All-Actors: The Intergovernmental (Top-Down or Bottom-Up ...



Session No. 15

Course Title: Theory, Principles and Fundamentals of Hazards, Disasters, and U.S.

Emergency Management

Session Title: Fundamentals of U.S. Emergency Management (Part III)

Time: 1 Hour

Objectives:

15.1 Describe the Four Phases that comprise the disaster life cycle.

15.2 Describe the major tenets of Building Disaster Resilient Communities.

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Scope:

To begin this session, the professor introduces the four phases of the disaster life cycle and provides brief descriptions of each phase. After discussing each of the cycles, if time permits, the professor may wish to conduct a student activity dealing which the phases. During the activity, the students determine which phase most closely describes traditional emergency management functions, after which results are compared and differences of opinion are discussed. Next, the professor introduces the sustainable development philosophy, Building Disaster Resilient Communities (BDRC). The discussion focuses on the main tenets of this philosophy, including a brief review of the principles of sustainability. Finally, the professor may conclude this session with by inviting questions from the class about the material covered in the three-part breakout of the topic, Fundamentals of U.S. Emergency Management. ________________________________________________________________________

Suggested Student Homework Reading Assignment:

McEntire, David, et al. “A Comparison of Disaster Paradigms: The Search for a Holistic Policy Guide.” Public Administration Review. 2002. 62(3): 267-281

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Instructor Reading:

Buckle, Phillip 1998-99. “Re-defining community and vulnerability in the context of emergency management”. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management. Vol. 13, No. 4, 1999

Neal, David M. 1997. “Reconsidering the Phases of Disaster.” International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, Vol. 15, No. 2, 239-264.

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Additional Sources to Consult:

Beavers, James E., Dennis Mileti, and Lori Peek: 2000. “Dealing with Natural Hazards Requires A New Approach.” Natural Hazards Review, Vol. 1, No. 2, May, pp. 65-66.

Crews, David. 1999. “Why Emergency Management as a Profession?” The ASPEP Journal 1999. American Society of Professional Emergency Planners.

FEMA. 2000. Strategic Plan, FY 2000 through FY 2006 – Partnership for a Safer Future. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Fothergill, Alice. 2000. “Knowledge Transfer Between Researchers and Practitioners.” Natural Hazards Review, May, pp. 91-98.

Hecker, Edward J., William Irwin, David Cottrell, and Andrew Bruzewicz. 2000. “Strategies for Improving Response and Recovery in the Future.” Natural Hazards Review, pp. 161-170, August.

Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory. 2000. Public and Private Integrated Safety Administration Programs – Native American Tribes, Rural Communities, States, Major Cities, US Territories, Foreign Nations and Industry. October 18.

Mitchell, James K. (ed.). 1999. Crucibles of Hazard: Mega-Cities and Disasters in Transition. Tokyo, NY, Paris: United Nations University Press.

Mittler, Elliott. 1989. Natural Hazard Policy Setting: Identifying Supporters and Opponents on Nonstructural Hazard Mitigation. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado, Program on Environment and Behavior Monograph # 48.

National Governors’ Association. 1978. 1978 Emergency Preparedness Project – Final

Report. Washington, DC: Defense Civil Preparedness Agency.

National Governors’ Association. 1979. Comprehensive Emergency Management – A Governor’s Guide. Washington DC: Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, May.

Neal, David M. 2000. Feedback From The Field – Developing Degree Programs in Disaster Management: Some Reflections and Observations. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters. Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 417-437

Twigg, John. 1999-2000. “The Age of Accountability? Future Community Involvement in Disaster Reduction.” Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Summer, pp. 51-58.

Waugh, William L. Jr. 2000. “Expanding the Boundaries of Emergency Management.” IAEM Bulletin, Vol. 17, No. 10, October, pp. 1 & 4.

Additional Sources to Consult: BDRC.

Armstrong, Michael J. 2000. “Back to the Future: Charting the Course for Project Impact.” Natural Hazards Review, Vol. 1, No. 3, August, pp. 138-144.

Berke, Philip R. and Maria Manta Conroy. 2000. “Are We Planning for Sustainable Development? An Evaluation of 30 Comprehensive Plans.” Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol. 66, No. 1, Winter, pp. 21-33.

FEMA. 2000. Planning for a Sustainable Future – The Link Between Hazard Mitigation and Livability. (Project Impact).

Geis, Donald E. 2000. “By Design: The Disaster Resistant and Quality-of-Life Community.” Natural Hazards Review, Vol. 1, No. 3, August, pp. 151-160.

Gore, Vice President Al. 2000. Building Livable Communities. On-line at URL:

Institute for Business & Home Safety. 2000. Template: IBHS Showcase State for Natural Disaster Resistance and Resilience – A Systematic Management Approach for Disaster Loss Reduction. (Draft for Ad Hoc Showcase Committee Review) August 10.

May, Peter J, et al. 1996. Environmental Management and Governance: Intergovernmental Approaches to Hazards and Sustainability. London and NY: Routledge.

Mileti, Dennis S., JoAnne DeRouen Darlington, Eve Passerini, Betsy C. Forrest, Mary Fran Myers. 1995. “Toward an Integration of Natural Hazards and Sustainability.” The Environmental Professional, Vol. 17, pp. 117-126.

Monday, Jacquelyn L. and Mary Fran Myers. 1999. Coping With Disasters By Building Local Resiliency. Fairfax, VA: Public Entity Risk Institute, Internet Symposium, October 4-7, 1999.

Nigg, Joanne, et.al. August 24, 1998. Disaster Resistant Communities Initiative: Evaluation Of The Pilot Phase. Executive Summary. Project # SAI 97-09-18-04. FEMA

North Carolina Division of Emergency Management. 2000. Hazard Mitigation in North Carolina: Measuring Success – Executive Summary. Raleigh, NC: NCDEM, February.

North Carolina Division of Emergency Management. 2000. Hazard Mitigation in North Carolina: Measuring Success. Raleigh, NC: NCDEM, February.

Paton, Douglas, Leigh Smith and John Violanti. 2000. “Disaster Response: Risk, Vulnerability and Resilience.” Disaster Prevention and Management, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 173-179.

Phillips, Brenda. 2000. "Environmental Hazards, Sustainability, and Social Justice: Making a Difference." Chapter 24 (pp. 205-209) in Analyzing Social Problems: Essays and Exercises (2nd ed.), Dana Dunn and David Waller (eds.), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Rhode Island. January 2000. Showcase State for Natural Disaster Resistance and Resilience. Institute for Business & Home Safety (IBHS).

Tierney, Kathleen J. June 2000. Disaster Resistant Communities Initiative: Evaluation Of The Pilot Phase, Year 2. Executive Summary. Project # EMW-97-CA-0519. FEMA.

Tobin, Graham A. 1999. Sustainability and community resilience: the holy grail of hazards planning? Environmental Hazards. Vol. 1, No. 1. June.

Twigg, John. 1999-2000. “The Age of Accountability?: Future Community Involvement in Disaster Reduction.” Pp. 51-58 in The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Vol. 14, No. 4, Summer.

Witt, James L. 2000. Remarks for James L. Witt, Smart Growth Symposium Mecklenburg County, NC. Washington, DC: FEMA, July 14, 2000.

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General Requirements:

PowerPoint slides have been prepared to support this session. The session is not dependent upon the utilization of these visual aids. They are provided as a tool that the professor is free to use as PowerPoints or overhead transparencies.

If you have not already distributed the handout, Emergency Management-Related Terms and Definitions, it is included for use with this session.

