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Frequently Asked Questions

The Frequently Asked Questions are divided into two parts:

Section 1) general questions about writing and formatting of papers

Section 2) questions about citations and references

If you have questions about a particular kind of citation, scroll down to Section 2 to look for the question. Note that in some instances, when the original source was not available to us, information may have been fictionalized to fulfill the requirements of a complete citation.

Section 1

General Questions about Writing

What exactly is the Writing Lab?

The Writing Lab is a service to help students improve their writing before turning in papers to their instructors. The Writing Lab has recently been transformed into the Center for Writing Excellence. The Center for Writing Excellence consists of both Reviewing Services for review of student papers) and Tutorials & Guides (with numerous resources for students).. The Tutorials and Guides include sample papers, common English errors, exercises in grammar and punctuation, and the Grammar Expert. The Grammar Expert is a University of Phoenix faculty member who is available to answer specific questions on grammar and format. All Center for Writing Excellence services are provided by the University of Phoenix for its students and faculty.

I have a question about a comment made by a reviewer or a question on grammar or writing. Where do I go?

To prevent unnecessary delays in answering your questions, please send questions directly to the Grammar Expert. The Grammar Expert can be reached from the UOP student web page Services menu. Click on Center for Writing Excellence, then on Tutorials & Guides, and follow the links to Grammar Expert. The Grammar Expert is on duty from 6:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. When asking questions about formatting, please indicate whether you are using APA or MLA style so the Grammar Expert can give you the correct information.

Be sure to check out the Tutorials & Guides section of the Center for Writing Excellence for many helpful Internet resources, interactive grammar and punctuation tutorials, and sample APA and MLA papers.

I have a paper to be reviewed. Where do I go?

Please send papers to be reviewed directly to the Center for Writing Excellence. Click on Center for Writing Excellence, then on Reviewing Services, and follow the links to upload a paper for review.

I am so frustrated. Where can I get help with my writing?

The Center for Writing Excellence is just the spot for you. First, you will find links to the Grammar Expert and to the Writing Lab Reviewing Services there. Second, under Tutorials & Guides, you will find sample papers, exercises, and guides that can answer many of your questions and help you to improve your writing on your own.

In addition, many writing aids are available for purchase, including Keys for Writers and the Gregg Reference Manual as well as The Little, Brown Compact Handbook and What’s the Rule.

My instructor says I need to work on my introductory paragraph. Can you help me?

There is a difference between business and "creative" writing. In writing a short story, a play, or a novel, you could use any number of paragraphs (or pages or even chapters) as an introduction to set up the reader for the surprises you have in store. Business writing, on the other hand, is a matter of saying as much as possible in as little as possible. Brevity may be the soul of wit, but it is the heart, lungs, and pocketbook of business writing. In other words, no prospective customer is going to hang around for two paragraphs if you have not laid out the wares in the first one.

The thesis sentence is the bumper sticker of the essay--and it is usually on the rear bumper. According to page 20 of the Little, Brown Compact Handbook, the thesis statement contains the main idea of the paper. The thesis statement most often appears at the end of the introduction, but there is no rule about that--a thesis statement can appear as the first sentence if the subject is controversial, and there is no reason it cannot appear in the middle of the paragraph. The point is that you should be calculating about it--know why you have placed it where you did.

How do I format the headings in my paper?

APA

Use the following examples for the different level headings in APA style:

Title (centered)

First-Level Heading (centered)

Second Level Heading (put in italics at the left margin)

Third-Level Heading. (Indent and use italics. Put a period after the heading, double space, and begin the text.)

Example

The Westminster Kennel Club (title)

Westminster: America’s Dog Show (level 1)

“’Established in 1877, The Westminster Kennel Club is America's oldest organization dedicated to the sport of purebred dogs. There is only one Westminster, and in its long and prestigious existence, just about every superlative imaginable has been used to describe the club, the show and its impact on the world of purebred dogs. The Westminster Kennel Club "has had great effect in improving the quality of the dogs owned for use or companionship. Of this there can be no doubt ...’," wrote one reporter. True then, true today” (westminsterkennelclub, n.d.).

The year 2004 marked Westminster’s 128th annual dog show. It is the premier show for purebred dogs. Madison Square Garden hosts the well-attended event. More than 2,500 dogs of who have previously won titles in local and national dog shows take part in the Superbowl for dogs. Seven breed categories are represented: toy, sporting, hound, working, terrier, non-sporting, and herding. Each breed contains several varieties. A selection of the breeds is explained in the following paper.

Toy Breed (level 2)

The toy dog is part of small breed ranging from three to ten pounds. Some members of this breed have large variety cousins that are members of different breeds. The Chihuahua and toy poodle are representative of this popular breed.

