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Comparing Leadership Eras to Educational HistorySerena JimmyNorthern Arizona UniversityEDL 650-1724Comparing Leadership Eras to Educational HistorySCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 1910-1935DefinitionDuring the Classical Era, or Scientific Management Era several management practices evolved such as management theory, administrative theory, bureaucracy and authority theory, seven administrative procedures to a few others. Prior to this timeframe most managers and workers selected the best method for completing their assigned tasks and coordinating activities with others. The shift emphasized the “one best way to structure tasks and operate organizations to increase production and efficiency”. CITATION Ead15 \l 1033 (Eadens, 2015) Major Era ChangesSystems developed in the Classical Era included Frederick Taylor who developed a system to get the job done or Henry Fayol and the five management functions from “top down and one best way”, or Max Weber with two features included in education: 1) selecting members based on technical qualifications and 2) career oriented managers or Gulick and his seven administrative procedures with principles of Personnel Management.CITATION Ead15 \l 1033 (Eadens, 2015)Relationship of Era with changesThe Industrial Revolution prospered in the manufacturing sector bringing about progressivism. Rather than “Americanizing” minorities, progressivism was concerned with civilizing the force to create a new Industrialized American.CITATION Nel131 \l 1033 (Nelson, Palonsky, & McCarthy, 2013) The move changed rigid discipline, rote memorization, and high failure rates to more social activities like home economics, business, and vocational education, current events, health, sociology, sex education and consumer math. HUMAN RELATIONS ERA (1935-1950)DefinitionThe Classical Era had some shortcomings in productivity however through the study done called “Hawthorne Studies” in 1924 to 1933 if management included social and psychological needs along with the needs from the Classical Era employees would become more productive. The largest factor for human behavior and employee output had to do with human factors. If management would give a little more time and emphasis to their employees they would work a harder to please the manager than fixing the lighting of the building. An employees’ work performance is dependent on social issues and job satisfaction.Major Era ChangesSo in this new era the shift has been to emphasize the needs of the people and relationships rather than on the system. A pioneer of Human Relations, Mary Parker Follett, reconstructed the power relationships and decentralizing authority, “lead by example”. CITATION Ead15 \l 1033 (Eadens, 2015) She influenced collaborative leadership, win-win conflict resolution, empowerment, self-managed teams and continuous improvement. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs demonstrates a person’s needs through steps to self-actualization. McGregor formulated the “Theory X and Theory Y” of negative views of people and positive views of people to determine the manager fit for your company to meet the end goal.Relationship of Era with ChangesThe progressive education had been blamed along with the teachers for “complacency and inertia” as well as other crime, divorce rates, etc following the stock market crash in 1929. CITATION Nel131 \l 1033 (Nelson, Palonsky, & McCarthy, 2013) A change in education shifted from traditional discipline and subject knowledge (progressive education) to “felt needs” of children. CITATION Nel131 \l 1033 (Nelson, Palonsky, & McCarthy, 2013) At this time in history, the church and state issues occurring, racial, development of unions, and the New Deal from President Roosevelt. SOCIAL SYSTEM (1950-1965)DefinitionThe Social System Era attempted to make a connection between the Scientific Management Era and the Human Relations Movement. The central theme of Social System is “whatever affects one part of the system affects all parts…”. CITATION Ead15 \l 1033 (Eadens, 2015) It could also include an arrangement of social interactions based on shared norms and values.Major Era ChangesGetzels and Guba regarded the system as an open system, B=f (RXP) behavior is functioned by interaction between roles of an organization and the individual’s personality. The open system approach helped with the administration to provide a framework for many studies in socialization of school administrators, “process of acquiring educational roles.” CITATION Ead15 \l 1033 (Eadens, 2015)Deming’s principle of “Total Quality Management” reached out to success in leadership and management. Teaching has extended to producing effecting quality schools such as “student-centered learning, professional development, buy-in, best quality products, evaluation, trust and mutual respect, teamwork, shared goals, ownership, customer service, and constant improvement.”CITATION Ead15 \l 1033 (Eadens, 2015)Relationship of Era with ChangesThe open system approach set the stage for the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) in Civil Rights Movements, “Red Scare”, and the Soviet Union’s launch of “Sputnik”. Our education was lagging behind the rest of the World and a move was put in place to advance in Mathematics, Science, and Technology with support from the government. Teachers were expected to teach “teacher proof’ curriculum to convey the subject matter so that it wouldn’t be taught incorrectly. CITATION Nel131 \l 1033 (Nelson, Palonsky, & McCarthy, 2013) With the new move the critics gained support to continue with having children learning what they want to know instead of what they need to know. CITATION Nel131 \l 1033 (Nelson, Palonsky, & McCarthy, 2013)CONTINGENCY/SITUATIONAL (1965-1980)DefinitionThis era added another dimension to the organizational theory, the environment. It emphasizes the fit of the organization and its workers and the leadership formula. The era questioned the universal management practices in that different circumstances calls for different combinations of systems. “There is no one perfect way to lead or style of leadership, but that leadership can and should be adapted to the needs and unique circumstances and structure of the organization.” CITATION Ead15 \l 1033 (Eadens, 2015)Major Era ChangesBlake and Mouton created a 2-dimensional model to examine how people work in organizations and later added a 3rd dimension. The Grid System examines two axis the “Concern for Production” or how a leader is concerned with achieving organizational tasks and the “Concern for people”, how a leader attends to the people within the organization who are trying to achieve the goal. The results of the Grid determines one of the five primary managerial styles in correlation with climate/culture aspects.CITATION Ead15 \l 1033 (Eadens, 2015) Reddin also added the third dimension of the Managerial Grid, Effectiveness later referred by Blake as Motivation, what a manager achieves not what he does on performance.Relationship of Era with ChangesImplementation of increasing financial aid to education to allow qualified students who want to attend college to be admittedContinued support for racial integrationSupport for special education and extended benefits for children with learning disabilities and other special needsCreation of the Department of Education in 1978Development of Head start programs for disadvantaged preschool childrenBilingual programs were established for the growing Hispanic populationNew requirement for accountability- competency testsFUTURIST/CONTEMPORARY/CHANGE (1980-PRESENT)DefinitionAfter the situational/contingency era the shift focused on planning for the future and change. Strategic planning and status quo were used for management before shifting in the 1995-present towards the Enlightened leadership. A huge explosion of resources in leadership books on eastern philosophy took place in this era. The transformational leadership is today’s new theory. Major Era ChangesThe transformational leadership is the basis for implementing change. Hoy and Miskel (2001) believe the transformational leadership to define the change, create visions, concentrate on long-term goals, inspire followers to pursue goals, change an organization to accommodate their vision, and mentor followers to become leaders. CITATION Ead15 \l 1033 (Eadens, 2015) The transactional leaders make a transaction between themselves and the followers in some sort of means (money, praise, or other rewards). The new leaders aren’t the charismatic take-charge leaders or the “what to do but more on what to be.”CITATION Ead15 \l 1033 (Eadens, 2015)Relationship of Era with ChangesIn education Ideological charismatic analyst explain why reforms did not seem to work and what should be done. The schools reform had shifted from test scores and state regulations to school choice, curriculum control, at-risk students, restructuring school for school-based management, teacher empowerment, parental involvement, and share decision making. CITATION Nel131 \l 1033 (Nelson, Palonsky, & McCarthy, 2013) The US Department of Education argued for the diverse views from segmented society, diversity, feminist positions in basic literature. Multicultural content erupted when the English-only resolution was adopted by states connecting to the term “PC” or politically correct speeches in schools. The technology has boomed and content is dispersed quickly and travels fast with the Internet, cell phones with Internet, etc. The coming of virtual schools or a virtual society such as this course a distance learning course in college/university.PAST THEORIES & CURRENT ISSUES FACING EDUCATIONAL LEADERS TODAYPast Theory & TodayLooking back from the Classical Era to the current transformational leadership many theories, management theories, leadership theories are utilized in our educational systems. The past has developed or scaffold upon each other based on the current events in specific eras. The newest reform in education is called the “Racing to the Top initiative designed with achievable plans to implement coherent, compelling and comprehensive education.” CITATION Uni15 \l 1033 (United States Department of Education, 2015) The four specific areas in this reform are:First InitiativeAdopting standards and assessments that prepare student to succeed in college and the workplace and to compete in the global economyWhen Russia launched “Sputnik” an initiative was given to prepare our students to become more competitive in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics. The Running to the top are interested in preparing our students with College and Career Readiness Standards to become competitive in the global economy. The transformation leadership also had a vision in mind, long-term goal setting, mentoring, and pursue those goals so as a school we are now looking at leadership groups to meet the goals of the districts to meet this initiative. Second InitiativeBuilding data systems that measure student growth and success, and inform teachers and principals about how they can improve instructionsSchools are empowering the teachers through the student growth and success in their classrooms. The leadership teams are now having to look at “Contingency/Situational” five primary management styles by having to look at the climate and culture of the classroom. It is the leadership team’s role is to inform the teachers of the data and ways the teachers are able to make changes with the students. The human resource plays a big part in this initiative to know the students and adapt teaching to meet the needs of the students.Third InitiativeRecruiting, developing, rewarding, and retaining effective teachers and principals especially where they are needed mostThe schools having to retain the effective teachers and rewarding with possible monetary fund’s fits into the transactional leadership. The time period that began with the evaluation of the system continues to evaluating the teachers on their performance in the classroom. The evaluator has to also take into account the Human Relations Leadership Theory of building reporte with the teacher to provide critical feedback. Most models of evaluation focuses on something similar to the Theory Y and X, positive feedback (reinforcement) and negative feedback (refinement).Fourth InitiativeTurning around our lowest-achieving schools“I won't play the blame game, but I also won't make excuses for failure. I am much more interested in finding ways to fix these schools than in analyzing who's at fault” CITATION Uni15 \l 1033 (United States Department of Education, 2015) The conviction of a leader willing to make a change sounds similar to the “Enlightened Leadership” of seeing a vision. However, the fact remains that if a school is unable to meet the initiative are having to get shut down for better opportunities. Funds are transferring to schools with positive outcomes and options for students to go into other school choices. The issues in education are tougher with accountability of student growth and achievement labeled by each teacher. Leaders are decentralizing to a team of teachers, administrators, and staff to head towards one direction together as a team for our students.References BIBLIOGRAPHY Eadens, D. (n.d.) Leadership Eras. [Word document] Retrieved June 6, 2015, from Blackboard Learn: , J. L., Palonsky, S., & McCarthy, M. R. (2013). Critical Issues in Education: Dialogues and Dialectics (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.United States Department of Education. (2015, June 13). Programs. Retrieved from Racing to the Top Fund: ................
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