A Level Sociology



A Level Sociology Families and Households Topic 1Theories of the Family 37376104984750028098752863850015240023050500Objectives:Understand the functionalist, Marxist, feminist and personal life perspectives on the family. Be able to analyse the similarities and differences between these perspectives.Be able to evaluate the usefulness of these perspectives on the family. Introduction to the Unit:What is a family? What is a household? A household is a person living alone or group of people living together, for example, sharing meals, bills housework etc. Defining a family is more difficult. One definition is that it involves a monogamous marriage between a man and a woman plus their child(ren) all sharing the same residence. This nuclear family is often held up as the ideal. However this definition rules out groups that many would see as families, such as unmarried cohabiting couples. At the other extreme is the idea that any set of arrangements that those involved see as a family are a family! During the induction period we completed a brief overview of the different Sociological perspectives. Can you name each one and recall a concept associated with it? PerspectiveConcept The Functionalist Perspective on the Family:Functionalists believe that society is based on value consensus – a set of shared norms and values – into which society socialises its members. This enables them to co-operate harmoniously, meet society’s needs and achieve shared goals. Functionalists also see society as an ‘organic analogy.’ AO1: Explain what is meant by organic analogy. AO2: How does the family ‘fit into’ this? George Murdock:He argues that the family performs four essential functions to meet the needs of society and its members:Stable satisfaction of the sex drive: with the same partner, preventing a ‘sexual free for all.’ Reproduction of the next generation of workers: without which society could not continue.Socialisation of the young: into society’s shared norms and values.Meeting its members’ economic needs: such as food and shelter. 426720017335500Murdock made the claim that the nuclear family is a universal feature of all societies in his study entitled ‘Social structure’. He made this claim following case studies and anthropological work on 250 societies, all of which he found had the nuclear structure in place. The concept of a universal family is important to functionalists like Murdock as it adds weight to their claim that the nuclear family is biologically natural and the only correct family form. Murdock sees the nuclear family as being a man and a woman, living together with their children, co-operating economically and maintaining a sexual plete the grid below to summarise how these functions benefit both the individual and society: FunctionBenefit to the individual Benefit to societyOther agencies involvedSexual (stable satisfaction of the sex drive) Reproductive (reproduction of the next generation of workers)Education (socialisation of the young) Economic (meeting its members economic needs) AO3 Criticisms of Murdock: Thinking point: What do you think are the strengths and limitations of Murdock’s theory? Activity: Read through the criticism section on page 189 of the textbook and summarise them into bullet points. Ensure you understand them by discussing with a partner or within a group. Stretch yourself… by ensuring you include theory based criticisms. Try to use the concepts you have already learnt! Talcott Parsons:459105041148000Parson’s argues that the functions the family performs depend on the kind of society in which it is found. He calls this theory ‘functional fit’.Parson’s distinguishes between two types of family:The extended family:45764451270000The nuclear family: He argues there are two basic types of society, modern industrial society and traditional pre industrial society. He argues that the nuclear family fits the needs of modern industrial society and the extended family meets the needs of the traditional pre industrial society. Therefore in Britain the nuclear family is the dominant family type. 10477540005Traditional pre-industrial society00Traditional pre-industrial society316230020955Modern industrial society00Modern industrial society2038350288925The modern industrial family has two essential needs which the nuclear family can meet:A geographically mobile workforce A socially mobile workforce Loss of Functions: The pre-industrial was a multi-functional unit, it was both a unit of production and a unit of consumption, feeding and clothing its members. However, according to Parsons when society industrialises, not only does the family change from extended to nuclear it also loses many of its functions. AO1/AO2 Activity: Make a list of all the functions that the family performed in pre-industrial society. Identify who performs these functions in a modern industrial society. As a result of the loss of functions, the modern nuclear family comes to specialise in two essential or irreducible functions:The primary socialisation of children - teaches children the basic norms and values of society. The child internalises societies culture and this ensure value consensus is maintainedThe stabilisation of adult personalities - family provides stability and emotional security, a safe haven away from the stresses of everyday life. Family works like a warm bath easing away the worries of the world.Within this notion of the family stabilising the adult personality we also have this notion of specific male and female roles. The female role is that of the homemaker or as