Motivation, Arousal, & Anxiety
Motivation, Arousal, & Anxiety
September 16, 1999
• Motivation
The coach of a little league baseball team offers $20 to any player who hits a home run
The coach of a college football team makes his players watch him swallow a worm
A college basketball coach leaves the bench in the middle of a game and sits in the stands
A high school coach uses fake blood and blanks to stage his own shooting in the school cafeteria
The coach of a college football team requires that his players witness the castration of a bull
Anderson, K. (1994) Coach gets cut by players. Sports Illustrated
General Models of Motivation
Trait Approach—(Personal Factors)
personality motivates performance (needs, interests, goals)
early research focused on identifying/measuring trait
Problem
personality scales poorl
General Models of Motivation
Situational Factors
motivation is primarily determined by situational factors (coaching, facilities)
Problem: Overjustification Effect
Rewards and Attribution
Controlling Rewards (designed to influence)
Informational Rewards (designed to give feedback)
Overjustification Effect and Professional Sports (Deci & Ryan)
Cognitive Evaluation
(Attributions for success/failure)
Locus of Causality
Internal (ability, effort)
External (task difficulty, luck)
Stability
Stable (ability, task difficulty)
Unstable (effort, luck)
Self-serving bias
Interactional View of Motivation
Sorrentino & Sheppard (1978)
Coaching
Understand why people participate
Both situations & traits
People often have conflicting interests
Motives Change Over Time
Major Motives for Participation
Youth Sports:
improving skills, fun, being with friends, fitness
Exercise Participation
initially: health factors, weight loss, fitness, self-challenge, feel better
later: program enjoyment, social factors
Coaching
Structure Environment to enhance motivation
Competition or recreation
Provide for multiple motives
Coaching
Be Realistic
Other physical and psychological factors influencing motivation must be considered
Some motivational factors are more easily influenced than others
Imagine that it is only a few minutes before a championship game. Your opponent in the sport in which you participate has defeated you once earlier in the season, the only loss you suffered. How do you feel three minutes before the game begins?
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Very anxious not at all anxious
Arousal, Anxiety, & Stress
Arousal--neutral emotionally (neustress/eustress)
Anxiety--negative emotionally (distress)
cognitive & somatic
Spielberger’s trait/state anxiety distinction
Measurement
Physiological measurement of arousal
biofeedback devices
Questionnaires
SCAT and CSAI
Sport Competition Anxiety Test
SCAT--measure of competitive trait anxiety
trait anxiety correlates significantly with the amount of state anxiety experienced just before competition
Scoring
reverse score items 6 and 11 as:
1 = often 2 = sometimes 1 = hardly ever
Do not score “dummy” items 1, 4, 7, 10, and 13
scores range from 10 (low competitive trait anxiety) to 30 (high competitive trait anxiety)
Stress Process
1. Environmental Demand
2. Individual’s Perception of Demand
3. Response
arousal, state anxiety, muscle tension, attention shifts
4. Outcome
Drive Theory
Monotonic relationship between arousal/anxiety and performance
As one increase, so too does performance
Inverted-U Hypothesis
Optimal arousal theory
Zones of Optimal functioning
Catastrophe Model (deterioration is not so gradual)
Why Arousal Influences Performance
Facilitation and Disruption
Nideffer’s Attentional Shift Model
low arousal: attention too broad
high arousal: attention too narrow
Muscular Tension
Self-handicapping
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