Chihuahua (level 3)

The Chihuahua probably originated in Mexico, although some experts believe that Egypt might have been the true origin. The two Chihuahua varieties consist of the short coat and long coat. These little dogs have personalities much larger than their size.

Toy Poodle (level 3)

The poodle originated in Germany and comes in three sizes: Miniatures, toys, and standards. A toy can be up to 10 inches high, miniatures are 10 to 15 inches high, and standards are higher than 15 inches.

Sporting Breed (level 2)

Sporting dogs are known for their abilities to assist hunters in flushing and retrieving prey. They are large dogs and love exercising and running with their owners. The black Labrador retriever is one of the most popular members of this breed.

The Continuation of Cat Shows (level 1)

The 2004 Best in Show (level 1)

Ch Darbydale's All Rise Pouchcove, known affectionately as Josh, won best in show. Josh is a Newfoundland that stood waist-high to his owner when he proudly ran

MLA

In MLA, put the headings at the left margin. Do not underline or italicize or bold them.

Example [The headings are colored in order to highlight them.]

The Westminster Kennel Club (title)

Westminster: America’s Dog Show (level 1)

“Established in 1877, The Westminster Kennel Club is America's oldest organization dedicated to the sport of purebred dogs. There is only one Westminster, and in its long and prestigious existence, just about every superlative imaginable has been used to describe the club, the show and its impact on the world of purebred dogs. The Westminster Kennel Club "has had great effect in improving the quality of the dogs owned for use or companionship. Of this there can be no doubt ..." wrote one reporter. True then, true today” ().

The year 2004 marked Westminster’s 128th annual dog show. It is the premier show for purebred dogs. Madison Square Garden hosts the well-attended event. More than 2,500 dogs of who have previously won titles in local and national dog shows take part in the Superbowl for dogs. Seven breed categories are represented: toy, sporting, hound, working, terrier, non-sporting, and herding. Each breed contains several varieties. A selection of the breeds is explained in the following paper.

Toy Breed (level 2)

The toy dog is part of small breed ranging from three to ten pounds. Some members of this breed have large variety cousins that are members of different breeds. The Chihuahua and toy poodle are representative of this popular breed.

Chihuahua (level 3)

The Chihuahua probably originated in Mexico although some experts believe that Egypt might have been the true origin. The two Chihuahua varieties consist of the short coat and long coat. These little dogs have personalities much larger than their size.

Toy Poodle (level 3)

The toy poodle originated in Germany and comes in three sizes: Miniatures, toys, and standards. A toy can be up to 10 inches high, miniatures are 10 to 15 inches high, and standards are higher than 15 inches.

Sporting Breed (level 2)

Sporting dogs are known for their abilities to assist hunters in flushing and retrieving prey. They are large dogs and love exercising and running with their owners. The black Labrador retriever is one of the most popular members of this breed.

The 2004 Best in Show (level 1)

Ch Darbydale's All Rise Pouchcove, known affectionately as Josh, won best in show. Josh is a Newfoundland that stood waist-high to his owner when he proudly ran

What about abstracts? What are they, and when do I need them?

An abstract is a summary of your paper: the topic, the development, and the conclusion. It provides an overview of the paper and is comparable to an executive summary. Ordinarily, you do not write an abstract for a short paper. Most papers written in undergraduate business classes do not require an abstract, but it is wise to check with the instructor.

Abstracts are used only in APA style; MLA does not use abstracts. If you write an abstract, remember that it is NOT an introduction to your paper. Write only in third person; do not use first or second person in the abstract. The abstract should not be longer than 120 words.

My instructor is always screaming about plagiarism. What is she talking about?

To avoid plagiarism, a writer is required to cite all instances of information gleaned from an outside source if this information is not common knowledge. The statement that Sacramento is the capital of California does not need a citation, but a mention that the San Andreas fault does not actually cut through Los Angeles does need a citation.

 

Nothing appears on the References or Works Cited page that does not have a corresponding citation in the text; however, as mentioned above, the requirement for a citation can be quite broad if the information is not common knowledge.

 

You are not guilty of plagiarism if you give credit to the source of your information.

The purpose of a citation in the text of your paper is to be a little tag that enables anyone interested to look at your References page (if you are using APA) --or your Works Cited page (if you are using MLA) and find the complete listing source of the information. Since the purpose of citations and reference listings is to enable someone to look up the information you are citing, the citation must point to an existing real-world source. If someone says or writes something to you, no one can get to that statement again unless it is spoken or written to him or her. In such a case, you use the "personal communication citation,” which looks likes this: "Yes, I always make sure the hot water is on before I get into the shower" (John Doe, personal communication, April 7, 2003). There is no corresponding listing on the references page for a personal communication because no one can look up this information.

What is a topic sentence?

