Bloody Painful: Crime and Punishment



[pic]Elizabethan England

Everyday Life

Bloody Painful: Crime and Punishment in Elizabethan England

Though many of today's crimes may be similar to those in Elizabethan England, the methods of punishment have definitely changed a lot. Most of the punishments of the Elizabethan period would be deemed cruel and unusual by today's standards. The death penalty can no longer be enacted in cases of theft or highway robbery. The following paragraphs will describe the various instruments of punishment (torture) of the period.

One out of the ordinary punishment of the Elizabethan Era was the drunkard's cloak. It was a punishment for public drunkenness; the name of it is somewhat misleading. The flaw in the name comes from the fact that the cloak is less a cloak and more a barrel. The drunk was forced to don a barrel and wander through town while the villagers jeer at him. Holes were cut in the barrel for the person's hands and head, causing it to become like a heavy, awkward shirt.

Another weird punishment was the brank, also known as the bride's scold. The brank was a punishment enacted on women who gossiped or spoke too freely. It was a large iron framework placed on the head of the offender, forming a type of cage. There was a metal strip on the brank that fit into the mouth and was either sharpened to a point or covered with spikes so that any movement of the tongue was certain to cause severe injuries to the mouth. The woman was then led by a city official through the streets of town by a chain, then usually tied to a whipping post or pillory to stand in view of the cruel and verbally abusive public.

Yet another punishment for criminals was the pillory. The pillory was a wooden post with a wooden block on top with holes in it for the person's hands and head to be placed in. The heads and hands were then locked into place while the person was forced to stand in public display for the decided sentence. In some cases the pillory was combined with a whipping post and stocks to make a one stop, public punishment device.

Also among the list of Elizabethan punishment methods was the stocks. The stocks were similar to the pillory in that a part of the body was locked between two slabs of wood, but in the case of the stocks the feet were locked in the device instead of the hands and feet. The stocks were a proposed method of punishment for drunkenness in a 1605 Act. The offender would be fined to five shillings or six hours in the stocks. The Act was approved by King James I in 1623. The stocks were often used as a method of holding a criminal until a more severe sentence could be decided and carried out.

One punishment about which there is not much to say is the whipping post. It was basically what the name says, a wooden post that the person was strapped to and whipped for the prescribed number of times. This correctional method was instituted during the reign of Henry VIII and then continued through the time of Queen Elizabeth.

One more odd punishment worth mentioning was the ducking stool. Like the brank, it was a punishment for women whose speech was considered too brash and brazen or too free. The ducking stool was a wooden chair attached to a large lever system. The lever allowed the chair to be raised or lowered without the tipping of the chair, making it parallel to the ground at all times. The chair was then lowered into the water, dunking the loose tongued woman under the water. Based on the level of the offense and the cruelty of the deciding party the woman could be "ducked" any number of times, and in some cases of extreme measures, the woman could drown from the time spent under water. Some of the ducking stools were mobile and could be taken to the water's edge at the necessary time, while others were fixed into place along the coast of the water as a grim reminder to the women of the town of what free speaking could lead to.

One tool that was used as punishment was the amputation saw. Much more cruel than the axe, the saw was slower and more painful than the relative quickness of the axe blade.

Villagers of the period could be considered twisted individuals because of the crowds of people that gathered for the public punishments and executions. The people of the period relished the public hangings, and the persons to be hanged were often falsely accused of treason, which called for them to be publicly disemboweled and then cut into quartered sections to be left on display after the person's death.

In conclusion, the punishments of days past were much more cruel than would be allowed today. Private executions have replaced the public hangings and disembowelments. People are no longer executed for minor crimes like theft, and axes are no longer used to administer punishments. There are now holding cells for criminals awaiting trial instead of stocks. People of authority have gotten much nicer.

Crime and Punishment

Punishments have evolved in many ways during the past four centuries. During the Elizabethan time, crimes of treason and offenses against the state were treated with the same severity that murder and rape are today. During the sixteenth century, certain nicknames were placed upon offenders. Priggers of prancers was a code name for horse thieves, for example.

An outlaw was often taken to jail (or to his hanging, for that matter) by being strapped to the saddle of a rider, which made him have to run at full speed the entire trip (with occasional cantering to catch his breath). In common English towns, people would pay the turnkey two pence for a chance to jeer at whoever was on display. Often, a victim would be in the audience to identify him. On the other side of the spectrum, however, clergymen often were present to pray with the accused.