Parsons suggests – expressive leader. The male role is that of the breadwinner – instrumental leader. These roles are biological and natural. Suggest the characteristics, roles and responsibilities for what Parsons envisages as an expressive leader and an instrumental leader and write them around the image:center1206500AO3 EVALUATION OF PARSONSAccording to Willmott and Young the pre-industrial family was nuclear not extended as Parsons claimsThe extended family has also not disappeared – it continues to exist because it performs important functions, for example providing financial help, childcare and emotional support. In today’s society this is seen as important but just geographically dispersed (ie they don’t live under the same roof)The expressive and instrumental roles are not biologically suited to the male and female, they are socially constructed Willmott and Young argue that the family has changed and it has become symmetrical, where the man and woman are sharing roles equallyAO3 EVALUATION OF PARSONSOakley is critical of Parsons and his work on the expressive and instrumental role. She believes that the gender roles are not biologically natural, they have in fact been socially constructed. She suggested that the family maintain gender inequality through gender socialisation. Boys and girls are treated differently and that is why they are pushed in to certain gender roles. She puts forward four ways that this happens in the family: 1)Manipulation – behaviour that is associated with the opposite sex is punished2)Different activities – boys and girls are encouraged to take part in different tasks 3)Verbal appellations - for example girls are encouraged to be passive and called a ‘good girl’ if they do as they are told 4)Canalization - the channeling of children into toys and behaviour deemed appropriate for their sex – boys are encouraged to play with cars whereas girls are encouraged to play with kitchens, dolls and pramsEvaluation of Functionalism:Activity AO3:Identify whether the following statements are strengths or weaknesses:Functionalists stress how well this type of family fits into modern society It is a very conservative theory, takes for granted that the nuclear family is normal and universalIt ignores family diversity – the nuclear family is no longer useful It ignores conflict within the family. Is the family such a nice place for some people? What about the dark side of the family?It does not explore the negative aspects of the family for example domestic violence and child abuseIt assumes that all families perform useful and essential functions, married couples are pictured as living in domestic bliss, being good in bed and effective socialisers of the next generationStatistics show that the nuclear family is one of the most popular families in our societyThe New Right:The New Right is a political perspective rather than a Sociological one. In many ways the views of the new right are similar to that of Functionalists. center113031Whilst the New Right see family diversity as a threat to society however, Functionalists such as Fletcher are more positive and argue that marriage is still a key institution and most individuals aspire to live in nuclear families which is illustrated by the number of re-marriages. More on The New Right and these issues later…. Glossary of Key Terms to Learn:Concept Definition Nuclear family Primary socialisation Stabilisation of adult personalitiesInstrumental role Expressive role Geographically mobile workforceSocially mobile workforce The Marxist Approach on the Family:Whilst functionalists see society as based on value consensus (agreement) Marxists see society capitalist society as based on unequal conflict between two social classes:The capitalist class – who own the means of productionThe working class – whose labour the capitalists exploit for profit Marxists see all social institutions such as, education, the media, religion and the state as helping to maintain class inequality and capitalism. For a Marxist the functions the family performs are simply for the benefit of the capitalist system. 8667751079500Marxists identify three main functions that the family performs for capitalism: Inheritance of propertyIdeological functionsA unit of consumption 4819650952500Inheritance of Property (Engels) Marxists argue that the key factor determining the shape of all institutions, including the family, is the mode of production. That is, who owns and controls society’s productive forces. Tools, machinery, raw material etc. In a modern society the capitalist class own and control these means of production. As the mode of production changes, the family also evolves. The earliest stage of society was called ‘primitive communism’ during this stage there was no private property, all members of society owned the means of production communally. There was no family, just what Engels called the ‘promiscuous horde.’ However as society’s wealth began to increase so did the development of private property. This change, according to Engels brought about the monogamous nuclear family. In his view this family became essential because of the inheritance of property. Men had to be certain of their child’s paternity to ensure they were a legitimate heir. Engels referred to this as ‘a world historical defeat for women.’ Marxists argue the only way for women to achieve liberation and to escape patriarchal control is to overthrow capitalism and private ownership. AO1 QUESTIONS:What is ‘the mode of production?’What was the earliest stage of society called and what was it like? What brought about the ‘monogamous nuclear family?’What did Engels refer to this as? Stretch yourself…Why did Engels say that the monogamous nuclear family was a ‘world historical defeat for women? Ideological Functions (Zaretsky)Marxists argue that the family performs key ideological functions. By ideology Marxists mean, ‘a set of ideas or beliefs that justify inequality.’ One way in which the family does this is by socialising children into accepting hierarchy and that inequality is inevitable. Parental (especially paternal) power over children accustoms them to the idea that there always has to be someone in charge (usually a man) and prepares them for a working life in which they will accept orders from their capitalist employers. According to Zaretsky the family also plays an ideological function by offering an apparent ‘haven’ from the harsh and exploitative world of capitalism outside in which workers can be themselves and have a private life. However, Zaretsky argues that this is largely an illusion – the family cannot meet its member’s needs. For example, it is based on the domestic servitude of women. The family cushions the effects of capitalism but it perpetuates the system. Activity AO2: What other institutions socialise children into accepting hierarchy and the idea that inequality is inevitable? Provide examples. A unit of consumption (Zaretsky)The family plays a major role in generating profits for capitalists since it is an important market for the sale of consumer goods.Advertisers urge families to ‘keep up with the Jones’s’ by consuming the latest productsThe media target children, who use ‘pester power’ to persuade parents to spend moreChildren who lack the latest clothes or must have gadgets are mocked and stigmatised by their peersAO3 Evaluation of Marxism: Read and summarise the criticisms on page 192: Stretch yourself… AO3 now you have studied functionalism, use it to critique Marxism: A functionalist would criticise the Marxists view of the family because…From a functionalist perspective, a weakness of the Marxist view is… Glossary of Key Terms to Learn:Concept Definition Capitalist class/ bourgeoisieThe working class/ proletariat Ideology Primitive communism SuperstructureEconomic base‘Keeping up with the Jones’s’Pester powerInequalityHierarchy The Dark Side of the Family:Theories such as functionalism fail to consider the ‘darker’ side of the family. The family suffers many problems and sociologists have begun to question whether it is such a nice caring place to live after all. 165671536195Family problems 00Family problems POSITIVE VIEWS OF THE FAMILYParsons views the family as a positive institution in which the family performs crucial functions for the maintenance of a healthy society. He believes the family is a safe haven and the family acts like a warm bath comforting and protecting its members. NEGATIVE VIEWS OF THE FAMILYMarxists are highly critical of this view and believe the family is not a warm bath but it is in fact like a safety valve. When the man of the house has a hard day at work and needs to release tension he can do this in the home. He thus takes his anger out on his family and stops a revolution from happening. The man of the house feels powerless in society, but at home he can regain power. The family works like a safety valve by cutting off the machine and stopping it from blowing up. Leach goes further than Marxists and states that the family acts like an overloaded electrical circuit. The demands placed on it are too great and fuses blow. In their isolation, family members demand and expect too much from each other. The result is conflict. In Leach’s words, ‘the parents and children huddled together in their loneliness take too much out of each other. The parents fight and the children rebel’. Feminist Perspectives on the Family:Feminism is a conflict theory which focuses on the unequal division of labour and domestic violence. Feminists believe gender inequality is not a result of biological factors, but a result of social forces and it is in fact socially produced or constructed (nature versus nurture debate).Feminism is a broad term and as part of the Families and Households unit you will be studying four different types of feminism:Liberal Feminism:Liberal Feminist’s recognise the progress that has been made toward gender equality and think it is a gradual process, which is slowly getting there. They point out existing legislation that illustrates that women’s oppression is being gradually overcome:Sex Discrimination Act of 1975 – this outlaws discrimination in employmentEqual Pay Act of 1970 – men and women doing the same job are required by law to be paid the same wageBoth further reforms and changes in the attitude of society (society’s norms and values) are needed for full equality though.Liberal feminists point out the ‘march of progress’; some studies show parents now socialise their sons and daughters more equally, having similar aspirations for them. Also domestic labour can be shown to be more equally shared amongst men and women.-75565237490AO2: Identify five things you can think of which show women are making more progress in society:1.2.3.4. 5. 00AO2: Identify five things you can think of which show women are making more progress in society:1.2.3.4. 5. 