Gaius Julius Caesar - 12 Ancient History



GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR (100-44 BC)

Short Summary 1. Early Life - 100-60 BC

2. First Triumvirate and Caesar's Consulship - 59 BC

3. Renewal of the First Triumvirate - Luca 56 BC

4. Pompey's Break with Caesar - 50 BC

5. Caesar's Work in Gaul - 59-49 BC

6. Caesar Crosses the Rubicon - 49 BC

7. Caesar Defeats Pompey Dyrrachium and Pharsalus - 48 BC

8. Caesar in Egypt - 48 BC

9. Caesar in Asia Minor - 47 BC

10. Caesar in Africa - 46 BC

11. Caesar in Spain - 45 BC

12. Caesar's Death - 44 BC

13. Caesar's Powers

14. Caesar's Reforms at Rome - 49-44 BC

15. Caesar's Calendar - 46 BC

Early Life

1. Born into the Marian Party - Quaestor in Spain 69 BC.

2. He first rose to power in the Catiline Conspiracy. Supported Cat. clandestinely. "A rising patrician who repeatedly persuaded the wealthy Crassus to pay his debts in return for political support." Attempted to win authority to intervene in the affairs of Egypt. A bill proposed by the tribunes of 64 BC was unsuccessful.

3. Caesar elected as PONTIFEX MAXIMUS 63 BC. Caesar and Labienus prosecuted, C Rabinius for joining in the rising of 100 BC against Saturninus.

4. Caesar praetor in 62 supported Metellus Nepos who proposed a bill inviting Pompey to restore order in Italy against Catiline. Senate suspended Caesar and Nepos from their official functions.

5. Caesar given command in Spain 61. Proved an able tactician. Desired a triumph and a Consulate. Caesar and Bibulus - Consuls 60.

First Triumvirate and Caesar's Consulship

6. Dec 60 Caesar reconciled with Pompey and Crassus. First Triumvirate. Caesar, the younger less respected. Pompey had greater political influence. Common enemy in LUCULLAN PARTY in the Senate.

7. Bibulus violently disagreed with Caesar over a bill to provide land for Pompey's veterans in Italy. Bibulus shut himself in his house to avoid violence of Caesar's followers. Gave warnings of unfavourable omens. As a result of all Caesar's acts in 59 came to be invalid. Agrarian Law passed. Ager Campanus et stellus to be made over to vet. Commission of twenty members to implement the agrarian reforms. All candidates for office required to swear to observe them. Many peasants deprived of land. Caesar's laws in general benefited the impoverished in Italy.

8. Caesar remitted one third of the debts of a publicani company in difficulties in Asi. Clodius adopted as plebeian. Clodius elected tribune of 58. He was a friend of Crassus.

9. Caesar granted Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum as provinces till March 54. A 5 year command. Also given Transalpine Gaul - Pompey's request.

10. Caesar carried a law on extortion permitting the extortion court to inflict a capital penalty.

11. Discoveries of Vettius. Confessed a plot to kill Pompey. Bibulus and enemies of Triumvirs implicated. Vettius poisoned by order of Caesar.

12. Caesar married daughter of L Calpurnius Piso, Consul 58.

13. Pompey married Caesar's daughter, Julia.

14. Praetors of the following year 58 questioned the legality of Caesar's acts. C Memmiu and L Domitius Ahenobarbus. Caesar departed for governorship of Gaul.

Renewal of the First Triumvirate - Luca

15. Caesar in Gaul 58-57

(a) Caesar in 58 overcome the Helvetii. Stopped their migration to Gaul.

(b) Campaigned successfully against Ariovistus.

(c) Defeated the Belgai 57 - most formidable of the Gallic tribes.

(d) Caesar in Illyricum 57.

(e) Rebellion in N-W Gaul. Ahenobarbus candidate for consul 55. Said he would have Caesar deposed from his command. Campanian Law under attack by Cicero - Pompey and Crassus reconciled by Caesar at Luca - Pompey and Crassus consuls 56. Excluded Ahenobarbus.

16. Caesar's command in Gaul extended to march 49. Spain granted to Pompey. SYRIA to Crassus by LEX TREBONIA.

17. Death of Julia 54. Tie between POMPEY and CAESAR broken.

18. When Caesar resigned on being elected Consul 48, the year after he resigned command in Gaul, he would be liable to prosecution for his acts in 59, and his illegal resistance to Bibulus. His enemies, ie Cato, threatened to do this.