The punishment depended on the crime committed, and the price was usually a painful one. Offenses such as manslaughter, robbery, rape, piracy, and capital crimes entitled one to hanging, usually in the town square. Shockingly enough, if one dared to commit a crime against the state, he would be taken from prison on a sled or hurdle, hanged until half-dead, then taken down and quartered alive.

Nobility found guilty of treason by their peers lost their heads over it, literally. A woman found guilty of poisoning her husband was burned alive. A cook who poisoned his customers was boiled to death in a cauldron of water or lead. Further more, a servant who killed his master would surely be executed for petty treason.

The interesting thing about punishments in the Elizabethan days was that all crimes were specifically punished. For example, a correcting scold or ducking stool, invented around 1597 , was generally used for women of bad repute as a cleansing process. It consisted of a chair attached to a pole, like a teeter totter, and hung over a body of water. The criminal would sit on the chair and be dunked into the water repeatedly.

The Brank, also known as the gossip's bridle, was a metal mask placed on a woman's head. Attached to it was a sharpened mouthpiece, sometimes covered with spikes, placed on the inside of her mouth. If the woman attempted to speak she would receive a painful repercussion on the tongue.

The pillory, usually placed in the middle of the market, was a T shaped contraption with holes for the hands in the crossbar of the T. The person being punished would have to stand in the device in the middle of the market to be ridiculed by passersby. A baker guilty of default of weight, a butcher guilty of exposing unwholesome meat, and forgerers got the pillory.

Perhaps the worst thing about the punishments in the Elizabethan days were the physical and social conditions. When a person was being punished, it usually entailed an immense amount of embarrassment. Criminals weren't dealt with in private, they were displayed in the middle of the marketplace for all the townspeople to see. Instead of the juries, lawyers, and partisan judges of today, those convicted of crimes were subject to "no holds barred" consequences. Criminals were kept in jail for extended periods of time, and conditions inside were horrendous, with mice and rats becoming the prisoner's roommates. Overall, conditions during modern times are very humane when compared to those of the Elizabethan days

Torture and Punishment in Elizabethan Times

Torture is the use of physical or mental pain, often to obtain information, to punish a person, or to control the members of a group to which the tortured person belongs. During the Elizabethan times crimes were treated as we would treat a murder today. Stretching, burning, beating the body, and suffocating a person with water were the most common ways to torture a person in the Elizabethan times.

The purpose of torture was to break the will of the victim and to dehumanize him or her. The intent was also to punish, obtain information, extract a confession from the victim or a third party, or to intimidate the victim and others.

Torture has been used for at least 2,000 years and has been widespread. Early Greek and Roman laws specified that only slaves could be tortured, but soon freemen could be tortured in cases of treason. The right to torture slaves was abolished in Roman law in AD 240. In the Middle Ages, torture was included in proceedings of the Catholic Church, which legally employed torture to obtain confessions.

It was during the times of the Tudors that the use of torture reached its height in England. Under Henry VIII, torture was frequently used. When Edward and Mary were on the throne, torture wasn't used as much. However, when Elizabeth took the throne, torture was used more than in any other period of history. Queen Elizabeth thought that treason was one of the worst crimes that could be committed, and the majority of incidents of torture were for reasons of high treason. Lords and high officials were exempted, and woman were rarely put through torture.

The punishment for poisoning during this period was to be boiled to death. Mutilation and branding were also common. People often had their right hand cut off if they were caught stealing, and on certain occasions eyes were plucked out with hot pinchers and fingers were torn off.

Some minor cruelties included the pillory, the stocks, the finger pillory, the ducking stool, and the ranks. The dunking stool was a stool or chair in which a woman who had been accused of adultery or other crimes would be repeatedly dunked under water until pronounced dead.

The pillory was another device that was commonly used. There were a couple of different forms of the pillory. One is still known of today. The pillory was a frame in the shape of a T, usually placed in the center of the town. The accused would place his/her hands in the cross bar of the T with his/her head sticking out of a hole at the top. The accused then had to stay in the pillory for an extremely long time and would be harassed by everyone that crossed his/her path.

Another form of the pillory that isn't as widely known was for the feet. This device had holes through which the toes were forced; then the toes were crushed with a hammer and wedge. This form of pillory had much less emotional pain, but the excruciating physical pain was much more enduring.