35718753683000Liberal feminists are criticised by Marxist and radical feminists for lacking drive for change. They don’t challenge the underlying causes of oppression which are rooted in the social structures. Marxist and Radical feminists think Liberal feminists ignore the revolutionary spirit needed for far reaching campaigning for change. They believe women are still exploited and oppressed by men in all aspects of society and family life.Marxist Feminism:-40957597155Marxist feminism is a combination of feminism and Marxism. Marxist feminists argue that that the main cause of women’s oppression in the family is not men but capitalism.Women’s oppression performs several functions for capitalism:Women reproduce the labour force: through their unpaid domestic labour, they maintain a healthy, hardworking family and also socialise the next generation of workers.Women absorb anger: that would otherwise be directed at capitalism. They are sometimes referred to as the “safety valve” as they help to release pressure from husbands who feel alienated and exploited in the workplace. Fran Ansley (1972) describes wives as ‘takers of shit.’ Women are a reserve army of labour: that can be taken on when extra workers are needed. When no longer needed employers can “let them go” to return to domestic labour.00Marxist feminism is a combination of feminism and Marxism. Marxist feminists argue that that the main cause of women’s oppression in the family is not men but capitalism.Women’s oppression performs several functions for capitalism:Women reproduce the labour force: through their unpaid domestic labour, they maintain a healthy, hardworking family and also socialise the next generation of workers.Women absorb anger: that would otherwise be directed at capitalism. They are sometimes referred to as the “safety valve” as they help to release pressure from husbands who feel alienated and exploited in the workplace. Fran Ansley (1972) describes wives as ‘takers of shit.’ Women are a reserve army of labour: that can be taken on when extra workers are needed. When no longer needed employers can “let them go” to return to domestic labour.373380011366500-31432534036000285686529845AO1: Identify three criticisms of Marxist feminists:1.2.3.00AO1: Identify three criticisms of Marxist feminists:1.2.3.Radical Feminism:-147320215265Radical feminists believe that it is men that dominate women rather than capitalism. Women are socialised into their roles as housewives and mothers and this is a form of oppression.Men are the enemy! Some radical feminists promote separatism and political lesbianism to avoid ‘sleeping with the enemy!’ Germaine Greer (2000) advocates all female households known as matrilocal Households. The family is the root of women’s oppression and must be abolished. 00Radical feminists believe that it is men that dominate women rather than capitalism. Women are socialised into their roles as housewives and mothers and this is a form of oppression.Men are the enemy! Some radical feminists promote separatism and political lesbianism to avoid ‘sleeping with the enemy!’ Germaine Greer (2000) advocates all female households known as matrilocal Households. The family is the root of women’s oppression and must be abolished. 4953068135500right16891000AO3 Evaluation:Somerville (2000) argues that Radical Feminism fails to recognise that the position of women has greatly improved. What is the march of progress? How has the position of women greatly improved? Additionally separatism is unlikely to work. Why? Difference Feminism:The feminist approaches we have considered so far are structural theories. They tend to assume that all women live in a conventional nuclear family and that they share a similar experience of family life. However difference feminists argue that we cannot generalise about a woman’s experience. They argue that lesbian and heterosexual women, black and white women, middle class and working class women all have very different experiences. Structural feminism tends to be dominated by middle class white women who claim that others are oppressed when they have never had the same experiences. 393382579502000For example, by regarding the family as wholly negative, white feminists neglect black women’s experience of racial oppression. Black feminists argue that the family can be a source of comfort for black and minority ethnic women who have a ‘double whammy’ in society of being a) women and b) black and minority ethnic. AO3 EVALUATION: Other feminists argue that black feminists neglect the fact that all women share many of the same experiences, for example, the threat of domestic violence and low pay. Complete the table below: Type of FeminismWhat is seen as the main source of oppression?What needs to happen in order to remove the oppression?Liberal FeminismMarxist FeminismRadical FeminismDifference Feminism-457200-200025So, which feminist’s are saying these things? Highlight them in different colours or draw a different symbol for each typeLiberal feminists Difference feminists Radical feminists Marxist feminists“Women are used and abused by the system to reproduce the workforce free of charge”“Men just use women for their domestic chores and sexual services-they want to be dominant and use domestic violence for this”“I’d like to see a white woman be harassed by the racism I have to put up with. She wouldn’t be calling the family the oppressing institution once she’s experienced the BNP!”“It would be wrong for us to ignore the progress that’s been made for women’s rights in the last century.” “Women are bottom of the pile for jobs, they are just a cheap reserve workforce for those who have no social conscience.”