19. Caesar concentrated on being elected consul in 48, the year after he resigned command in Gaul. Caesar to be allowed to retain his IMPERIUM till 49. Supported by the ten tribunes - candidates for office in Rome must be present to offer candidature - Caesar exempted from this rule - allowed to stand in absence.

20. Discussion in the Senate on Caesar's command in 51 by M Marcellus, the Consul. Pompey persuaded the Senate to delay discussion till 50.

Pompey's Break with Caesar

21. Open hostility of Pompey for Caesar 50. Caesar wished to raise his political prestige by competing with Pompey even if it meant Civil War.

22. The Legion that Pompey had lent Caesar was recalled to defend SYRIA. Two legions from Caesar's command were now kept in Italy.

23. M ANTONIUS elected Tribune 49. Supported Caesar, who influenced his election.

24. The Senate ordered Caesar to give up his army in 49. SENATUS CONSULTUM ULTIMUM passed when M Antonius and Q Cassius vetoed the law. Tribunes sought protection from Caesar. He invaded Italy to protect the rights of the Sacrosanct Tribunes.

25. Pompey raised 10 legions in Italy - only 2 trained legions and they had been with Caesar.

Caesar's Work in Gaul

26. Revolt and conquest in Gaul:-

(a) 57 BC Caesar suppressed revolt in Gaul.

(b) 55 BC He defeated two German tribes - USIPETES & TENCTERI. Followed them across Rhine.

(c) Campaign in Britain 55 BC.

(d) Second campaign in Britain 54 BC.

(e) Revolt in Gaul 54-53 BC.

(f) Vercingetorex led revolt in Gaul 54-53 BC.

(g) Gaul pacified by 51 BC.

Caesar Crosses the Rubicon

27. T Labienus deserted Caesar for Pompey. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. Pompey, the consuls and many Senators left Rome. Pompey retired to the East from Brundisium - pursued by Caesar. Pompey sailed to Dyrrachium, March 49. Caesar seized money in the treasury in Rome. Pompey had seven trained legions in Spain.

28. Caesar besieged Massilia. Defeated two of Pompey's lieutenants in Spain - Afranius and Petreus in Nearer Spain. Caesar overcame Varro in Further Spain. Massilia surrendered.

29. Caesar nominated DICTATOR by the Praetor M Lepidus. Caesar chosen Consul 49. Laid down Dictatorship. Caesar seized Sardinia and Sicily, but not able to control Africa. Q Metallus Scipio held two legions for Pompey in SYRIA.

Caesar Defeats Pompey - Dyrrachium & Pharsalus

30. Caesar crosses to Greece. Defeated by Pompey at Dyrrachium. Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus. Mass defection of Pompey's and Cicero's supporters to Greece.

31. Caesar in Egypt 48/7. Revolt of Alexandria. Caesar blockaded. Mithridates of Pergamum brought reinforcements to Caesar. Caesar defeated Alexandrians. Ptolemy XII killed. Caesar gave Egypt to Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra.

Caesar in Asia Minor

32. Caesar went to Asia Minor to deal with revolt - Pharnaces, son of Mithridates of Pontus. Reconquered Pontus while Pompey was at Dyrrachium. Pharnaces defeated Cn Domitius Salvinius, Caesar's lieutenant.

33. In August 47, Caesar defeated Pharnaces at ZELA. Pontus was regained for Rome. Mithridates of Pergamum made king by Caesar (of Crimea).

Caesar in Africa - 46 BC

34. Caesar in Rome 47. Sailed to Africa to defeat Pompeians. Afranius, Petreius, Libienus and Q Metellus Scipio in command in Africa. King Juba of Numidia quarrelled with Scipio. Caesar heavily defeated the Pompeians at Thapsus. Labienus and two of Pompey's sons escaped to Spain.

35. Caesar remained in Rome, July 46. Celebrated 4 triumphs over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa.

Caesar in Spain - 45 BC

36. Caesar then defeated GNAEUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (Pompey) at Corduba (MUNDA). Triumph held in Rome over Spain. Sextus Pompeius continued guerilla warfare in Spain after Caesar's death. Annexation of NUMIDIA as province of AFRICA NOVA.

Caesar's Death

37. The Conspirators and Caesar's death.

C Cassius (an old Pompeian), Praetor Peregrinus in 44 BC.

D Brutus with Caesar in Gaul.

M Brutus fought at Pharsalus with Pompey. Praetor Urbanus 44 BC.