The harsher the crime committed, the more horrendous the punishment during this time. A person accused of manslaughter, rape, or robbery, might find himself trapped in cages hung up in public places where others could observe his slow death. Right before being pronounced dead, he was taken down and quartered until the pain finally killed him.

Nowadays these torture devices seem cruel and heartless, but in the sixteenth century cruel punishment was a normal everyday thing. Under the Tudors, torture flourished throughout England. The result was a country living in fear of being the next victims.

Popular Amusements and Entertainment

Long before the invention of modern technologies, such as radios and televisions, CD's and videos, video games and the internet, the Elizabethans created an elaborate system of activities and events to keep themselves entertained. Although there was work to be done, leisure was an important part of the lives of the English people during the Elizabethan Age. Most of this leisure came either after church on Sundays or on the holidays. Much has been written about the Elizabethan people: "...they were expressive and eloquent, ostentanious and pleasure-loving, not industrious or hardworking, but bold and self-confident, markedly fearless of death, mercurial and inconsistent, loving change, above all, passionate" (Rowse 353).

During the Elizabethan Age there was great cultural achievement, particularly in the area of music and drama. In that time, musical literacy was expected in the upper class of society. Many Elizabethans made their own music. The laborers would sing while they worked, and the townspeople would sing or play music after meals. The lute, virginal, viola, recorder, bagpipe and the fiddle were favored instruments of that time. A popular form of entertainment in the countryside was the ringing of church bells. Elizabethans also loved to hear music. Since there was no access to a recording studio, the music had to be performed. In the major towns, official musicians, better known as Waits, gave free public concerts. The wealthy people hired musicians to play during dinner.

Dancing was also a popular activity. The dances were mostly performed by couples. This was one of the best opportunities for interaction between married people. Dancing varied according to social class. Dancing at court and dancing in villages were two separate things. The upper class favored courtly dances. Some of the court dances included the Brawl, the Volte and the Pavane. Morris dancing, which included the wearing of bells, was performed as part of the summer festivals. Ordinary people were more likely to do traditional "country" dances. These dances included the jig, the dump, the hay and the trenchmore. Some of the dances that were performed had foreign names, usually French or Italian. The Pavane, Cassamezzo, Lavolta, Coranto and the Galliard were just a few. Dancing in the Elizabethan Age was considered "a wholesome recreation of the mind and also an exercise of the body" (Davis 240).

In the Elizabethan Age drama was at the high peak of its cultural achievement for all time. There were a variety of plays including action, humor, violence, and plays with musical interludes. This period witnessed the first entertainment industry, especially in theater. Although the first performances were done in the courtyards of large inns, the very first public theater in London was built in 1576. Theaters were mostly to be found in London, near the court. However, plays were attended by all the people, with the audience reflecting society from the lowest to the highest levels. A constant demand for entertainment led London companies to take minor performances, like folk players, puppeteers, and acrobats, on the road. The plague often interrupted the run plays and even closed down theaters, making road performances necessary.

Elizabethan theater was the work of a few men: proprietors, actors, playwrights and workmen. The actors creating theater often received rewards, became respectable and would slowly move up in social standing. Some of the brilliant actors were the Burbages (James, Richard and Cuthbert), Philip Henstoe and Edward Alleyn. The brilliant playwrights included Christopher Marlow, William Shakespeare, and Ben Johnson. The rise, maturity and decline of Elizabethan Theater coincided with Shakespeare's dramatic career. By the year of Shakespeare's death, there was a transition from plays to literature. Elizabethan drama owed its strength and richness to the fusion of many elements. It was a mirror of the whole society.

Sports played a major role in the leisure time of the Elizabethan Age. Some of the indoor games included dice, chess, checkers and a variety of card games. The card games included primero, trump, gleek, new cut and many others. If the cards and dice were too passive for the men, wrestling was an alternative for them. With wrestling, however, came injuries like broken ribs, internal injuries, broken necks and more.

England is so far north that in the midsummer there was plenty of light late into the evening. This gave the people more time to spend outside after their work was done. Some of the outdoor games included golf, horse racing, shovel-board, sliding, swimming, fishing, hunting, fencing, dueling and cricket. In that time it was not tolerable for a man to be unskilled at tennis, bowling, archery and hunting. Tennis was a respectable sport which could be played with either a racket or hand. Bowling and tennis games were not played far from home. While the upper class enjoyed tennis, the common folk preferred football. If a field could not be found, the village street was used. All levels of society enjoyed the sport of hunting. Horses, dogs and hawks were kept and trained for hunting deer, rabbits and other wildlife.