A topic sentence is the sentence that encapsulates or summarizes the purpose or meaning of the entire paragraph. A topic sentence can appear at the beginning of the paragraph:

I want to write about hot rods. Many hot rods are made from 1932 Fords, but hot rods also appear as cars as late as a 1969 Dodge Charger. Other very popular hot rods are 1940 Fords. . . .

A topic sentence can appear in the middle of the paragraph:

Many hot rods are made from 1932 Fords, but hot rods also appear as cars as late as a 1969 Dodge Charger. As you can see, I am going to write about hot rods. Other very popular hot rods are 1940 Fords. . . .

A topic sentence can appear at the end of the paragraph:

Many hot rods are made from 1932 Fords, but hot rods also appear as cars as late as a 1969 Dodge Charger. Other very popular hot rods are 1940 Fords. Hot rods have been a hobby of mine for a long time, and I love to write about them.

The topic sentence is also discussed on pages 36 and 37 of The Little, Brown Compact Handbook.

According to page 20 of The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, the thesis statement contains the main idea of your paper. To focus your paper, try to summarize the main idea in a single, declarative sentence of 25 words or less. The thesis statement often appears at the end of the introduction. The thesis statement narrows your subject to a single, central idea that you want readers to gain from your essay. It names the topic and asserts something specific and significant about it. It conveys your reason for writing (your purpose), and it often provides a concise review of how you will arrange your ideas in the essay.

The thesis sentence is simply what you would say if you were standing in front of the producer, and he said, "Okay, so what's your fabulous movie script about?" You would gulp, wet your lips, and say, "Well, there's a team, and it gets together, and they note that the process has four steps [or however many], and they are..." He smiles, and you go on to say how you think Brad Pitt should star, etc.

In an essay, the thesis sentence is essentially your pitch about the rest of the essay. What is the reader going to learn? What are you going to show? In the time-honored spirit of advertising, you want to plant the kernel of your message in the reader's head as soon as possible, and the thesis sentence is the first chance. You can repeat it thereafter, but the thesis sentence is the first appearance of your bumper-sticker slogan: "So with a critical look at the team development process, forming, norming, storming, and reforming can be seen as elements of everyday life" or something like that.

How do I write a topic sentence outline?

A topic sentence outline is an outline written in sentences. It should contain the thesis statement at the beginning. A good example of a topic sentence outline can be found on page 382 in The Little, Brown Compact Handbook.

You should do the outline before your write your paper. It will help you create a better paper that will be more effective and more organized. If you are writing a topic sentence outline, you will probably even use those sentences in your paper.

What is a bibliography?

According to standard usage, a bibliography is a listing of all works related to the subject, whether quoted or referred to in the text or not. A reference list consists of only those materials contributing to the essay.

How do I write an annotated bibliography?

In APA, the annotated bibliography lists works for background or for further reading and includes descriptive and/or evaluative notes (annotation) which may range from one sentence to a paragraph. The annotation should be in third person and does not need to follow the rules of grammar for complete sentences. For example,

Bear, M. P., & Bear, J. B. (1999). Bear’s guide to earning degrees nontraditionally (13th ed.). Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.

A superb collection of educational institutions not only described but also evaluated in terms of programs, licensing, accreditation, cost, and other issues of importance to potential students. The book covers national and international institutions.

In MLA, use the heading “Selected Bibliography.”

Bear, Mariah. P., and John B. Bear. Bear’s Guide to Earning Degrees Nontraditionally. 13 ed. Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 1999.

A superb collection of educational institutions not only described but also evaluated in terms of programs, licensing, accreditation, cost, and other issues of importance to potential students. The book covers national and international institutions.

How do I write an article review?

An article review does not have a set format. Articles are written on many subjects, and reviews address many differing aspects of the article. One review, for example, might focus on the persuasive techniques of the article, and another might look carefully at the author's precision in description.

An article review should include the purpose of the article, a brief description of the content of the article, and any biases that you perceive in the article. Is the article well documented? Is it serious or humorous? Is it tedious or concise? The reader of your review should be able to tell whether he or she would be interested in reading this article.

What do I do if my instructor tells me to format something in one way and The Little, Brown Compact Handbook says to do it another way? He tells me to underline titles of books instead of italicizing them. What do I do? (I’m using APA.)

This can present a problem. Remember: the instructor has the right to require whatever he or she wants in the classroom. So, if the instructor asks you to do something, you will do it. However, do not assume that the next instructor will want the same thing—especially if it is not included in The Little, Brown Compact Handbook or the APA Style Manual. You should assume that the instructor’s directions are exceptions to the rules.

What does it mean to write in the third person?