Death of Caesar, March 15 44 BC (The Ides of March).

Caesar's Powers

38. Consul 48, 46, 45, 44. Dictatorship valuable for its greater power to control other magistracies. Laid down dictatorship 49. Made Dictator 48 BC. Tribunician Power for life 48. After Thapsus made Dictator for 10 years (47 BC). Named half the magistrates, people chose the other half. Appointed magistrates and provincial governors for several years in 44 to prepare for Parthian campaign. Allowed two of his legates a triumph in 45. In 45 given title of IMPERATOR permanently and the right to sit on a gold seat in the Senate. Set up a statue in the Temple of Quirinus "To the Invincible God". 44 BC M Antonius offered him a crown, but he refused it.

Caesar's Reforms at Rome

39. (a) Many exiles recalled.

(b) Children of those proscribed by Sulla allowed to hold office.

(c) Payment of house rents in Italy abolished for one year - 47.

(d) Moneys paid in interest on debts to be subtracted from amounts due to debtors.

(e) Raised number of Praetors to TEN.

(f) Added one member to each of the priestly colleges.

(g) Allowed to create new Patricians, viz - C Ratonius who married Caesar's niece, father of Gaius Octavius (Augustus).

(h) Modified membership of the Senate. Senate enlarged to 600. Places of senators who had died or had been killed were filled, eg Sallust made a senator. Rewarded followers of Caesar. Some Cisalpine Gauls in Senate. Senate now dominated by Caesar's men. Many Italians in Senate.

(i) Disbanding of Caesar's veterans. Newer colleges, secret societies disbanded. Ancient colleges, burial cults continued.

(j) Those condemned by the courts trying violence and treason to lose half of their property and if condemned as Parricidea, all of it.

(k) TRIBUNI AERARII excluded from juries - motive uncertain.

(l) Reduced recipients of public corn from 320,000 to 150,000. New beneficiaries included only when others died. Aimed to reduce number of city mob.

(m) Public works encouraged to provide work for the unemployed - Basilica Julia, Forum Julium.

(n) Land distribution revived. Used land outside as well as inside Italy. Interests of existing tenants respected. Veterans and the mob to receive land.

(o) Founded colonies - Carthage, Corinth, Sinope, Cinta. Also in Southern Spain and Narbonese Gaul.

(p) Colonies founded in Spain at Arelate, Hispalus and Corduba.

(q) Law passed requiring owners of land grazing estates to employ free men as at least one third of herdsmen. Capitalists had to invest fortunes above a certain sum in land.

(r) Roman citizens of military age required to reside in Italy. Could not stay away for more than three consecutive years. Sons of Senators forbidden to leave Italy except on military service or as staffs of provincial governors. Senatorial class must be trained for government.

(s) Communities of CISALPINE GAUL largely Romanised.

(t) Law regulating qualifications for offices and membership of local Senates or the Municipia. Sicilian communities received Latin rights.

(u) Regularised tenure of Provincial commands. Each consul to hold a province TWO years after his year of office at Rome. Each Praetor to hold a province TWO years after his year of office at Rome.

Calendar Reforms

Extra month inserted after February 23rd in every other year - a 555-day year prior to Caesar. By 46 Calendar Year diverged 90 days from Solar Year. Sosigenes, a Mathematician, calculated the length of the Solar Year in 46, and added two months and ten days between November and December. Each year to have 365 days, extra day to be added every fourth year, at the end of February. Julian Calendar lasted to 1582 when minor changes were made by Pope Gregory XIII. Spring festivals before Caesar often fell in the middle of winter. Preserved patriotic and traditional feeling to the State Religion by calendar reform.

CAREER OF JULIUS CAESAR

You must make up your mind, as you read the facts, about the basic question: What were Julius Caesar's real aims? Also, if a leader finds out that the government of his country is thoroughly bad, does he (Caesar, Napoleon, Hitler) really do permanent good to his country by taking control away from everyone and concentrating it in his own hands?

Various modern scholars have argued:

1. GENIUS: That he was the greatest genius of all time, who, alone in his time, had the ideals, skill and courage to clearly see the real faults of Roman government and to re-organise the state in the only way by which the Roman Empire could be governed successfully - was a superman and a true patriot.

2. GRACCHAN: That he was no original thinker but took the aims of Gaius Gracchus (123 BC) and the "popular party", though he recast these so that they might benefit the whole nation, not just the populace.