“Women are the worst affected by this credit crunch because they can be ‘let go of’ by employers, no one will care because people think women will return to their domestic roles”“As Germaine Greer said, we should live in female only households“Hold up! We’re not just women. What about the fact I’m working class, or that I come from the most deprived area of Manchester? This affects my life experiences more than just my gender”“Women now have the vote, are protected against discrimination and unfair pay and men are legally forbidden to rape their wives-things have come quite a way but still need to progress further”“Let’s be lesbians to make a statement-we don’t need men and we don’t want to sleep with them”00So, which feminist’s are saying these things? Highlight them in different colours or draw a different symbol for each typeLiberal feminists Difference feminists Radical feminists Marxist feminists“Women are used and abused by the system to reproduce the workforce free of charge”“Men just use women for their domestic chores and sexual services-they want to be dominant and use domestic violence for this”“I’d like to see a white woman be harassed by the racism I have to put up with. She wouldn’t be calling the family the oppressing institution once she’s experienced the BNP!”“It would be wrong for us to ignore the progress that’s been made for women’s rights in the last century.” “Women are bottom of the pile for jobs, they are just a cheap reserve workforce for those who have no social conscience.”“Women are the worst affected by this credit crunch because they can be ‘let go of’ by employers, no one will care because people think women will return to their domestic roles”“As Germaine Greer said, we should live in female only households“Hold up! We’re not just women. What about the fact I’m working class, or that I come from the most deprived area of Manchester? This affects my life experiences more than just my gender”“Women now have the vote, are protected against discrimination and unfair pay and men are legally forbidden to rape their wives-things have come quite a way but still need to progress further”“Let’s be lesbians to make a statement-we don’t need men and we don’t want to sleep with them”Stretch yourself… AO3 ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION Which of the four feminist perspectives do you find the most convincing and why? Use theorists and concepts in your response. Glossary of Key Terms to Learn:Concept Definition PatriarchyOppressionReserve army of labourMarch of progressMatrilocal families Political lesbianismStructural feminismPost-structural feminism Overall Evaluation of Structural Theories:Functionalism, Marxism and feminism are all very different in their views on what the functions of the family are, however being structural approaches they do all believe that our behaviour is shaped by society and in terms of the family they all fail to recognise family diversity and the varying individual experiences in family life. The Personal Life Perspective:This is a new perspective on families which is strongly influenced by interactionist ideas. It argues that the previous structural perspectives we have studied suffer from two weaknesses:They assume that the traditional nuclear family is the dominant family type. They assume that families and their members are passive puppets manipulated by the structure of society. The personal life perspective emphasises the meanings that individual family members hold and how these shape their actions and relationships. Beyond Ties of Blood and Marriage:The personal life perspective takes a wider view of relationships than just traditional ‘family’ relationships based on blood or marriage ties. For example, a woman who may not feel close to her own sister may be unwilling to help her in a crisis, but at the same time may be willing to help care for someone to whom she is not related. The personal life perspective focuses on people’s meanings and draws our attention to a range of other personal relationships that individuals see as significant. Activity: think of all the different types of relationships there are that may be viewed as ‘family’: Read the chapter on page 195 and complete the table: Relationships with friendsFictive kinGay and Lesbian and ‘chosen’ familiesRelationships with dead relativesRelationships with petsDonor Conceived Children:These and similar relationships raise questions about what counts as family from the point of view of the individuals involved.Watch the clip Kids of donor 5114 and make notes on the issues surrounding donor conceived children: 298132529591000-247650181610Activity: Donor Conceived children Read the summary of Nordqvist and Smart’s (2014) research and summarise it answering the following questions (p195-6):What does Nordqvist and Smart’s research explore? What did the issue of blood and genes raise? How did Erin define being a mum? Under what circumstances could difficult feelings arise? What were the additional problems for lesbian couples? AO3: Evaluation Summarise the strengths and weaknesses of the research:Activity: Step 1: Write down 5 key points on the personal life perspective Step 2: Choose the 3 most important parts of the theory and justify why Step 3: Summarise personal life in one sentence Making Links:The personal life perspective can be applied to other areas of the module such as:Decision making within families (specifically money)The ‘new sociology of childhood’The personal life perspective on divorceThe personal life view of family diversityGlossary of Key Terms to Learn:Concept Definition Fictive kinSociology of personal lifeDonor conceived childrenInteractionism Topic Summary:__________________ take a _______________ view of the family. They see it as a __________________ institution that performs essential functions for society as a whole and for all its members.