To write in the third person means to write a paper using only “he,” “she,” “it,” “them,” or “they.” You would not use first person such as “I,” “me,” “we,” my,” or “our,” and you would not use second person (“you” or “your”). In order to write about yourself without using "I," you would have to write the paper as if someone else were writing about you. For example, (if you are Mary Ann), you would write, "Mary Ann had three goals to improve her writing. First, she ..."  It is awkward to do, but it can be done. When your paper is finished, do a search for "I" to make sure that you have not used any instances of first person.

How do I go about writing a case study?

A case study is a process by which the student analyzes a specific situation in order to apply decision-making skills and the theory learned in classes, demonstrating his or her knowledge. A case study has four basic elements:.

1. Define the problem. In most case studies, there are many problems, so you must isolate the specific problem(s) you will be analyzing in the case study.

2. Propose appropriate solution(s) to the problem. The solution should be logical and reasonable for the situation in the case study.

3. Support the solution(s). Here you would use material you have learned from your courses to provide a rationale for the solution.

4. Write a well-formatted report that has been proofed and edited. Be sure to review for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors and use correct format.

5. Be sure to provide citations where needed.

I have a problem with articles. When do I use them?

Articles (a, an, the) are used with count nouns (nouns that can be counted). That is, when count nouns are used in the singular, you always use an article. When count nouns are used in the plural, you might use the article.

Example: I am in charge of the puppy for three days.

I am in charge of the puppies for three days.

Example: I like the child.

I like children.

You can also say, “I like the children” if you are talking about specific children.

With non-count nouns (nouns you don’t count), you sometimes use an article.

Example: Did you forget the butter at the store? I didn’t. I bought butter, bacon, and eggs.

Look on pp. 202-204 in The Little, Brown Compact Handbook for more information.

When do I use “due to” and “because of”? My instructor has an issue about these phrases.

First, let me refer you to the Tutorials & Guides section in the Center for Writing Excellence where you will find a wonderful resource called “Common English Errors.” If you go to the list of errors, this resource will tell you that the phrase “due to the fact that” is a rather long and clumsy way of saying “because”; therefore, “because” is preferable.

What margins should I use?

The Little, Brown Compact Handbook (on page 410) specifies 1.5-inch margins on the left edge of pages and 1-inch margins on the other three sides. The APA Publication Manual specifies 1 inch margins on all sides. The official UOP Writing Guidelines say you may use 1 or 1.5 inch margins on the left and 1 inch margins on the other three sides.

When do I use an (apostrophe) “’s” or just an “s”?

An apostrophe used alone or with an “s” shows possession. Students commonly mistake plurals for possessives. If you have an “ ’s” you should be able to substitute the phrase “of the ____” for the word. For instance, if you say, “The dog’s dish is full,” then you should be able to say, “the dish of the dog is full.” Whatever is in front of the “ ‘s” is the word showing possession. If you say, “The dogs’ dish is full,” then you are really saying, “The dish of the dogs is full.” You are saying the dogs have one dish.

Another example: “The company’s manuals are ready.” You are talking about the manuals of one company (The manuals of the company are ready.) If you say, “The companies’ manuals are ready,” then you are saying, “The manuals of the companies are ready.”

If the word is singular, you always add an “ ‘s” IF:

The singular noun does not end in an “s” sound: child’s book.

The singular noun ends in a silent “s”: the Marine Corps’s leadership.

If the word is singular and ends in a “s” sound, add an “‘s” IF:

The “‘s” adds a new syllable: Phoenix’s new mayor.

If adding the “‘s” creates a new syllable, making the word hard to pronounce, add only the apostrophe:

The Owens’ driveway

Moses’ flight from Egypt

How should I handle a cliché? I don’t know who the author is.

Avoiding clichés will brighten your writing and make it much more pleasurable to read. On the other hand, if you need a cliché for some reason, you are generally freed from the requirement to cite it. A cliché, after all, is a statement that is in such common usage that it is stale. If, on the other hand, you mean a so-called "famous cliché" like "Let them eat cake," you can usually look up such a saying in a book (or web site) of famous sayings. The above, for example, was uttered by Marie Antoinette upon being told that the people of Paris were starving for lack of bread. If the cliché you wish to use is a ringer like "state-of-the-art," you do not need to cite it (and you are well advised to avoid using it). If the cliché is an historic or famous saying, you can look it up, as I mentioned, in a source dealing with famous sayings--and cite that.

Should I use one or two spaces at the end of a sentence?

You should use one space after a period, a colon, a question mark, or an exclamation mark. Use only one space after a comma or a semicolon. Do not space after internal periods in abbreviations or around colons in ratios.

What is the difference between a primary source and a secondary source? Do I cite them differently?

There is a difference between primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources contain first-hand information on the topic: observations, personal research, letters, interviews, or correspondence.