Note to the Professor: This session is Part III of a three-part breakout of the topic, Fundamentals of U.S. Emergency Management. It is the third of three sessions as outlined on page 8 of the Session 13 notes. Included at the end of these notes are long and short versions of a student activity on the four phases of emergency management. The references at the end of this session are inclusive of the material in all three Fundamentals sessions, with supplementary references on Building Disaster Resilient Communities.

Objective 15.1 Describe the Four Phases that comprise the disaster life cycle.

The Four Phases of the Disaster Life Cycle

• Another fundamental of U.S. Emergency Management is referred to as “the Four Phases” of the disaster life cycle.

Note to the Instructor: At this point, the students should review the terms relevant to the phases that are listed in the handout, Emergency Management-Related Terms and Definitions.

• It has been written that:

“Disasters do not just appear one day. Rather, they exist throughout time and have a lifecycle of occurrence which must be matched by a series of management phases that include strategies to mitigate hazards, prepare for and respond to emergencies, and recover from their effects” (FEMA 1993 (Sep), 1-5).

• Within the U.S., emergency activities have been categorized into four phases that require different types of organization and preparation:

o Mitigation

o Preparedness

o Response

o Recovery

• This particular codification gained precedence over others as a result of the use of this terminology in the National Governor’s Association Report of 1979.

• Prior to this time it was not uncommon to see time phases discussed in terms of pre-event, event, and post-event; or “prevention” preceding “mitigation” instead of being collapsed into it; with recovery broken up into such subcategories as restoration, rehabilitation, redevelopment and reconstruction.

• For example, Fischer describes five stages:

“The pre-impact period is one in which some measure of preparation may occur if the need to prepare is clearly communicated to potential victims in such a fashion as to provide them with sufficient warning time.

“The impact period is often the shortest, yet most dangerous, part of the disaster’s life cycle. The hurricane blows through; the tornado touches down and is gone; the plane crash is virtually instantaneous.

“During the immediate post-impact period the survivors must confront their new reality. After some disasters, many survivors will find that they have not lost anything of value while others will have suffered devastating losses, human and/or material.

“During the recovery period debris clearance is usually completed; essential services are often restored; insurance claims are filed; preliminary reconstruction plans are designed; and a sense of normalcy begins to return to the community.

“Finally, the reconstruction period begins which may, depending on the scope of the disaster, extend for years”[1]

• On the subcategories of “recovery”:

“The term Recovery is inconsistently used. . . Those who use Restoration mean to indicate the putting back of what was before. Reconstruction carries with it the connotation of emphasis on the physical infrastructure, while Rehabilitation emphasizes the human side of recovery, both physical and psychosocial. Restitution usually refers to the lengthy process of compensation claims, litigation and financial claims against insurers, government agencies and those who may have contributed to the losses incurred.”[2]

• There is nothing “magic” to this lexicon except that it tends to dominate over others in the United States. One can easily find other ways to codify the Disaster Life Cycle in disaster literature.[3]

• Brief descriptions of each phase follow:

MITIGATION:

• The first phase is Mitigation. Here is a FEMA definition:

“Mitigation is any action of a long-term, permanent nature that reduces the actual or potential risk of loss of life or property from a hazardous event.” (FEMA 1998 (March), 9-25)

Note to the Instructor: Here are a couple other definitions if you choose to compare and contrast.

“Mitigation refers to activities which actually eliminate or reduce the chance of occurrence or the effects of a disaster….It also includes long-term activities which reduce the effects of unavoidable disasters.” (FEMA 1993 (Sep), 1-7 and 1-10).

“Mitigation includes activities designed to postpone, dissipate, or lessen the effects of a disaster or emergency. In general, mitigation is the initial phase. It should be considered long before an emergency occurs.” (FEMA 1995, II-2)

• The point is that Mitigation is:

“taking sustained actions to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to people and property from hazards and their effects.” (FEMA 1998 (May), SM 1-12)

• As Lindell and Perry note (1992, 12), “the focus here is on prevention—stopping disasters before they happen.”

Key Terms:

• Mitigation includes measures that:

o Are taken long before disaster threatens – i. e., not upon notification

o Eliminate or reduce the threat or the consequences

o Are long-term, permanent or sustained – i.e., not temporary

Examples

• Building Codes, Regulations, Ordinances and Standards:

o Requiring roof tie-downs to reinforce roofs in hurricane-vulnerable localities

(FEMA 1993 (Sep), 1-7).

o Requiring elevation of structures in floodplains (FEMA 1993 (Sep), 1-7).

o Adopting hazardous materials container structural codes.

o Requiring flame-resistant roofing material in areas subject to bush and wildfires.

• Building/Facility Design:

o Analyzing building failures following an earthquake.

o Improved design and construction techniques.

• Critical and Public Facilities Policies and Projects such as:

o Mandating measures to make utilities, structural components, and contents resistant to damage. (FEMA 1998 (March), 9-26).

o Dredging waterways prone to flooding.

• Land-Use Planning, Zoning and Regulations:

o Zoning regulations that prevent or regulate the use of hazardous areas like floodplains (FEMA 1993 (Sep), 1-7).

o Limiting density of construction to decrease fire spread potential.

• Acquisition or Relocation of Structures:

o Purchase of structures within a floodplain for the purpose of destruction or removal outside the flood plain.

• Hazards Control:

o Dikes, dams, levees

o Retaining walls and breakwaters

o Sprinkler systems

o Slope stabilization measures

o Windbreaks

• Hazards Regulation:

o Regulation of transportation of hazardous cargoes through congested urban areas. (FEMA 1995, II-2)

• Real Estate Disclosure Provisions

• Retrofitting Measures:

o Adding wire mesh to chimneys in wooded areas

o Bolting a house to its foundation in areas susceptible to earthquakes

o Bracing pendant (drop or suspended) ceilings for earthquake protection

o Hurricane clips and shutters

o Mobile home tie-downs

o Reinforcing and/or bracing chimneys in earthquake prone areas

o Replacing unreinforced brick filler walls with reinforced masonry--earthquake threat

• Public Education, Awareness and Outreach:

o Contour farming to help reduce flood potential

o On all aspects of mitigation

• Mitigation is important to:

o Protect people and structures

o Reduce the costs of disaster response

o Help reduce the Federal debt. (FEMA 1998 (March), 9-25)

• Prior to the Witt Era, mitigation received the smallest proportion of resources devoted to emergency management. (Lindell and Perry 1992, 15)

PREPAREDNESS

• The second phase is Preparedness. Here is a FEMA definition:

“Preparedness is planning how to respond in case an emergency or disaster occurs and working to increase resources available to respond effectively.” (FEMA 1993, 1-8).

• Another way to say this is that:

Preparedness is planning now on how to respond in case of emergency or disaster in order to protect human lives and property, and developing capabilities and programs that contribute to a more effective response.

Preparedness is an “insurance policy” against emergencies since we cannot mitigate against every disaster. It is undertaken because mitigation activities cannot keep all emergencies from happening. (FEMA 1995, II-2)

Note to the Instructor: Yet another definition is that preparedness is “building the emergency management profession to effectively prepare for, mitigate against, respond to, and recover from any hazard by planning, training, and exercising.” (FEMA 1998 (May), SM 1-12)

Key Term: Building Response Capabilities

Examples:

• Establishing Hazard and Emergency-Related Laws, Regulations and Authorities:

o Establishment of an emergency management organization

o Establishment of a line of succession for continuity of government

o Regulations requiring posting of Fire Exit signs

o “Good Samaritan” Law

o Hazardous materials release notification laws

o Mutual aid agreements with other political jurisdictions.

o Stand-by vendor contracts

• Planning, Policies and Procedures:

o Development of an Emergency Operations Plan to ensure the most

effective, efficient disaster response.

▪ Hazards, Vulnerability and Risk Analyses and Maps

▪ Evacuation and Shelter policies, plans and procedures

▪ Special Populations planning (disabled, incarcerated, homebound, etc.).