(a) Political: (i) humiliation of the Senate, sovereignty of the assemblies of people;

(ii) same man to continue leader year after year.

(b) Social: (i) extension of full Roman citizenship first to all Italians, then to the provinces ("equalisation")

(c) Economic: (i) duty to provide cheap corn for Rome's poor ("dole");

(ii) sending of many unemployed and landless to colonies in provinces.

NOTE: (a) Caesar undoubtedly rose to power as leader of "popular" party;

(b) He saw that the controller of Rome must ultimately rely on military control.

3. SULLAN: That his chief model was Sulla, the Senatorial leader.

(a) saw that political power and own safety depended on command of main army.

(b) used dictatorship (unlimited time) as office from which to control all.

(c) re-organised administration of Empire centralising it under one body.

But Caesar had learnt that the ruthless exploitation of victory was unworthy and that Sulla had been an ignoramus when he abdicated.

4. EFFICIENCY: Had learnt the value of this as a soldier in Gaul; cared nothing for theories or platforms of any party; shows no real signs of having pre-conceived aims; real sim not to rebuild Roman life but to eliminate each abuse with a separate remedy; essentially practical, a man of action.

5. SELF-CENTRED: That he was entirely selfish and ambitious for power, to be greatest man in Rome, willing unscrupulously to manipulate all persons (Pompey, Crassus) and classes to becoming and continuing to be sole ruler.

When experts differ, you do not have to decide between the, but you should consider how far each of his acts points towards one or other of these verdicts. Probably the truth, as he was a human being, lies in a combination of more than one.

Earlier Career

100 BC Born into aristocratic family which had gained great prominence in the last two generations - three consuls.

83 BC Married daughter of Cinna the demagogue. Through championing "popular" party, had to leave East to avoid the wrath of Sulla.

68 BC Quaestor with help of bribery and lavish expenditure; he borrowed money (probably from Crassus) to entertain populace with shows.

67-66 BC Pompey's two "extraordinary" commands (Pirates and Mithridates) showed him how real power could be obtained and used.

65 BC An aedile, became famous for the huge amount of money he found from his own pocket for public games and public buildings (saw how to win favour).

63 BC Involved to unknown extent with Crassus in protecting Catiline's conspiracy; speech in Senate for life detention, not death for five arrested men.

62 BC Praetor.

61 BC Proprearor, ie governor of Further Spain; war with Lusitanians in west brilliantly successful; enriched himself, troops and State with loot.

60 BC After election as consul, formed the 'FIRST TRIUMVIRATE', coalition with Pompey and Crassus. WHY? Saw that enthusiasm of masses was too unreliable; must win support of two most powerful individuals in Rome - Pompey with his military following, Crassus with his huge finances (equestrians). Both had been snubbed by Senate under leadership of Cato.

59 BC Consulship marked by bribery and intimidation by gangsters to force measures through assemblies. Law of tribune Vatinus gave him Cisalpine Gaul (North Italy) as his province in a five year extraordinary command. Senate meekly added Transalpine Gaul (South France), appointee having died.

59-50 BC Gaul. His instructions were to deal with two particular menacing tribes:-

(a) Ariovistus and his Germans who were gradually acquiring Central Gaul;

(b) the Helvetians, trying to escape from the Germans, by migrating out of Switzerland across the province to the West.

In 58 he crushed both tribes, but, instead of withdrawing to his own province, he proceeded in 57 to conquer Northern Gaul (France & Belgium), and in 56 to subdue the tribes of the West (Atlantic & Channel). This he did with no instruction from Rome, in fact, without notifying the home government of his intentions. WHY?

(a) Pompey to be consul 55, and have a five year command in Spain (never went);

(b) Crassus to be consul 55, have a five year command in Syria (v Parthians);

(c) Caesar to have a second five year command in Gaul.

Caesar was in too precarious a position in Gaul to object (rebellion) which had now seen that the Romans were in Gaul not just to expel the Germans but to annex.

56-50 BC Situation at Rome. Crassus went off to Syria and was killed at Carrhae 53. In Rome Caesar was using the services of an unscrupulous gangster Clodius to terrorise everyone, break up assemblies, make all government impossible. Pompey saw that it would be political suicide if he continued to assist Caesar and made friends with the Senate to obtain their political support. Senate saw that political control of Rome would be useless against Caesar's legions, and sought the friendship of Pompey as the only general with enough skill to command against Caesar. Yet Pompey did not dare to break openly with Caesar.