________________ sees a functional fit between the nuclear family and modern society’s need for a _________________________________.______________ see the family as serving the economic and ideological needs of _______________, such as the transmission of private property from one generation of capitalists to the next._________________ see the family as perpetuating _____________________. _________________, _________________ and _________________ differ over the cause of women’s subordination and the solution to it. Feminist theories have all been criticised for neglecting family ______________ and individuals capacity to ______________ their family arrangements.The ________________________________ argues that we must focus on the meanings people give to relationships and on how they define what counts as family.UniversalParsonsFunctionalistsFeministsMarxistsRadicalConsensusPersonal Life perspectiveCapitalismPatriarchyMobile Labour forceLiberalDiversityMarxist feminists ChooseQuick Check Questions:What are the four functions of the family according to Murdock? What is the difference between the expressive role and the instrumental role? How are the New Right similar to functionalism? How does the family perform an ideological function according to Marxists? How can Marxist views of the family be criticised? Explain the difference between Marxist feminism and radical feminism? How do personal life criticise structural approaches? What issues could a donor conceived family lead to? Exam Technique:Outline and explain two functions that the family may perform which maintains patriarchy (10marks)POINT ONE: POINT TWO: Item Capitalist society is based on a wealthy capitalist class exploiting the labour of a propertyless working class in order to extract a profit. However, to obtain their profit, capitalists must sell what has been produced and this requires people who are willing to buy it. For capitalism to continue, the proletariat must be persuaded to accept their exploitation. Capitalists also need to retain control of their wealth in order to maintain their privileged position.Applying material from item A. analyse two functions that the family may perform for capitalism (10 marks)POINT ONE: POINT TWO: Item Some Sociologists believe that the main purpose of the family is to serve capitalism. It does this, for example, by passing on the ruling class ideology that inequality is inevitable. For example, parental power accustoms children to the idea that someone has to be in charge. Other Sociologists, disagree, they believe that the family serves positive functions for both society and its members and that inequality is needed for society to function harmoniously.Applying material from Item and your knowledge, evaluate the claim that the main function of the family is to serve capitalism (20marks) Introduction P1Explanation:Evaluation:P2Explanation:Evaluation:P3Explanation: Evaluation:P4Explanation: Evaluation:Conclusion Item Despite their disagreements functionalists, Marxists and feminist approaches to the family share certain similarities. They are all structural approaches: they see the family as a structure that performs certain functions – although they disagree about what these functions are and who benefits from them. Similarly, they all assume that by ‘the family’ we mean the conventional nuclear family.Other sociologists reject this structural approach. For example, the personal life perspective takes a bottom-up view that focuses on people’s meanings and how they themselves define what counts as family.Applying material from Item and your knowledge, evaluate the usefulness of structural approaches to our understanding of families and households (20marks) Introduction P1Explanation:Evaluation:P2Explanation:Evaluation:P3Explanation: Evaluation:P4Explanation: Evaluation:Conclusion ItemFeminist sociologists emphasise the harmful effects of the conventional nuclear family on women. They see it as playing a role in the continuing oppression of women. This is evident in areas such as domestic violence, paid employment and power. Other sociologists reject this negative view of the family and argue that it is essential for society.Applying material from Item and your knowledge, evaluate feminist explanations of the role of the family in society today (20 marks) What are the key points in the item? What other points are you going to bring in? What are the key feminist explanations that you would need to include?How would you evaluate feminist explanations? The question mentions ‘society today’, why is this important? For more resources and articles see: aqusociology.Independent Study Checklist:Activity Tick when doneComplete an A3 revision sheet for each theory – functionalism, Marxism and feminism Create revision cards/key cards for the concepts in this topic Get an address book or a note book and add all the concepts and key terms from this booklet in to it – define all the key words in your own sociological dictionary Complete a venn diagram looking at the similarities and differences between functionalism and Marxism Watch the TED Talk by Chimamande Ngozi Adichie ‘We should all be feminists’ and summarise on a key card the points made in this talk Look at the Revise Sociology website and make notes on the Personal Life perspective more resources and articles see: aqusociology. ................
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