▪ Pets in Shelters policies, plans and procedures.

▪ Crisis Counseling plans and procedures

▪ Unsolicited Goods and Services plans and procedures.

▪ Mass Casualty/Fatality plans, policies and procedures.

▪ Non-essential functions curtailment during disaster policy development.

▪ Prioritized essential services restoration plans.

▪ Resource Management plan, policy and procedures.

▪ Policy on hazard pay for government employees.

o Drafting a recovery or strategic long-term community mitigation plan.

o Special Events Planning (sporting events, concerts, celebrity visits).

o Developing a Community Profile (demographics, resources, facilities).

o Dependent care policy for dependents of emergency services personnel.

o Capability Development, such as the pre-emergency establishment of:

▪ Budget preparation for the emergency management organization

▪ Emergency Operations Center

▪ Hazard forecasting, detection, monitoring and/or warning capabilities

▪ Hiring of emergency management personnel

▪ Putting family disaster supplies kit together

▪ Smoke detector placement

▪ Stockpiling critical emergency supplies and equipment

▪ Storm shelter construction

▪ Storm Watch and Warning programs

• Training and Education:

o Training of emergency services and other personnel to respond.

o Development and implementation of citizen disaster awareness and community disaster education programs.

• Tests, Exercises and Drills for Personnel and Equipment (FEMA 1995, II.2).

o Public and Private Sectors

o Community and Family (e.g. fire drills).

• Insurance Coverage

RESPONSE:

• The third phase is Response.

“Emergency response activities are conducted during the time period that begins with the detection of the event and ends with the stabilization of the situation following impact.” (Lindell and Perry 1992, 13)

• A FEMA definition:

“Conducting emergency operations to save lives and property by positioning emergency equipment and supplies; evacuating potential victims; providing food, water, shelter, and medical care to those in need; and restoring critical public services.” (FEMA 1998 (May), SM 1-12-13)

Response efforts seek to:

• Implement Preparedness Measures upon detection of imminent or approaching danger, as in:

o Sounding warning sirens, issuing evacuation advisories, shuttering windows prior to hurricane landfall

o Activating and staffing Emergency Operations Centers

o Opening and staffing shelters

o Issuing emergency public information

• Provide or Enable Emergency Assistance, as in:

o Emergency medical care (FEMA 1993 (Sep), 1-10)

o Shelter operations

o Emergency food and water provision.

o Search and Rescue

• Confront Hazard Effects and Reduce Damages

o Flood fighting

o Debris removal from critical needed roadways

o Fighting fires and other secondary effects such as contamination

o Tracking/monitoring the disaster event – such as a hazardous materials plume

o Securing the impact area

• Enhance Recovery Potential

o Damage Assessment

o Managing unsolicited goods and services

“This phase of activity is marked by time pressures and a sense of urgency that is less prevalent in mitigation, preparedness, and recovery. In the world of disaster response, minutes of delay can cost lives and property” (Lindell and Perry 1992, 14).

• One of the clues that response efforts are turning into recovery efforts is when this sense of crisis passes. As David Neal has written:

“One indicator that the response phase is ending occurs when male managers begin wearing ties and jackets again, or when women managers begin wearing skirts and hose again” (Neal 1997, 255).

RECOVERY:

• The fourth phase is Recovery.

• In the past, the lion’s share of financial resources devoted to emergency management has gone to disaster recovery. (Lindell and Perry 1992, 14)

Recovery refers to those non-emergency measures following disaster whose purpose is to return all systems, both formal and informal, to as normal as possible (FEMA 1995, Introduction to Emergency Management Course, II-2).

“Recovery means rebuilding communities so that individuals, businesses, and governments can:

▪ Function on their own.

▪ Return to normal life.

▪ Protect against future hazards.”[4]

Recovery activities generally begin after the response phase, but, depending on the recovery measure, can begin while others are still in disaster response – and can continue for years. (FEMA 1995, II-2)

• One FEMA Federal Coordinating Officer has stated that one day he realized he had just transitioned from a response to a recovery mode when he started asking “how much does that cost” questions.

Examples are:

• Cleanup and decontamination operations

• Community planning

• Consumer protection against price-gouging and contractor fraud

• Crisis counseling that may help victims of catastrophic loss

• Debris clearance (from non-critical transportation routes)

• Development of a Recovery Plan or strategy (after the fact)

• Disaster relief assistance for individuals, families and communities

• Legal assistance

• Long-term radiation exposure control

• Pumping out flooded residential basements

• Razing burned-out buildings

• Reconstruction

• Redevelopment loans

• Reforestation after wildfire devastation

• Temporary housing (non-emergency)

A Cyclical, Non-linear Relationship

• The U.S framework of four phases has been adopted abroad, sometimes referred to as “prevention, preparedness, response, recovery (PPRR). A strictly linear reading of the framework has elicited challenges. Mal Cronstedt of the Fire and Emergency Services Authority of Western Australia (FESA) writes:

“This framework was subsequently imported into Australian emergency management policy and has held prominence in policy ever since. . . The principles have been adapted somewhat with the substitution of Mitigation with Prevention (though mitigation often appears appended to, or a part of, prevention.)

“First of all, PPRR sets up artificial barriers between the four elements and therefore implies a clear delineation between the elements. . . Secondly, the elements always appear equally important in all circumstances. . . Thirdly, the elements assume a sequential consideration of PPRR and that they must be considered and implemented in the same order all the time. . . Fourthly, the elements appear biased towards ‘action’ based treatments, whereas there may be softer options involving social dimensions. PPRR tends to relate to activity and physical actions. This focus on action appears to be a carry-over from the emergency management paradigm that focussed on the hazard rather than vulnerability.

“The risk management methodology should guide the selection, application and review of risk treatments without the use of PPRR as a means of categorising treatments.”[5]

• Importantly, however:

Experience shows that these phases are cyclical rather than linear in their interrelationships.[6] (FEMA 1995, II-2)

All activities and experiences lead individually and cumulatively back to the mitigation phase—we learn to prevent and diminish future emergencies from past events, whether through actual emergencies or simulations of response activities. (FEMA 1995, II-2)

The disaster or emergency, actual or potential, can be seen as the motivating force for the motion of the cycle. (FEMA 1995, II-2)

Note to the Instructor: If there is time, you may wish to pose for discussion the assumption, in general, of a disaster life cycle as follows: Prevention/Mitigation/Preparedness, then a disaster event, followed by emergency response, followed by recovery-reconstruction (which is also Prevention/Mitigation/Preparedness for the next disaster).[7] Elicit student response on the possible need for a new phase along the lines of Analysis and Application or lessons learned.

Note to the Instructor: If you have the time and inclination, you may want to try to get your students to think of the four phases in a personal way. The following is an aid to such an approach.

Personalizing the Four Phases:

• Typical emergencies that can occur in one’s home can illustrate the four phases:

• First, you prepare to protect yourself or others if an emergency occurs.

• If an accident does happen, you administer first aid or get medical attention if necessary.

• Later, you clean up or repair any damage

• Finally, you ask yourself how the accident happened and how it can be prevented from happening again. You take steps you believe would lessen the problems you experienced handling the accident.

Ask if there are any questions. When questioning ends, hand out the student Four-Phases Handout and give the class approximately twenty minutes to complete it. Compare results and discuss differences of opinion.

Note that both the long and short versions of the Four-Phases Handout consist of both an answer key and a blank student version.

Notes to the Instructor on the Four Phases Activity

After going through the activity the Instructor should note that at times there will be difficulty distinguishing an activity into just one phase.

Some actions or activities might be reasonably classified differently by different people.

This is not something to get overly excited about.