Secondary sources contain information from other sources. The authors of secondary sources have read studies, research, evaluations, critiques, and interpretations of other people and used them in their own work. A full description of types of sources is included in 48d in The Little, Brown Compact Handbook.

You would list the source in the Reference list or on the Works Cited page. However, you cite the author of the chapter or article, then use the phrase “cited in” or “qtd. in,” followed by the source. This would be called citing an indirect source. Remember, you only list the original source in the Reference list or on the Works Cited list.

APA

Within text, use the following example to cite an indirect source:

Text: Supporting data appear in a study by Wong (cited in Marconi & Hamblen, 1990).

MLA

Text: Supporting data appear in a study by Wong (qtd. in Marconi & Hamblen, 1990).

Does MLA format block quotes differently than APA does?

APA tells you to set off text that is more than 40 words, indenting ½ inch (or five spaces) from the left margin, and double-spacing. Do not use quotation marks.

MLA tells you to set off text that is more than four lines, indenting one inch (or ten spaces) from the left margin, and double-spacing. Do not use quotation marks.

In both MLA and APA, when adding the citation, put the punctuation IN FRONT OF the citation.period. This is an exception to the rule.

What is a split infinitive? I’ve never heard of that before.

An infinitive is a verb form that contains "to": "to sing," "to jump," etc. A split infinitive occurs when an adverb is placed between "to" and the verb: "to sweetly sing," "to enthusiastically jump."

To eliminate a split infinitive, move the adverb so that it does not come between the two words: "to sing sweetly," "to jump enthusiastically."

More information about split infinitives can be found in The Little, Brown Compact Handbook (30a).

Why can’t I use contractions?

"Contractions" are commonly used in speech, and many students are surprised that the formality of academic writing forbids them. Contractions are words such as “don't,” “can't,” “haven't,” “won't,” “isn't,” “it's,” and all those with an apostrophe that makes one word out of two. Contractions are not allowed because they are too informal. They are considered colloquial. You are required to write them out: “do not,” “cannot,” “have not,” “will not,” “is not,” “it is, ” and so on.

How do I develop an essay?

First, you need to read the assignment carefully. What does the assignment require? Do you need to compare and contrast? Analyze? Argue a point?  Provide information? Once you have determined the pattern you need to use, then you can specify exactly what you will write about. Let's say you need to write an analysis of communication in your workplace. An analysis means you will provide the main points involved (break down the big term into smaller terms). Do some research on the subject so you have some information about it.

 

At this point, you should develop an outline or perhaps use a mindmap. Write out the different topics you might develop. If you use a mindmap, you will draw circles to graphically “see” the topics you will develop in your paper. With either an outline or a mindmap, see how you might organize your ideas: from greater to lesser, chronologically, or by cause and effect--just have some organizational strategy in mind.

 

Then, after you have organized your topics, begin writing. You will have the following:

 

Introduction

Body

Conclusion

 

The Little Brown Compact Handbook has some helpful information for you. The information above is only a start. However, if you do this much and prepare a draft, then you can revise it to present your best writing.

 

The Writing Process consists of five steps:

Pre-Writing

Drafting

Revising

Editing

Printing

 

You can also get help online at an online writing lab, or you can purchase a book on writing. Of course, there is help available in the UOP Center for Writing Excellence, Tutorials & Guides section. Sometimes, the best way to learn how to write is simply to begin. Then, once you have the "dough," you can shape it and create it into the final form you want.

What is a sentence fragment?

Every sentence needs a subject and a verb. When a sentence is lacking a subject or a verb, it is called a fragment. Fragments become a problem when you begin a long sentence and forget where you are in the sentence, ending up without having included a verb. If you receive a note that indicates you have a sentence fragment, note the placement of your subject and verb.

I can’t remember what a comma splice is. What is a run-on sentence?

Run-on sentences and comma-splice sentences have a common weak point: the connection of two independent clauses. The rule is this: two independent clauses may be connected only by a comma and coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon.

Definitions:

coordinating conjunction--words like and, but, or, and so on

independent clause--Think of it as a sentence. Let's say you have two sentences you want to connect. One is, "I love my mama." The other is, "She loves me." The only way to connect these two is by the combination of a comma and a conjunction:

I love my mama, and she loves me.

OR by a semicolon:

I love my mama; she loves me.

If you connect the two with just and (leaving out the comma), you have a run-on sentence. If you connect the two with just a comma (leaving out and), you have a comma-splice sentence.