Caesar's plan had always been to resign his Gallic command earlier, and to expose himself to inevitable prosecution on some charge and to exile. After much parleying between Caesar and Pompey and the Senate as to the dates on which one or both should resign their proconsulships, the Senators used physical force to expel from the Senate House Antony and Cassius, tribunes acting for Caesar. Because of this Caesar "crossed the Rubicon" early in 49, nominally to restore the constitution of Rome, and marched on Rome at the head of his army. (Civil War)

49 BC Caesar took Rome; Pompey evacuated Italy for Greece (Dyrrhamium). Caesar captured Pompey's Spanish Army ("an army without a commander").

48 BC Caesar crossed to Greece; defeated Pompey at Pharsalus (Thessaly in North Greece).

46 BC Caesar crushed the Republicans at Thapsus (under Cato) in North Africa.

45 BC Caesar destroyed the remnants of the Republicans in Spain (Munda).

44 BC IDES OF MARCH, Caesar assassinated.

49-44 BC RULE OF JULIUS CAESAR

General Attitude

1. From the moment that he took control of Italy, he amazed all by a complete change of attitude. He had been a ruthless politician and leader of the "popular party"; enemies and supporters expected another reign of terror like those of Marius and Sulla with the proscriptions of hundreds of his enemies and seizure of their property, wholesale grabbing of farms for his veterans. But now he became the patriotic statesman whose only concern was for the good of the whole people. Both party warfare and personal enrichment from spoils were to be gone forever. He was in sole control. He gave pardon to leading opponents who surrendered; he sternly forbade proscriptions and efforts by his supporters to help themselves to spoil. Only after Thapsus and Munda did he confiscate property of men whom he pardoned before.

2. In his actual reforms and procedure he adopted many leading ideas of "Senatorial" Sulla and "popular" Gaius Gracchus. On the whole he seems to have had no plans for any permanent new constitution for Rome (to continue after his death); and he introduced schemes of re-construction as occasions demanded. He was content to handle each separate problem as it arose. At least he did attempt to rectify abuses, whereas the worst indictment perhaps of Senatorial government is that the Senate ignored nearly all the major problems in the interests of party politics, self-enrichment and maintenance of their own control. But it was left to Augustus (with much inferior gifts) to make the first systematic attempt to revive and reorganise religious, social, political and economic life which were to continue after his death.

Caesar's Own Position

He determined to be the permanent absolute ruler of Rome. It was impossible for him to fit the life-rule of one man inside the normal framework of the Republican Constitution. This had been designed in 509 BC and after, to make life-kingship impossible. Thus the consulship could be held for only one year and not again for another ten years; it had to be shared with an equal colleague. The tribune was only the protector of the rights of the plebs and could carry laws in his own assembly, but he could not supervise their execution. A dictator was sole ruler, but was created only in dire emergency and must "abdicate" when that emergency ended, or anyway in six months. What Caesar did was to collect temporarily an ever-increasing jumble of overlapping powers.

1. Actual Offices

(a) Dictator for the reconstruction of the government for an undefined time in 48 BC. In Feb 44 "dictator perpetuo" which title he inscribed on his coins.

(b) Consul in 48, 46, 45, 44

2. "Powers" (without actual office)

(a) "Power of Tribune" for life, by which he could veto any awkward proposal.

(b) "Power of Censor" which enabled him to select his own Senate.

(c) "Prefecture of Morals" which enabled him to supervise conduct (eg lavish expenditure) which he thought harmful to the public.

3. The Title of Imperator (or Commander) which at least meant sole right to command armies and might be extended to cover all acts.

4. "Rex" (King) - His enemies accused him of seeking the position of "rex", a term hateful to Romans as tyrants; his friends certainly offered him many of the emblems of kingship, possibly his enemies also in order to increase his popularity. Admittedly he toyed with the idea, assumed in 44 the all-purple toga of kings, used a gilt throne (not ivory), allowed a prophecy to spread that "none but a king can destroy the Parthians". But his preference seems to have been for "imperator" abroad and dictator at home. Modern historians cannot agree as to what he really intended his final position to be.

In fact, some are inclined to think that Caesar never seriously worried. At least it is true and surprising that he made no arrangement for any successor should he die, beyond a secret will naming his grand-nephew Octavius as his main personal heir. Caesar never saw (as Augustus did later) that it was of vital importance to devise a position and titles which would win popular acceptance - a sign of his devotion to abstract efficiency and his indifference to the reactions of human nature.