The point is to become familiar with the broad range of actions and activities that can take place with the disaster life cycle and to note that since this is a cycle, elements can and do blend into each other.

“At best, such period divisions are arbitrary, and are only useful in distinguishing the major functional activities of a period. Emergency activities do not cease suddenly, to be replaced by other types of activities. There is a blend of activity, with different groups of people working of different phases or recovery activity at the same time.”[8]

Objective 15.2 Describe the major tenets of Building Disaster Resilient Communities

Building Disaster Resilient Communities

• While the concept of building disaster resilient communities (BDRC) is not a principle of emergency management itself, it encapsulates several principles.

• BDRC is a sustainable development philosophy, some components of which are:

o Recognizing that unconstrained development leads to disaster

o Working toward smart growth

o Implementing strategic community planning

o Respecting and defending the environment

o Networking and partnering

▪ Because BDRC is too big for one person or a small number of people to accomplish

▪ To bring people together from a variety of backgrounds and disciplines to refract the hazard problem through a prism of complementary minds allied in common purpose.

• Communities with the philosophy of BDRC at their core will:

o Reduce vulnerability of people

o Seek inter and intro-governmental equity

o Strengthen social, economic, and environmental resiliency

o Practice smart and long-term structural mitigation

• BDRC public education is needed.

• The Future of Emergency Management:

o From background to boardroom: Unlike the stereotypical emergency manager, today’s professional emergency managers will interact with all levels of community partners, using a

o Long-term and global perspective.

o Emergency Management will become synonymous with BDRC

“Emergency managers should provide leadership and mechanisms for promoting disaster-resistant communities that include:

▪ Disaster plans that include planning for recovery.

▪ Neighborhood networks organized around hazard risks.

▪ Strong community organizations with disaster-related missions.

▪ Coordinating mechanism for these agencies (such as Volunteer Organizations Active in Disasters)

▪ Policies and practices to facilitate family and kinship assistance.

▪ Identification and targeting of most vulnerable segments of the community.

▪ Women and minorities included at every level.”[9]

• Four-Phases Disaster Life Cycle

o Holistic – Not Just Advanced Mitigation

“Disaster risk management and reduction are about looking beyond hazards alone to consider prevailing conditions of vulnerability. It is the social, cultural, economic, and political setting in a country that makes people vulnerable to unfortunate events. The basis of this understanding is simple: the national character and chosen form of governance can be as much of a determinant in understanding the risks in a given country as are the various social, economic, and environmental determinants.”[10]

“The emergence of a disaster reduction culture is conditioned by contexts and processes that are described below:

▪ The sustainable development context, the ultimate international goal;

▪ The political context, essential for action;

▪ The three contexts linked to the pillars of sustainable development:

(a) The socio-cultural system

(b) The economic system

(c) The environmental system.”[11]

• Sustainability involves six principles (J. Monday in ISDR, 2000. 26):

1. Maintain and enhance quality of life.

2. Enhance economic vitality.

3. Ensure social and intergovernmental equity.

4. Maintain and enhance environmental quality.

5. Incorporate disaster resilience and mitigation into actions and decisions.

6. Use a consensus-building, participatory process when making decisions.

• A participatory approach is key:

The key issue is how to build safer communities that are affordable for all who live there, not just the privileged classes. This, we suggest, requires both a sensitivity to local sociocultural complexity and a participatory approach to planning and mitigation (e.g. Maskrey 1994). Participation can create the illusion of democracy if it is not among equals and if it is used merely to ratify elite or technocratic agendas (Milton 1996; Szasz 1994, Woods 1995) (Bolin/Stanford 1998, 225).

• FEMA’s Project Impact, under former Director, James Lee Witt, was a good example.

“Project Impact combined traditional and innovative development strategies to create strong and healthy communities. Through Project Impact, community identity was re-defined and enhanced, community consciousness was encouraged, and citizens were more likely to participate in disaster reduction activities.”[12]

• As proposed by Witt:

“By weaving disaster resistance into the fabric of smart growth, community planning, and economic development, we can manage sprawl and lessen the impact that disasters have on the economic and social fabric of our communities, businesses and citizens.

“We share the purpose not simply of protecting lives, but of enriching our communities’ quality of life.

“By weaving disaster resistance into the fabric of community planning, we can replace old divisions about growth with a common dedication to safety."[13]

• Why would communities invest in this type of effort?

“The motivation to invest in disaster risk reduction is first and foremost a human, people-centered concern. It is about improving standards of safety and living conditions with an eye on protection from hazards to increase resilience of communities. A safer society to withstand disasters may be argued as a case of ethics and social justice and equity.”[14]

• Again, BDRC is a shared responsibility:

“In the past, making communities safe was seen as the job of engineers, who, for instance, would apply structural solutions to flood control and coastal storms. . . Instead of relying on structural engineering, the time has come to tap nature’s engineering techniques—using the services provided by healthy and resilient ecosystems.

“There is still a role for traditional engineering. Buildings and bridges can be made to better withstand natural hazards

“Communities can also act to reduce the ‘hidden hazards’ that can create a ‘disaster after the disaster.’ After Hurricane Floyd hit North Carolina in 1999, for example, the contents of open waste ponds of industrial hog farms spread out over the landscape in the floodwaters. Chemical plants and other industrial sites also present special hazards. . . [e]nsuring safe containment of these facilities can save many lives and considerable money in post-disaster cleanup efforts.

“Governments have a role to play in investing in hazard and risk assessments and in developing databases on losses, mitigation efforts, and social data. They can establish land use policies, limit subsidization of risk and destructive activities, use incentives, to encourage sound land use and sustainable hazard mitigation and encourage collaboration between agencies and civil society.

“Private and public insurers can help reduce hazard losses by providing information and education as well as incentives that encourage mitigation.”[15]

Note to the Instructor: You may wish to conclude this session by eliciting any questions that the students may have about the Fundamentals of Emergency Management.

Four Phases Student Activity – Short Version

Listed below are many more-or-less traditional emergency management functions. Enter an M for mitigation, P for preparedness, Rs for response and Rc for recovery for each item.