I love my mama and she loves me. (Run-on)

I love my mama, she loves me. (comma-splice)

The rules applies only to the connecting of independent clauses. A quick, down-&-dirty test for an "independent clause" is that it could stand by itself and be said out loud without making you appear to be strange. You could say, "I love my mama," and you could say, "She loves me," so both qualify as independent clauses (and, therefore, must comply with the rule). How about, "I love my mama only when she remembers my birthday"? You can say, "I love my mama," and that qualifies as an independent clause. But could you say, "When she remembers my birthday"? If you said that without some sort of background information first, you would get odd looks. In other words, "when she remembers my birthday" is not an independent clause. If a comma is placed before only, you have an error, i.e., "I love my mama only when she remembers my birthday" is correct. Note: This “sounds-right” trick may only work for native speakers of English.

 

How do I write a proposal?

There are no cut-and-dried rules for the setup of a proposal (APA and MLA specifications apply only to the layout of the page, not to what it contains). As general guidelines, however, your proposal should

(1)     point out the problem and whatever led to it and give enough details to convince the reader that the problem is important.

(2)     show the benefits of solving the problem.

(3)     present a solution that is realistic

(4)     recognize possible objections to your solution and disarm them if possible

(5)     motivate the reader by giving reasons why he or she should be the one to work the solution.

My teacher wants a table of contents. What do I do?

This is an interesting question--what do I do when the instructor wants me to include something for which APA has no provision? Remember, of course, that your instructor is the final word in the classroom. Although APA does not specify a table of contents in an essay, the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association has a table of contents, and it looks like this:

1. Content and Organization of a Manuscript / 1

    Quality of Content / 2

        1.01 Designing and Reporting Research / 3

        1.02 Evaluating Content / 3

    Characteristics of Authorship and Articles / 4

        1.03 Authorship / 4

        1.04 Types of Articles / 4

        1.05 Length, Headings, and Tone / 6

    Parts of a Manuscript / 7

        1.06 Title Page / 7

        1.07 Abstract / 8

        1.08 Introduction / 11

2. Expression of Ideas / 23

 

and so on.

 

If your instructor has not given you specifications for the table of contents, this one certainly has the blessing of the APA. You could, of course, write a simpler table of contents. Be sure to use the heading Table of Contents—do not underline the heading.

1. Benefits of Owning Dogs (first main topic)

A. Dogs are energetic and fun (first subtopic)

1. Dogs are playful (first sub-subtopic)

2. Dogs never seem to be tired (second sub-subtopic)

B. Dogs are loyal (second subtopic)

1. Dogs are good companions (first sub-subtopic)

a. Dogs are always waiting for you (first sub-sub-subtopic)

b. Dogs will protect you (second sub-sub-subtopic)

2. Dogs are sensitive (first sub-subtopic)

2. Benefits of Owning Cats (second main topic)

A. Cats are independent (first subtopic)

B. Cats are mellow and quiet (second subtopic

and so on.

Section 2

Formatting Citations and References and Works Cited

What do I do when there is no author?

When there is no author, put the title of the source first in the Reference or Works Cited list. Use an abbreviated form of the title in the citation. Neither APA nor MLA ordinarily use “anonymous.” Use Anonymous only if that word was given as the author's name for the work you are referencing. "Unknown" is not an option.

What do I do when there is no date?

When there is no date, use “n.d.” in the place where the date would ordinarily go. Both APA and MLA use “n.d.”

How do I cite an author who was quoted by my textbook?

Your question is actually about an indirect reference (a reference contained within a different source). It would be best to cite the original source. However, if you do cite the source as an indirect source within the text, it would be cited as follows: 

APA

The text would provide the title and author of the indirect source you are using. In parentheses, you would include the information about the original source, i.e., (cited in Kass, 2001).

The References would contain only the information about the original source, i.e., the Kass source.

MLA

The same thing is true in MLA except that you would cite it in this way: (qtd. In Kass).

The Works Cited would include only the Kass source.

How do I format a dictionary?

APA

American heritage dictionary. (4th ed.). (2000). Retrieved August 3, 2003, from

MLA

“Fresco.” Britannica Online. Vers. 98.2. April 1998. Encyclopaedia Britannica. May 1998 .

What about a reference I find in the Online Dictionary from the Online Collection?

Then you would format it in this way.

APA

Oxford English dictionary. (2003). New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved November 10, 2003, from 2086

MLA

“Dotcom.” Oxford English Dictionary. 2003. New York: Oxford University Press. 10 November 2003. < 2086>.

How do I format the Bible?

APA

American Bible Society. (1999). The Holy Bible. King James Version. New York: American Bible Society.

The New English Bible. (1970). London: Oxford UP and Cambridge UP.

World Bible Publishing. (1999). Pew Holy Bible. New Rev. Large Print Edition. Standard Version. Omaha, NE: Author.

Qur’an?

The citation:

"It is He who has created for you all things that are on earth; moreover His design comprehended the heavens for He gave order and perfection to the seven firmaments: and of all things he has perfected knowledge" from the Qur'an (2:29) (Nooruddin, 1997).