CAESAR'S MEANS OF SUPPORT

He began as a military despot, head of a victorious army. He disbanded as many of his troops as he could spare and sent the rest to frontier provinces. But he kept the command of all for himself and selected men whom he thought most loyal to himself as his deputies. Thus the real basis of his power still was the loyalty of his legions, not the spontaneous approval of the mass of the people. More and more he grew to trust his own fortune until, through disdaining an escort, he laid himself open to assassination.

TREATMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION

1. His aggregation of various powers to himself has been discussed.

2. Magistrates: These continued to be elected by the assemblies, but he used to "command" those he wanted, and none dare oppose his wishes; finally he was allowed to nominate several. All were only figureheads. Even when he was absent from Rome fighting, he left Rome under his "master of the horse" (the 2 i/c of a dictator), finally with the help of eight "prefects" appointed by him.

3. Senate: Probably most of the old republican aristocrats had been killed in battle.

(a) He raised its numbers to 900, double the old number, which of itself reduced the importance of any one senator.

(b) He flooded the Senate with his own nominees, even ex-centurions and foreigners. Those who entered it as ex-magistrates were his own servants whom he had commended to be praetor or consul.

(c) He submitted his proposed reforms to it but allowed it no right to discuss or object. For advice, he relied on his private "concilium"; his chief confidents were an equestrian (Oppius) and a Spaniard (Balbus).

4. Assemblies: He used these

(a) to elect his own supporters

(b) to accept his own measure

but their meeting was unreal and formal.

5. Courts of Law: He claimed the right to intervene, with no appeal from his verdict.

CAESAR'S SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS AND HIS REFORMS

1. He was in Rome for broken periods between wars for 15 months out of five years.

2. His measures were more numerous and widespread than those of any other reformer of all the previous years.

3. Most of them were to cure specific troubles and show little sign of any comprehensive plan on guiding ideal.

REFORMS - (For convenience here these have been grouped

in four concentric circles:- Rome, Italy, Provinces, Foreign Policy)

1. The City of Rome:

(a) The upper classes (Many Romans were hopelessly in debt - thus potentially dangerous)

(i) Debtors to subtract interest already paid from capital amount of debt.

(ii) They may surrender property in repayment at its value before Civil War.

(iii) Lowered maximum rate of interest.

(b) The masses

(i) Suppressed the private "clubs" which had been organised earlier by his own supporters for organising riots and terrorising voters and officials.

(ii) Halved the number of receivers of free grain-dole (320,000 to 150,000); required proof of poverty before applying.

(iii) 80,000 to 100,000 shifted to new colonies overseas - some commercial.

(c) Buildings

These had fallen into disrepair or were unfitted to Rome's greatness. He started to replan the whole city, to repair or rebuild existing public buildings. Started the new law-count ("Basilica Julii") alongside the Forum, a new "forum" - temple, colonnade, shops; two new libraries.

(d) General

Revised the calendar - 364¼ days.

2. Country of Italy

(a) Required one third of farm workers to be freemen, not slaves - to ensure against slave revolts.

(b) Planned huge public works, especially a new road across Apennines to Adriatic, a new harbour at Ostia (mouth of Tiber) and reclamation of swamps.

(c) Found land for many landless and ex-soldiers by refounding towns that had decayed through 50-100 years of civil war, instead of founding new colonies.

(d) Country - towns (municipia): The inhabitants had all received citizenship by the end of the Social and Sullan Wars, but local government had never been organised uniformly. A bronze tablet found at Heraclea gives a list of regulations as to local magistrates and senates, which Caesar was drafting at the time of his death and which were made law by Antony in June 44. Some historians argue that by this law the municipal governments would handle all local affairs, the old Roman government was intended to become simply the municipal government of the largest town, Rome. Others claim that Rome would still continue to be the centre of government for all but purely local affairs, that the law was organised and did not extend local powers. Now there were uniform rules of eligibility for local magistrates and for the admission into the local senates, arrangements for more accurate conducting of the municipal census (enrolment of citizens).

3. The Provinces - ie the Empire

(a) Extension of citizenship

(i) In 49 he gave full "Roman" citizenship to the Transpadanes, ie dwellers between the Po and the Alps; they had had the "Latin" half-citizenship since the Social War in 89. Every free man between the Alps and the toe of Italy was now a full citizen equal to any dweller in Rome.