______ Activating warning system when tornado is spotted

______ Adding wire mesh to chimneys in wooded areas

______ Analyzing building failures following an earthquake

______ Bolting a house to its foundation in earthquake country

______ Budget preparation for the emergency management organization

______ Building codes, regulations, ordinances, development of hazard-related

______ Community disaster education program

______ Community profile (demographics, resources, facilities)—development of

______ Crisis counseling plans and procedures (emergency services personnel, victims)

______ Crisis counseling 2 days after a hurricane

______ Crisis counseling 2 months after a hurricane

______ Damage assessment plans and procedures, pre-event development of

______ Declaration of a state of emergency or disaster

______ Donated goods plans and procedures, pre-event development of

______ Elevation of structures in a floodplain

______ Emergency activation call-down list, preparation of

______ Emergency Operations Center activation

______ Emergency Operations Center, pre-event establishment of

______ Emergency Operations Plan, drafting of

______ Emergency Public Information plans and procedures, pre-event development of

______ Equipment, stockpiling of emergency-related equipment (chainsaws)

______ Essential services prioritized restoration plans (electricity, water, sewage, phones)

______ Exercise participation

______ Federal Disaster Assistance, knowledge of procedures to apply for

______ Floodplain regulation

______ Fire exit signs, regulations requiring their placement

______ Hazards, vulnerability and risk analysis

______ Hazardous materials container structure codes

______ Hazardous materials containment and scrubbing equipment, stockpiling of

______ Hazardous materials plume tracking

______ Hazardous materials release notification laws and regulations, development of

______ Hazardous materials transportation through a jurisdiction, regulation of

______ Hazardous materials underground storage tank regulations, enforcement of

______ Installation of fire suppression systems in new construction

______ Installation of hurricane clips and shutters by a homeowner

______ Land-use controls and procedures, development of

______ Laws and legislation, development and passage of disaster-related

______ Limiting density of construction to decrease fire spread potential

______ Mass casualty plans and procedures, development of

______ Mobile home tie-downs

______ Mobilization of essential services and personnel in anticipation of disaster

______ Mutual aid agreements with neighboring political jurisdictions

______ Ordering an evacuation without the legal authority to do so

______ Practicing family fire drills

______ Pumping out flooded electrical generating plant

______ Pumping out flooded residential basements

______ Purchasing warning and communications equipment

______ Purchasing plywood and cutting it to fit windows in case of a hurricane

______ Putting plywood over windows as a hurricane approaches the coastline

______ Putting family disaster supplies kit together

______ Razing burned-out buildings

______ Recovery plan, preparation of during disaster response and recovery phases

______ Regulating hazardous material users or producers in a jurisdiction

______ Replacing unreinforced brick filler walls with reinforced masonry in earthquake country

______ Replacing wood shingle roof with slate roof in area prone to wildfires

______ Requiring hazards disclosure statements in real estate transactions

______ Retrofitting a utility to harden it against earthquake threat

______ Roof reinforcement for hurricane threat

______ Search and rescue operations

______ Shelter opening and activation in anticipation of hurricane landfall

______ Shuttering windows prior to hurricane landfall

______ Slope stabilization measures

______ Smoke detector placement in one’s home

______ Stand-by agreements with commercial vendors for crisis delivery of goods or services

______ Testing warning equipment

Four Phases Student Activity – Short Version

Instructor’s Answer Key

Listed below are many more-or-less traditional emergency management functions. Enter an M for mitigation, P for preparedness, Rs for response and Rc for recovery for each item.

__Rs__ Activating warning system when tornado is spotted

__M__ Adding wire mesh to chimneys in wooded areas

__M__ Analyzing building failures following an earthquake

__M__ Bolting a house to its foundation in earthquake country

__P___ Budget preparation for the emergency management organization

__M__ Building codes, regulations, ordinances, development of hazard-related

__P___ Community disaster education program

__P___ Community profile (demographics, resources, facilities)—development of

__P___ Crisis counseling plans and procedures (emergency services personnel, victims)

__Rs__ Crisis counseling 2 days after a hurricane

__Rc__ Crisis counseling 2 months after a hurricane

__P___ Damage assessment plans and procedures, pre-event development of

__Rs__ Declaration of a state of emergency or disaster

__P___ Donated goods plans and procedures, pre-event development of

__M__ Elevation of structures in a floodplain

__P___ Emergency activation call-down list, preparation of

__Rs__ Emergency Operations Center activation

__P___ Emergency Operations Center, pre-event establishment of

__P___ Emergency Operations Plan, drafting of

__P___ Emergency Public Information plans and procedures, pre-event development of

__P___ Equipment, stockpiling of emergency-related equipment (chainsaws)

__P___ Essential services prioritized restoration plans (electricity, water, sewage, phones)

__P___ Exercise participation

__P___ Federal Disaster Assistance, knowledge of procedures to apply for

__P___ Fire exit signs, regulations requiring their placement

__M__ Floodplain regulation

__P___ Hazards, vulnerability and risk analysis

__M__ Hazardous materials container structure codes

__M__ Hazardous materials containment and scrubbing equipment, stockpiling of

__Rs__ Hazardous materials plume tracking

__P___ Hazardous materials release notification laws and regulations, development of

__M__ Hazardous materials transportation through a jurisdiction, regulation of

__M__ Hazardous materials underground storage tank regulations, enforcement of

__M__ Installation of fire suppression systems in new construction

__M__ Installation of hurricane clips and shutters by a homeowner

__M__ Land-use controls and procedures, development of

__P___ Laws and legislation, development and passage of disaster-related

__M__ Limiting density of construction to decrease fire spread potential

__P___ Mass casualty plans and procedures, development of

__M__ Mobile home tie-downs

__Rs__ Mobilization of essential services and personnel in anticipation of disaster

__P___ Mutual aid agreements with neighboring political jurisdictions

__Rs__ Ordering an evacuation without the legal authority to do so

__P___ Practicing family fire drills

__Rs__ Pumping out flooded electrical generating plant

__Rc__ Pumping out flooded residential basements

__P___ Purchasing warning and communications equipment

__P___ Purchasing plywood and cutting it to fit windows in case of a hurricane

__Rs__ Putting plywood over windows as a hurricane approaches the coastline

__P___ Putting family disaster supplies kit together

__Rc__ Razing burned-out buildings

__P___ Recovery plan, preparation of during disaster response and recovery phases

__M__ Regulating hazardous material users or producers in a jurisdiction

__M__ Replacing unreinforced brick filler walls with reinforced masonry in earthquake country

__M__ Replacing wood shingle roof with slate roof in area prone to wildfires

__M__ Requiring hazards disclosure statements in real estate transactions

__M__ Retrofitting a utility to harden it against earthquake threat

__M__ Roof reinforcement for hurricane threat

__Rs__ Search and rescue operations

__Rs__ Shelter opening and activation in anticipation of hurricane landfall

__Rs__ Shuttering windows prior to hurricane landfall

__M__ Slope stabilization measures

__P___ Smoke detector placement in one’s home

__P___ Stand-by agreements with commercial vendors for crisis delivery of goods or services

__P___ Testing warning equipment

Four Phases Student Activity—Long Version

Listed below are many more-or-less traditional emergency management functions. Enter an M for mitigation, P for preparedness, Rs for response and Rc for recovery for each item.

