highlighting the legal, political, and security compromises that contributed to a new interpretation of the Constitution's "raise and support armies" and "militia" clauses. These legal decisions were not natural or inevitable lines drawn directly from the Constitution to the present day. Rather, the Army of today and the laws that govern it were contingent on the resolution of broader political, cultural, and intellectual debates over the necessity of a standing professional force, the power of the federal government, and the principled obligation of citizens to their Nation.

This report explains the origins of today's Army and contributes to ongoing debates over how the nation should organize and employ its Army. This report should be of interest to force planners and anyone interested in the organization and employment of the Army's three components--the Regular Army, the Army National Guard, and the Army Reserve--and the evolution of military policy in American history.

This research was sponsored by Headquarters Department of the Army (HQDA) G8, Army Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) Office, and conducted within the RAND Arroyo Center's Strategy, Doctrine, and Resources Program. RAND Arroyo Center, part of the RAND Corporation, is a federally funded research and development center sponsored by the United States Army. The analysis and primary evidence in this research report is based on a larger four-volume history of U.S. military policy from the Constitution to the present sponsored by HQDA G8, Army QDR Office. That larger four-volume history effort has an advisory board of six leading scholars of history, public policy, and constitutional law. They have provided scholarly feedback

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and criticism for each of the four volumes, and we have used their input in the writing of this research report.

The Project Unique Identification Code (PUIC) for the project that produced this document is RAN157253.

Contents

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER TWO

The Constitutional Moorings for the Evolution of U.S. Military Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

CHAPTER THREE

The 19th Century System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

CHAPTER FOUR

From the Spanish-American War to Total War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

CHAPTER FIVE

From the Korean War to Total Force Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

CHAPTER SIX

Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

ANNEX

Legislation Pertaining to the Evolution of U.S. Military Policy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Lists of Figures and Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

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Summary

The laws that govern the U.S. Army have changed little since 1940. These laws have become so familiar that many assume they constitute a "traditional" U.S. military policy, emanating from the Constitution's division of federal and state powers. Drawing on a RAND study of the history of Army and the evolution of laws that authorize, empower, and govern it, in this report we show that the current set of foundational laws for the Army were not an inevitable interpretation of the "raise and support armies" or "militia" clauses of the Constitution. Rather, U.S. military policy has evolved over time through statutory changes. These laws emerged from long-standing debates over the role of civilian-soldiers, the necessity of a standing professional force (i.e., the Regular Army), the relationship between the Army and the potential sources of manpower for expansion, the balance of federal and state authorities, and the nation's security needs. A series of legislative compromises between 1903 and 1940 established a consensus that forms the foundation of current military policy. By highlighting the evolution of military policy, this history introduces new questions about the traditional nature of the Army that exists today and supplies a context for future efforts to rethink how the Army might continue to evolve to meet the nation's changing security needs.

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