The reference:

Nooruddin, A. (1997). The holy Quran: An English translation (2nd ed.) (A. Mannan & A. R. Omar, Trans.). Washington, D.C.: Noor Foundation-International.

Tanakh?

The citation:

Jewish Publication Society. (1988). Tanakh: The holy scriptures: The new JPS translation according to the traditional Hebrew text. Philadelphia: Author.

How do I format the Bhagavad Gita?

APA

The Bhagavad Gita. (1985). (E. Easwaran, Trans.). Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press.

MLA

The Bhagavad Gita. Trans. E. Easwaran. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press, 1985.

How do I format the Vedas?

APA

Rg Veda. (1951). Der Rig-Veda, Harvard oriental series 33-6. (K.F. Geldner, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work publishered c. 1200 bce)

MLA

Ṛg Veda (c.1200 bc). Trans. K.F. Geldner, Der Rig-Veda, Harvard Oriental Series 33–6, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1951.

How do I format the Tanakh?

APA

Jewish Publication Society. (1988). Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures: The new JPS translation according to the traditional Hebrew text. Philadelphia: Author.

MLA

Jewish Publication Society. Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures: The New JPS Translation According to the Traditional Hebrew Text. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1988.

How do I format a NETg or XtremeLearning source?

APA

NETg. (n.d.). Business ethics: Managerial business ethics. XtremeLearning Course 41072. Retrieved October 13, 2003,         from 

MLA

NETg. Business Ethics: Managerial Business Ethics. XtremeLearning Course 41072. N.d. 13 October 2003       from .

How do I format an e-text?

You need to ask one question: Is this a book made into a custom edition for UOP or it this book put together from two or more other books? If it is a book made into a custom edition for UOP, use the author from the book and format it in the same was as the Bishop book below. If it is a book made into a custom edition for UOP, then UOP is listed as the editor as it is in the Lifespan development and learning book below.

APA

Bishop, L. (Ed.). (2003). Global business culture and organization [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-text]. New York: Lehy Publishing. Retrieved January 21, 2003, from University of Phoenix, Resource, GMGT/510–Global Business Culture and Organization Web site:

Brache, A. P., Chang, R. Y., Morgan, M. W., & Rummler, G. A. (2002). Systems thinking and performance measurement. [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-text]. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Retrieved November 26, 2003, from University of Phoenix, Resource, SYS/540--Systems Thinking and Performance Measurement Web site: https:/ecampus.phoenix.edu/secure/resource/resource.asp

University of Phoenix (Ed.). (2002). Lifespan development and learning. [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-text]. Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing. Retrieved November 26, 2003, from University of Phoenix, Resource, PSYCH/538—Lifespan Development and Learning Web site: resource/resource.asp

MLA

Bishop, Lari, ed. Global Business Culture and Organization. [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-text]. New York: Lehy Publishing, 2002. GMGT 510–Global Business Culture and Organization. Resource. University of Phoenix. 21 January 2003 .

Brache, Alan P., Richard Y. Chang, Mark W. Morgan, and Geary A. Rummler. Systems Thinking and Performance Measurement. [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-text]. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2002. SYS/540--Systems Thinking and Performance Measurement. Resource. University of Phoenix. 29 November 2003 .

University of Phoenix (Ed.). Lifespan Development and Learning. [University of Phoenix Custom Edition e-text]. Boston: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2002. PSYCH/538—Lifespan Development and Learning. Resource. University of Phoenix. 26 November 2003 .

How do I format a Selected Readings article?

APA

Kurzweil, E. (1999, May/June). Who are the Freudians? Society, 36 (4), 67, 5p. Retrieved October 7, 2003, from University of Phoenix, Resource, Selected Readings, PSYCH538--Lifespan Development and Learning Web site:

MLA

Kurzweil, Edward. “Who Are the Freudians?” Society 36.4 (1991, May/June): 67, 5p. PSYCH538—Lifespan Development and Learning Web site: Resource. Selected Readings. University of Phoenix. 7 October 2003 .

How do I format a source from the Opposing Viewpoints database?

APA

Since the original article is published in an online database, in the References, you would include the information from Opposing Viewpoints, as follows:

Kass, L. R. (2001, May 21). Why we should ban cloning now: Preventing a brave new world [Electronic version]. The New Republic, 16-23. Retrieved May 12, 2003, the from Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center database.

MLA

In MLA, you would format it in this way:

Kass, Lawrence, R. “Why We Should Ban Cloning Now: Preventing a Brave New World.” The New Republic 21 May 2001. Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. 2003.

How do I cite a website?