______ Acquiring (government) flooded residential property in flood zone after a flood

______ Activating warning system when tornado is spotted

______ Adding wire mesh to chimneys in wooded areas

______ Analyzing building failures following an earthquake

______ Bolting a house to its foundation in earthquake country

______ Bracing of pendant (drop or suspended) ceilings for earthquake protection

______ Breakwater construction

______ Budget preparation for the emergency management organization

______ Building codes, regulations, ordinances, development of hazard-related

______ Calling 911 upon discovery of a fire

______ Commandeering private sector property or resources during an emergency

______ Community disaster education program

______ Community profile (demographics, resources, facilities)—development of

______ Consumer protection against price-gouging, contractor fraud after a disaster

______ Contour farming to help reduce flood potential

______ Crisis counseling plans and procedures (emergency services personnel, victims)

______ Crisis counseling 2 days after a hurricane

______ Crisis counseling 2 months after a hurricane

______ Curfew implementation

______ Curtailment of non-essential functions during disasters—pre-event policy development

______ Damage assessment plans and procedures, pre-event development of

______ Debris clearance plans and procedures, pre-event development of

______ Deciding who is in charge of operations after a terrorist bombing of government building

______ Declaration of a state of emergency or disaster

______ Decontamination operations at flood-damaged water treatment plant

______ Dependent care policy for dependents of emergency services personnel on disaster duty

______ Development of improved design and construction techniques for hurricane protection

______ Donated goods plans and procedures, pre-event development of

______ Dredging streams or rivers prone to flooding

______ Elevation of structures in a flood plain

______ Emergency activation call-down list, preparation of

______ Emergency Operations Center activation

______ Emergency Operations Center, pre-event establishment of

______ Emergency Operations Plan, drafting of

______ Emergency Operations Plan, putting together development team

______ Emergency Operations Plan, coordination of draft plan

______ Emergency Operations Plan, procedures to update and maintain

______ Emergency Public Information plans and procedures, pre-event development of

______ Equipment, stockpiling of emergency-related equipment (chainsaws)

______ Essential services prioritized restoration plans (electricity, water, sewage, phones)

______ Evacuation plans and procedures, pre-event development of

______ Exercise planning

______ Exercise participation

______ Federal Disaster Assistance, knowledge of procedures to apply for

______ Fire exit signs, regulations requiring their placement

______ Floodplain regulations

______ Forcible evacuation policy, development of

______ Generators, purchase of emergency back-up capability

______ Good-Samaritan Law, pre-event development of

______ Hazard pay for government employees, pre-event policy development

______ Hazards, vulnerability and risk analysis

______ Hazardous materials container structure codes

______ Hazardous materials containment operations

______ Hazardous materials containment and scrubbing equipment, stockpiling of

______ Hazardous materials identification codes

______ Hazardous materials plume tracking

______ Hazardous materials release notification laws and regulations, development of

______ Hazardous materials transportation through a jurisdiction, regulation of

______ Hazardous materials underground storage tank regulations, development of

______ Hazardous materials underground storage tank regulations, enforcement of

______ Installation of fire suppression systems in new construction

______ Installation of a floodwall in St. Louis along the Mississippi River

______ Installation of hurricane clips and shutters by a homeowner

______ Insurance, purchase of hazard-related (fire, flood, earthquake, etc.)

______ Inviting media representatives to participate in planning and exercise activities

______ Land-use controls and procedures, development of

______ Laws and legislation, development and passage of disaster-related

______ Levee building

______ Limiting density of construction to decrease fire spread potential

______ Line of succession, establishment of

______ Long-term jurisdictional mitigation strategy, development of

______ Mass care plans and procedures (food, water, health and medical)

______ Mass casualty plans and procedures, development of

______ Mobile home tie-downs

______ Mobilization of essential services and personnel in anticipation of disaster

______ Mutual aid agreements with neighboring political jurisdictions

______ Notification of public officials of hazardous situation

______ Ordering an evacuation without the legal authority to do so

______ Overtime pay for government employees’ disaster duty—establish policy

______ Passing law or regulation prohibiting basements in flood prone areas

______ Pets—development of policy on pets in shelters

______ Practicing family fire drills

______ Publicizing building designs that lessen the effects of high winds

______ Pumping out flooded electrical generating plant

______ Pumping out flooded residential basements

______ Purchasing warning and communications equipment

______ Purchasing plywood and cutting it to fit windows in case of a hurricane

______ Putting plywood over windows as a hurricane approaches the coastline

______ Putting family disaster supplies kit together

______ Razing burned-out buildings

______ Recovery plan, preparation of prior to disaster

______ Recovery plan, preparation of during disaster response and recovery phases

______ Reforestation of an area after wildfire devastation

______ Regulating hazardous material users or producers in a jurisdiction

______ Regulating mobile-home placement in flood-prone areas.

______ Reinforcing and/or bracing a chimney in earthquake country

______ Replacing unreinforced brick filler walls with reinforced masonry in earthquake country

______ Replacing wood shingle roof with slate roof in area prone to wildfires

______ Requiring hazards disclosure statements in real estate transactions

______ Resource management plan development

______ Retrofitting a utility to harden it against earthquake threat

______ Risk maps, development of

______ Roof reinforcement for hurricane threat

______ Sand bagging operations

______ Search and rescue operations

______ Shelter opening and activation in anticipation of hurricane landfall

______ Sheltering plans and procedures

______ Shuttering windows prior to hurricane landfall

______ Slope stabilization measures

______ Smoke detector placement in one’s home

______ Special event plans and procedures (sporting events, concerts, celebrity visits)

______ Special populations plans and procedures (disabled, incarcerated, homebound, etc,)

______ Spontaneous volunteers plans and procedures

______ Stand-by agreements with commercial vendors for crisis delivery of goods or services

______ Stockpiling of essential supplies

______ Storm shelter construction

______ Storm tracking efforts, routine

______ Storm watch and warning programs

______ Strapping of water heater to wall studs for earthquake hazard

______ Stream flow monitoring

______ Temporary housing provision after a disaster (debatable)

______ Testing warning equipment

______ Training shelter managers and staff

______ Training volunteers

______ Windbreaks

Four Phases Student Activity—Long Version

Instructor’s Answer Key

Listed below are many more-or-less traditional emergency management functions. Enter an M for mitigation, P for preparedness, Rs for response and Rc for recovery for each item.