(ii) He gave full citizenship to the Spaniards of Cadiz (Gades), also to the entire Gallic "legion of the Lark (Alauda)" which he had raised in south Gaul.

(iii) Latin citizenship to at least three cities of Gaul (Tolosa, Vienna, Avenio).

(iv) It is said that he was planning to give "Latinity" to the whole of Sicily, which was highly civilised and also contained a large number of Romans engaged in finance and trade.

(b) Planting of Roman colonies in the Provinces

This met two urgent needs:-

(i) meeting the demands of tens of thousands of disbanded soldiers for a civilian livelihood.

(ii) ridding the city of its thousands of starving poor.

He used up what land was vacant in Italy, especially in Campania to settle some of his legionnaires.

To find more land, he refused either to grab the farms of Pompey's supportensor to buy out other farmers. Either of these steps would have left as many landless as before. Also, there was in the provinces much land which had been confiscated from cities on tribes as an act of war; other land could be bought far more cheaply there than in Italy.

We know of at least twenty colonies that Caesar founded in the provinces especially in the West; these must have absorbed about 100,000 Romans. In the West we know of eight in Spain, two in Gaul, ten in Africa, including Carthage; in the East there was Corinth but few others.

* It is noteworthy that many of these colonies were mainly commercial rather than agricultural. Many of the penniless of Rome would have been failures on the land, but could become competent tradesmen or shopkeepers.

* This overseas colonisation was Caesar's answer (instead of the dole, whose numbers he halved) to the problem of the presence in Rome of tens of thousands of starvelings.

* Herein, apart from showing his practical wisdom and energy, Caesar does seem to reveal a definite ideal for the future - the complete Romanisation of the western world - the setting up of town life and culture in the most backward countries. It is possible but not certain that he aimed at the gradual equalisation of the whole of the provinces with Italy in political privileges as well as social and economic benefits. "The empire was becoming a commonwealth." "His policy of breaking down the distinction between Italians and provincials and of converting the empire to a commonwealth is his most important contribution to Roman statesmanship."

(c) Provincial Rule

(i) He kept the selection and the behaviour of governors rigidly under his control (most had been his nominees for the praetorship and consulship).

(ii) He recalled them at the end of their first or second year.

(iii) He would not tolerate excessive power or abuses.

This control may have been due to enlightenment or simply to the need to suppress any rival and to preclude any provincial risings.

(iv) In particular, he reduced the taxation of Roman businessmen to the local governments.

(v) Perhaps he began a census on assessment of the population and wealth of all the provinces. This may have been with a view to drawing up a proper imperial budget and ensuring that the burden of taxation fell uniformly and fairly on all.

(vi) He reimposed customs dues at Italian ports, thus putting them on a level with provincial ports.

4. The Frontiers

One can only surmise what his general imperial policy was.

(a) West: He had already annexed the whole of the rest of Gaul (France & Belgium). This included in the Empire the whole of Europe, west of the Rhine, halved the actual length of frontier, and made it possible to organise the defence of Gaul with Roman legions on the Rhine to repel future German invasions.

(b) North & East: At the time of his death he was organising an army to deal with the Dacians on the Lower Danube and the Parthians in Syria. He may have intended to make the Danube the frontier (as did Augustus) and to extend Roman rule east to reach the desert country.

(c) South: He kept Egypt as a protectorate under Cleopatra, and Numidia as a province.

General Comment

This gigantic record contrasts with the utter failure of the Republican Government even to consider the various problems of the State. Not one pressing problem was untouched. He showed unparalleled vitality, "Caesarean speed", freedom from personal or party prejudice. Yet almost entirely practical and with few signs of idealism. His worst fault was his contempt for existing institutions and his ignoring of human susceptibilities. He destroyed the old constitution, faulty as it was, producing nothing to replace it, beyond personal rule by himself whilst he lived. He can be contrasted with Augustus' attempt to revive the Senate with a new spirit; enlisting the equestrians, restoring the whole life of the community, in religion, morals, patriotism, in daily social and economic life.

Death

This brutal thrusting of autocracy on the Roman people, the growing imperiousness, together with contempt for all others, the reliance on a gang of known disreputables, were the chief cause of the conspiracy by decent men which led to his assassination. The other type of conspirator was the jealous and disgruntled hanger-on who found that he did not get the expected rewards, spoils and power.