APA

Ben & Jerry’s. (n.d.). Halloween. Retrieved October 30, 2003, from fun_stuff/holidays/halloween

MLA

Ben & Jerry’s. “Halloween”. N.d. 30 October, 2003 .

How do I cite pages for an Internet source?

APA

You cannot produce something not available (page numbers, for example). If the online information contains too many paragraphs to be usable, try orienting the reader to a topic, for example--(NBC, 2003, news broadcast section). The Publication Manual of the APA says, "1. Direct readers as closely as possible to the information being cited--whenever possible, reference specific documents rather than home or menu pages. 2. Provide addresses that work" (p. 269).

MLA

According to MLA, “if the source supplies page numbers, paragraph numbers, screen numbers, or some other kind of section numbers, state their total if the numbering starts over with each part . . . but state the range of the numbers in the part if a single numbering encompasses all the parts” (221). The idea is to lead the reader as closely as possible to the information being cited.

The key to both formats is the URL—Uniform Resource Locator. (See 52 and 53 in the Little, Brown Compact Handbook.)

How do I cite an article from Proquest or Infotrac or any database?

APA

Yoder-Wise, P. S. (2003, September/October). Environmental management: Creating a learning ambiance. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 34 (5), 199. Retrieved October 23, 2003, from the ProQuest database.

MLA

Yoder-Wise, Patricia S. “Environmental Management: Creating a Learning Ambiance. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 34.5, (2003): 199. Proquest Education Journals. October 23, 2003.

How do I cite a government memorandum?

APA

In the case of a source with no author, including legal materials, cite in text the first few words of the reference list entry (usually the title) and the year. Use double quotation marks around the title of an article or chapter and italics for the title of a periodical, book, brochure, or--in this case--a memorandum. If you cannot find the date of the memorandum, use n.d. (no date):

"...and this material was revealed" (Attorney General, n.d.).

 

References

Office of Attorney General. (n.d.). Memorandum from Clyde Bushnell to Kerri Fitzpatrick.

 

MLA

Works Cited

Arizona. Office of Attorney General. Memorandum from Clyde Bushnell to Kerri Fitzpatrick. N.d.

 

How do I format an Indirect Source?

Within text, use the following example to cite an indirect source:

APA

Text: Supporting data appear in a study by Wong (cited in Marconi & Hamblen, 1990).

MLA

Text: Supporting data appear in a study by Wong (qtd. In Marconi & Hamblen, 1990).

In the References or Works Cited, you would cite only the work by Marconi and Hamblen and not the indirect source (that is, Wong).

How do I cite Personal Communication?

APA

Use the following example within the text: 

T. K. Lutes (personal communication, April 18, 2001).

    Since the References at the end of the essay are reserved for sources that can be retrieved by the general reader, a personal communication should be used only within the text and not included in the References.

   

      

MLA

In the text, simply name the person with whom the interview was held. No cite is needed if you include the name within the text:

“. . . an interview with Mr. Lutes, CEO of a major. . . .”

Use the following example for the Works Cited: 

Lutes, T. K. Personal Interview. 18 April, 2001.

I want to include an interview in my paper. How do I cite that?

In both APA and MLA, an interview would be treated as personal communication. See above for personal communication. In the text of the paper, you should indicate with whom you had the interview.

How do I cite my instructor’s lecture?

In both APA and MLA, the instructor’s lecture would be treated as personal communication. See above for personal communication.

How do I cite a chapter in a book that has its own author?

APA

Monrroy, L. (1983). Nursing care of Raza/Latino patients. In M. S. Orque, B. Bloch, & L. Monrroy (Eds.), Ethnic nursing care: A multicultural approach (pp. 115-148). St. Louis, MO: C. V. Mosby.

Herberg, P. (1989). Theoretical foundations of transcultural nursing. In J. S. Boyle & M. M. Andrews (Eds.), Transcultural concepts in nursing care (pp. 3-92). Glenview, IL: Scotts, Foresman/Little, Brown College Division.

MLA

Monrroy, Louise. (1983). “Nursing Care of Raza/Latino Patients.” Ethnic Nursing Care: A Multicultural Approach. Ed. Mary S. Orque, Barry Bloch, and Louise Monrroy. St. Louis, MO: C. V. Mosby, 1983. 115-148.

Herberg, Paula. “Theoretical Foundations of Transcultural Nursing.” Transcultural Concepts in Nursing Care. Ed. Jim S. Boyle and Mary. M. Andrews. Glenview, IL: Scotts, Foresman/Little, Brown College Division, 1989. 3-92.

How do I format a UOP handbook?

APA

University of Phoenix. (2003). Doctor of Management Version 1 Research Handbook.

Phoenix, AZ: Author.

MLA

University of Phoenix. Doctor of Management Version 1 Research Handbook.

Phoenix, AZ: Author, 2004.

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