__M__ Acquiring (government) flooded residential property in flood zone after a flood

__Rs__ Activating warning system when tornado is spotted

__M__ Adding wire mesh to chimneys in wooded areas

__M__ Analyzing building failures following an earthquake

__M__ Bolting a house to its foundation in earthquake country

__M__ Bracing of pendant (drop or suspended) ceilings for earthquake protection

__M__ Breakwater construction

__P___ Budget preparation for the emergency management organization

__M__ Building codes, regulations, ordinances, development of hazard-related

__Rs__ Calling 911 upon discovery of a fire

__Rs__ Commandeering private sector property or resources during an emergency

__P___ Community disaster education program

__P___ Community profile (demographics, resources, facilities)—development of

__Rc__ Consumer protection against price-gouging, contractor fraud after a disaster

__M__ Contour farming to help reduce flood potential

__P___ Crisis counseling plans and procedures (emergency services personnel, victims)

__Rs__ Crisis counseling 2 days after a hurricane

__Rc__ Crisis counseling 2 months after a hurricane

__Rs__ Curfew implementation

__P___ Curtailment of non-essential functions during disasters—pre-event policy development

__P___ Damage assessment plans and procedures, pre-event development of

__P___ Debris clearance plans and procedures, pre-event development of

__Rs__ Deciding who is in charge of operations after a terrorist bombing of government building

__Rs__ Declaration of a state of emergency or disaster

__Rc__ Decontamination operations at flood-damaged water treatment plant

__P___ Dependent care policy for dependents of emergency services personnel on disaster duty

__M__ Development of improved design and construction techniques for hurricane protection

__P___ Donated goods plans and procedures, pre-event development of

__M__ Dredging streams or rivers prone to flooding

__M__ Elevation of structures in a flood plain

__P___ Emergency activation call-down list, preparation of

__Rs__ Emergency Operations Center activation

__P___ Emergency Operations Center, pre-event establishment of

__P___ Emergency Operations Plan, drafting of

__P___ Emergency Operations Plan, putting together development team

__P___ Emergency Operations Plan, coordination of draft plan

__P___ Emergency Operations Plan, procedures to update and maintain

__P___ Emergency Public Information plans and procedures, pre-event development of

__P___ Equipment, stockpiling of emergency-related equipment (chainsaws)

__P___ Essential services prioritized restoration plans (electricity, water, sewage, phones)

__P___ Evacuation plans and procedures, pre-event development of

__P___ Exercise planning

__P___ Exercise participation

__P___ Federal Disaster Assistance, knowledge of procedures to apply for

__P___ Fire exit signs, regulations requiring their placement

__M__ Floodplain regulations

__P___ Forcible evacuation policy, development of

__P___ Generators, purchase of emergency back-up capability

__P___ Good-Samaritan Law, pre-event development of

__P___ Hazard pay for government employees, pre-event policy development

__P___ Hazards, vulnerability and risk analysis

__M__ Hazardous materials container structure codes

__Rs__ Hazardous materials containment operations

__P___ Hazardous materials containment and scrubbing equipment, stockpiling of

__P___ Hazardous materials identification codes

__Rs__ Hazardous materials plume tracking

__P___ Hazardous materials release notification laws and regulations, development of

__M__ Hazardous materials transportation through a jurisdiction, regulation of

__P___ Hazardous materials underground storage tank regulations, development of

__M__ Hazardous materials underground storage tank regulations, enforcement of

__M__ Installation of fire suppression systems in new construction

__M__ Installation of a floodwall in St. Louis along the Mississippi River

__M__ Installation of hurricane clips and shutters by a homeowner

__P___ Insurance, purchase of hazard-related (fire, flood, earthquake, etc.)

__P___ Inviting media representatives to participate in planning and exercise activities

__M__ Land-use controls and procedures, development of

__P___ Laws and legislation, development and passage of disaster-related

__M__ Levee building

__M__ Limiting density of construction to decrease fire spread potential

__P___ Line of succession, establishment of

__P___ Long-term jurisdictional mitigation strategy, development of

__P___ Mass care plans and procedures (food, water, health and medical)

__P___ Mass casualty plans and procedures, development of

__M__ Mobile home tie-downs

__Rs__ Mobilization of essential services and personnel in anticipation of disaster

__P___ Mutual aid agreements with neighboring political jurisdictions

__Rs__ Notification of public officials of hazardous situation

__Rs__ Ordering an evacuation without the legal authority to do so

__P___ Overtime pay for government employees’ disaster duty—establish policy

__M__ Passing law or regulation prohibiting basements in flood prone areas

__P___ Pets—development of policy on pets in shelters

__P___ Practicing family fire drills

__M__ Publicizing building designs that lessen the effects of high winds

__Rs__ Pumping out flooded electrical generating plant

__Rc__ Pumping out flooded residential basements

__P___ Purchasing warning and communications equipment

__P___ Purchasing plywood and cutting it to fit windows in case of a hurricane

__Rs__ Putting plywood over windows as a hurricane approaches the coastline

__P___ Putting family disaster supplies kit together

__Rc__ Razing burned-out buildings

__P___ Recovery plan, preparation of prior to disaster

__Rc__ Recovery plan, preparation of during disaster response and recovery phases

__Rc__ Reforestation of an area after wildfire devastation

__M__ Regulating hazardous material users or producers in a jurisdiction

__M__ Regulating mobile-home placement in flood-prone areas.

__M__ Reinforcing and/or bracing a chimney in earthquake country

__M__ Replacing unreinforced brick filler walls with reinforced masonry in earthquake country

__M__ Replacing wood shingle roof with slate roof in area prone to wildfires

__M__ Requiring hazards disclosure statements in real estate transactions

__P___ Resource management plan development

__M__ Retrofitting a utility to harden it against earthquake threat

__P___ Risk maps, development of

__M__ Roof reinforcement for hurricane threat

__Rs__ Sand bagging operations

__Rs__ Search and rescue operations

__Rs__ Shelter opening and activation in anticipation of hurricane landfall

__P___ Sheltering plans and procedures

__Rs__ Shuttering windows prior to hurricane landfall

__M__ Slope stabilization measures

__P___ Smoke detector placement in one’s home

__P___ Special event plans and procedures (sporting events, concerts, celebrity visits)

__P___ Special populations plans and procedures (disabled, incarcerated, homebound, etc,)

__P___ Spontaneous volunteers plans and procedures

__P___ Stand-by agreements with commercial vendors for crisis delivery of goods or services

__P___ Stockpiling of essential supplies

_M(?)P Storm shelter construction

__P___ Storm tracking efforts, routine

__P___ Storm watch and warning programs

__M__ Strapping of water heater to wall studs for earthquake hazard

__P___ Stream flow monitoring

Rc(?)Rs Temporary housing provision after a disaster (debatable)

__P___ Testing warning equipment

__P___ Training shelter managers and staff

__P___ Training volunteers

__M__ Windbreaks

References

Abramovitz, Janet. “Fostering Resilience in Nature and Communities.”. Unnatural Disasters. Worldwatch paper 158. Linda Starke, Ed. Washington, DC. Worldwatch Institute, 2001.

Allinson, Robert E. 1993. Global Disasters: Inquiries Into Management Ethics. New York: Prentice Hall.

Bolin, Robert, with Lois Stanford. 1998. The Northridge Earthquake: Vulnerability and Disaster. London and New York: Routledge.

Briese, Garry, Executive Director, IAFC, “Identifying Future Challenges Faced by the Fire Service,” November 17, 1999

Britton, Neil R. 1998. “Safeguarding New Zealand’s Future: Emergency Management’s Role in Shaping the Nation.” Foresight, September, pp. 1-12.

Center for the Advancement of Risk Management Education (CARME). 1999. Risk Management for Public Entities (RMPE 352 Course Guide). Malvern, PA: Insurance Institute of America, CARME, cserv@.

Chakar, Amar. “Improving the Global Disaster Resiliency of Transportation Systems.” Global Blueprints for Change. First Edition—Prepared in conjunction with the International Workshop on Disaster reduction convened on August 19-22, 2001

Coleman, Ronney J. and John A. Granito (eds.). 1988. Managing Fire Services 2nd ed. Washington, DC: International City Management Association.

Cutter, Susan L. 1993. Living With Risk: The Geography of Technological Hazards. London and New York: Edward Arnold.

Cronstedt, Mal. “Prevention, Preparedness, Response, Recovery—an outdated concept?” The Australian Journal of Emergency Management. Vol. 17, No. 2. August 2002.

Disaster and Emergency Reference Center. 1998. (ed.). Disaster Management Glossary. Edited by Krisno Nimpuno. Delft, the Netherlands: Disaster and Emergency Reference Center.

Drabek, Thomas. 1985. Managing the Emergency Response. Public Administration Review 45 (January): 85-92.

Drabek, Thomas. 1998. See FEMA/EMI 1998a.

Drabek, Thomas. 1991. “The Evolution of Emergency Management.” Chapter 1 (pp.3-29) in Emergency Management: Principles and Practice for Local Government, Thomas E. Drabek and Gerard J. Hoetmer (eds.) Washington, DC: International City Managers Association

Drury, A. Cooper and Vincent T. Gawronski. Politics of Disaster, CPO 6771. Florida International University Department of Political Science. (Draft 4/07/03).

Emergency Preparedness News. Business Publishers, Inc. Silver Spring, MD.

Enarson, Elaine with Cheryl Childers, Betty Hearn Morrow, Deborah Thomas, and Ben Wisner. 2003. A Social Vulnerability Approach to Disasters. Emmitsburg, Maryland: Emergency Management Institute, Federal Emergency Management Agency.

FEMA. 1990. Definitions of Terms. (Instruction 5000.2.) Washington, DC: FEMA, April 4.

FEMA. 1993. Principal Threats Facing Communities and Local Emergency Management Coordinators. A Report to the United States Senate Committee on Appropriations. Washington, DC: FEMA, April.

FEMA. 1993 (September). The Emergency Program Manager (Independent Study 1). Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA. 1995. Introduction to Emergency Management (Student Manual 230). Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA. 1996. Appendix B: Government’s Role in Emergency Management, in Executive Analysis of Fire Service Operations in Emergency Management. Emmitsburg, MD: U.S. Fire Administration, National Fire Academy December.

FEMA. 1996. Disaster Response and Recovery Operations Instructor Guide. Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA 1998 (March). FEMA Professional, Session 4 (Instructor Guide). Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA. 1998. The Political and Policy Basis of Emergency Management. Written by Richard Sylves for the Higher Education Project. FEMA: Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA. 1998a. Social Dimensions of Disaster. Written by Thomas Drabek for the Higher Education Project. Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA. 1998b. Weapons of Mass Destruction—Nuclear Scenario Instructor Guide. Emmitsburg MD: Emergency Management Institute.

FEMA. 1998 (May). Principles of Emergency Management (Student Manual and Instructor Guide G230). Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

Fischer, Henry W. III. Response to Disaster. Fact Versus Fiction & Its Perpetuation. The Sociology of Disaster, Second Ed. Lanham, New York, Oxford: University Press of America, Inc.