LAST STAGES OF REVOLUTION

Caesar's death 44 - Octavian's triumph in battle of Actium 31

The conspirators responsible for Caesar's death were compounded of Pompeians, disappointed Caesarean's like Cassius and republican doctrinaires like Brutus who objected to his dictatorial powers. After the assassination, the senators fled in alarm and there was alarm and confusion in Rome. The conspirators seemed to have had no plan. They failed to deal with Caesar's lieutenant, Lepidus, master of the horse, and Antony, the consul. Lepidus occupied the Forum and Antony inflamed the mob against them. As a result Rome became unsafe for Brutus and Cassius and they left for the East where they hoped to secure men and money to defeat Antony.

Octavius - Julius Caesar Octavianus

Antony's rise to power was checked by the eighteen-year-old Octavius, grand nephew and named heir of Caesar. Cicero supported Octavius and the rallied Senatorial forces. War followed in which Antony was beaten, but when the Senate refused to allow Octavius to stand for consulship he seized Rome with an army of Caesar's veterans and forced his election. He left at once with Antony but instead of fighting, the two men came to terms.

The Second Triumvirate - (Bononia 43) and the end of the Republic

Antony joined by Lepidus met Octavius near Bononia; the 3 laid plans for the future. In accordance with these plans they seized Rome and secured legal election as Triumvirs with dictatorial power for 5 years, thus the second Triumvirate was a legal office.

The triumvirs divided the Western provinces between them and prepared for war against Brutus and Cassius.

Because they needed money and desired vengeance they declared a proscription. Many tales of horror and heroism have survived from the butchery. Among its victims was Cicero whose death Antony desired.

Philippi (Thrace) 42

Brutus and Cassius were defeated in 2 battles at Philippi in Thrace in 42. Both conspirators committed suicide. Antony then stayed on in the East while Octavius returned to Rome.

Octavius in Rome

Octavius returned to Rome to restore order and deal with Sextus Pompey a son of the Great Pompey, who had seized Sicily and was interfering with Rome's corn supply. Lepidus was given the office of Pontifex Maximus and the provinces of Africa. He was soon to fade from the scene and leave the stage to Antony and Octavius.

Octavius had to provide for veteran soldiers, to deal with this problem he confiscated land. Because of this Antony's wife, Fulvia, and her brother, Lucius, led a revolt against him. Lucius had to surrender at Perusia - Antony returned to intervene but the veteran soldiers refused to fight each other so peace was patched up at Brundisium.

It was agreed that Octavius should get the Western half of the Empire and Antony the East. Fulvia being dead, Antony married Octavia, Octavius' sister.

Another quarrel broke out between Antony and Octavius in 37 over the war with Sextius, but it too was patched up and the Triumvirate renewed for another 5 years.

Young Octavius in Rome proved both his military and political ability. His was the better part. He was safeguarding Italy and could become well known to the people. He cleared the sea of pirates, strengthened the vulnerable North Eastern Frontier by victories in Illyricum. He began to win adherents from every class and party. He missed no opportunity to win over the populace by expenditure of war booty and young aristocrats by the disbursement of office. By 33 he was consul for the second time and his influence was predominating over that of Antony.

Antony and Cleopatra

In the East Antony allowed the cities to give him divine powers as the new Dionysius. He summoned to him also Cleopatra. They met at Tursus. He needed money. He was captured by her charms and retired to Alexandria with her. He was recalled to Italy by the Perusian Wars (revolt of Fulvia and Lucius, wife and brother of Antony) and married Octavia. Then he went to Parthian War 36 BC. The Parthian expedition failed. He married Cleopatra and bestowed oriental provinces and kingdoms on all her children.

This enabled Octavius to arouse Rome against Antony and he lost many of his followers. The Triumvirate formally expired in 30. Antony was outlawed and war broke out in 31 BC.

Agrippa succeeded in blocking Antony's fleet in the harbour of Actium and cutting his army off from supplies. To break blockade the battle of Actium was fought. Part of the fleet led by Cleopatra succeeded in escaping for Egypt. Antony, seeing certain defeat, followed her abandoning his fleet and army which joined Octavius' forces. In 30 Octavius went to Egypt. Antony committed suicide rather than be taken to Rome as Octavius' prisoner. Cleopatra too committed suicide.

Caesar and Antony neglected their imperial duties for Cleopatra who as administrator of Egypt showed great ability, energy and wisdom and had dreams of world empire.

The victory of Octavius ended the revolution. The democrats had failed to handle the problems of empire and thus rule by one man evolved.

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