Granot, Hayim. The Choreography of death: observations from Turkey and Greece. Disaster Prevention and Management. Volume 11, Number 5. 2002.

Hewitt, K. 1983. Interpretations of Calamity from the Perspective of Human Ecology. London: Allen and Unwin.

Institute for Business & Home Safety. 2002. Are We Planning Safer Communities? Results of a National Survey of Community Planners and Natural Disasters.

International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Secretariat. “Contexts and processes linked to disaster risk reduction: sustainable development. Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives. Geneva, July 2000.

Lerberger, Otto. 1997. The Crisis Manager—Facing Risk and Responsibility. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Lindell, Michael K., and Ronald Perry. 1992. Behavioral Foundations of Community Emergency Planning. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing.

Maskrey, A. 1994. Disaster Mitigation as a Crisis of Paradigms: Reconstruction after the Alto Mayo Earthquake, Peru. In Disasters, Development, and Environment, edited by A. Varley. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

Milton, K. 1996. Environmentalism and Cultural Theory. London: Routledge.

Neal, David M. 1997. “Reconsidering the Phases of Disaster.” International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, Vol. 15, No. 2, 239-264.

NFPA 1600. 2000. NFPA 1600 Standard on Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity Programs, 2000 Edition. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.

Olshansky, Robert and Jack Kartez. 1998. Managing Land Use to Build Resilience. In Raymond Burby (ed.), Cooperating With Nature: Confronting Natural Hazards with Land-Use Planning for Sustainable Communities. Washington DC: Joseph Henry Press (1998). Citing Peter Rossi, et al., Natural Hazards and Public Choice: The State and Local Politics of Hazard Mitigation (New York: Academic Press 1982).

Pearce, Laurie. “Disaster Management and Community Planning, and Public Participation: How to Achieve Sustainable Hazard Mitigation.” Natural Hazards 28: 211-228. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003

Perry, Ronald, and Alvin Mushkatel. 1986. Minority Citizens in Disasters. Athens and London: University of Georgia Press. Perry and Mushkatel cite Marjorie Greene and Paula Gori, Earthquake Hazards Information Dissemination: A Study of Charleston, South Carolina. Open File Report 82-233. (Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey, 1986.)

Quarantelli, Enrico. 1992. The Case for a Generic Rather than Agent Specific Approach to Disasters. Disaster Management 2 (1992): 191-196.

Riad, Jasemin K. “Advancing Participation and Accountability in Disaster Reduction. Global Blueprints for Change. First Edition—Prepared in conjunction with the International Workshop convened on August 12-22, 2001

Salter, John. 1997-1998. Risk Management in the Emergency Management Context. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 12 no. 4 (Summer): 28.

Schneider, Saundra K. 1995. Flirting with Disaster—Public Management in Crisis Situations. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe.

Shaw, Greg. 1999. Business and Industry Crisis Management (FEMA Emergency Management Higher Education Project Course). Emmitsburg, MD: Emergency Management Institute.

Simeon Institute. 1998. Penultimate Glossary of Emergency Management Terms. Claremont, CA: The Simeon Institute. Downloaded from web site address:

Definitions from the Simeon Institute are obtained from unattributed sources.

Smith, Keith. 1996. Environmental Hazards—Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster (2nd ed.). London and New York: Routledge.

Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand. Australian/New Zealand Standard—Risk Management. Strathfield, Australia: Standards Australia, 1995.

Stanley, Ellis M. Sr. and William Lee Waugh, Jr. “Emergency Managers for the New Millennium,” Handbook of Crisis and Emergency Management. Ali Farazmand, Ed. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York-Basel

Sylves, Richard. 1998. See FEMA. EMI. 1998.

Szasz, A. 1994. Ecopopulism: Toxic Waste and the Movement for Environmental Justice. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

United Nations, Department of Humanitarian Affairs. 1992. Internationally Agreed Glossary of Basic Terms Related to Disaster Management (DNA/93/36). Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations.

Victorian Department of Justice. 1997. Emergency Management Manual Victoria. Melbourne, Australia.

Witt, James Lee. 2000. Remarks for James L. Witt, Smart Growth Symposium Mecklenburg County, NC. Washington, DC: FEMA, July 14, 2000. library/jlw071400.htm

Woods, E. 1995. Democracy Against Capitalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Zubeck, Pam. Floodplain Mismanaged, Group Says.” Colorado Springs Gazette, April 25.2002.

-----------------------

[1] Henry W. Fischer, III. Response to Disaster. Fact Versus Fiction & Its Perpetuation. The Sociology of Disaster, Second Ed. Lanham, New York, Oxford: University Press of America, Inc. pp. 7-8

[2] Hayim Granot. The Choreography of death: observations from Turkey and Greece. Disaster Prevention and Management. Volume 11, Number 5. 2002. p. 392

[3] See, for example, Letizia Toscani’s lexicon of “prevention, preparedness, response, and rehabilitation,” {p. 208 in “Women’s Roles in Natural Disaster Preparation and Aid: A Central American View.” pp. 207-211 in The Gendered Terrain of Disaster, Elaine Enarson and Betty Hearn Morrow (eds.). Westport, CN and London: Praeger1998}, or Gloria Noel’s use of “disaster mitigation, prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery” (p. 214 in “The Role of Women in Health-Related Aspects of Emergency Management: A Caribbean Perspective,” pp. 213-223 in the same book.

[4] FEMA. 1998 (March), 10-12.

[5] Mal Cronstedt. “Prevention, Preparedness, Response, Recovery—an outdated concept?” The Australian Journal of Emergency Management. Vol. 17, No. 2. August 2002. pp. 10-13

[6] This point needs to be stressed in that the U.S. system has been criticized for encouraging a simplistic notion of emergency management:

“Constructs such as ‘PPRR’ (prevention, preparedness, response and recovery) have facilitated the development of the simplistic notion that there is a linear and temporal relationship between elements viz. ‘first P, then P, then R, and finally R’, thereby becoming an encumbrance to effective management. Such misunderstanding has fostered attitudes of division and hierarchy, such as… ‘my Response is more important than your Prevention’.” (John Salter 1997-98, 27)

[7] A. Cooper Drury and Vincent T. Gawronski. Politics of Disaster, CPO 6771. Florida International University Department of Political Science. (Draft 4/07/03). p. 4

[8] Haas, J. Eugene, Robert W. Kates, and Martyn J. Bowden (eds). 1977. Reconstruction Following Disaster. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; quoted in Neal 1997, 247.

[9]Elaine Enarson with Cheryl Childers, Betty Hearn Morrow, Deborah Thomas, and Ben Wisner. 2003. A Social Vulnerability Approach to Disasters. Emmitsburg, Maryland: Emergency Management Institute, Federal Emergency Management Agency.

[10] International Strategy for Disaster Reduction Secretariat. “Contexts and processes linked to disaster risk reduction: sustainable development. Living with Risk: A Global Review of Disaster Reduction Initiatives. Geneva, July 2000. p. 27

[11] ISDR 2000. p. 26

[12] Jasemin K. Riad. “Advancing Participation and Accountability in Disaster Reduction. Global Blueprints for Change. First Edition—Prepared in conjunction with the International Workshop convened on August 12-22, 2001

[13] James Lee Witt. 2000. Remarks for James L. Witt, Smart Growth Symposium Mecklenburg County, NC. Washington, DC: FEMA, July 14, 2000. library/jlw071400.htm

[14] ISDR. 2000, p. 27

[15] Janet Abramovitz. “Fostering Resilience in Nature and Communities.”. Unnatural Disasters. Worldwatch paper 158. Linda Starke, Ed. Washington, DC. Worldwatch Institute, 2001. p. 40-45

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