Another major part of the Elizabethan lifestyle had to do with feasts and festivals. Every season of the year had special days that drew the people together to celebrate. In the spring, Shrove Tuesday was one of the festivals observed in the Lenten season. Feasts and a carnival were held and bell ringing, masking, gaming, and begging were among the activities. One of the greater festivals of the year was held at Easter time. The Mayday celebration consisted of the decorating of the maypole and dancing around it. In the summer, bonfires were burned and dances were held to celebrate Midsummer's Eve on June 24. Also in June, St. John the Baptist's Festival was an important civic occasion. In the fall, harvest festivals were held. On All Hallow's Eve, Elizabethans celebrated by ducking for apples, dancing and bell ringing. The winter holidays began with Christmas, ran through New Year's Eve and ended on the Twelfth Night, January 5. These holidays included gifts, bonfires, wassail, yule logs, music and jollity.

From the beginning to the end of each year, Elizabethans found ways to keep themselves entertained. They were a creative group of people who pursued leisure activities with great passion.

Elizabethan Sports

Elizabethan England embraced many different customs and cultures. The customs that had the greatest effect on the rest of the world were the games of war that consumed spare time. Games of war varied from hunting, with hawks or dogs , to equestrian activities, including tournament jousts and tilts. Most of the sports of the Elizabethan era were carried over from the Medieval period.

Hunting was a favorite pastime for people, especially rich people. Queen Elizabeth herself loved to hunt. The hunt allowed the rich nobles to show off their fine horses, hawks, clothing, and weapons. Horses were shown off by their breeding, most commonly by nobles, and ranked by endurance, speed, beauty, and strength. From the hunting rounds the wealthy would often establish a breeding tree of some sort in an attempt to create the perfect breed.

Many clothing fashions were established during the hunting trips. Often a noble would arrive garbed in a new outfit which the wealthy and under class surrounding the hunt would emulate, thus spreading the style. New weaponry also appeared at such events. One such case was the adapted new arrow head that was eventually used to fell knights, due to its armor-piercing capabilities.

Hawking, otherwise known as falconry, was the sport of royalty. It was said that this was a reference to the stateliness of the birds, but it was a royal sport mainly because commoners could not afford to train the birds. They could not afford any other aspect of the sport, for that matter. The eagle was a bird reserved solely for the King and Queen, but there were no other restrictions placed upon the birds species. As was the case with the horses, there was a slight attempt to breed hawks, but interaction primarily fell upon trading, rather than breeding.

Jousting was a popular sport that involved running at an opponent with a lance and trying to knock him off his horse. Shields and armor were involved, of course. Jousting tournaments were held for the rich; they were forbidden to common folk. Jousting, like any other sport, was another excuse for the rich to show off their armor, clothes and animals. Preparation for the joust involved the quintain, which properly knocked a person off their horse if the person didn't hit the quintain just right.

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Another tournament sport was archery. Outside of being a tournament sport, archery involved a skill that was used in battle. Since the common people were the most numerous in battle, the commoners participated in the sport as well. The shaft of the arrow was generally made out of wood, since metal would be too heavy. The head of the arrow was made out of iron. Archers have always held a very important place in military life. During Henry V's reign in the middle ages, 6,000 English soldiers shot down 85,000 French soldiers at Agincourt, a famous battle depicted in William Shakespeare's Henry V.

Sports and games of war took a place of importance in the society of Elizabethan England. Tournaments, whether archery or jousting, were mainly events for the rich to show off their possessions. Hunting was a favorite pastime of high society. The practical uses of Elizabethan sports were teaching and practicing skills that could be used for battle or survival.

 

Elizabethan Entertainments and Pastimes

The most popular of Elizabethan entertainments and pastimes included the arts, such as literature, theater, and music, as well as sports.

The public theatre, sometimes called the most genuine form of entertainment during this period, came to London around 1576. The first theatre was built outside the city limits to avoid strict city regulations.

The earliest theatres resembled the innyards from which they had evolved. The theatres were built around courtyards, with three-story galleries facing the stage. People from every social class, from the workers to the aristocrats, attended the theatre. The aristocrats sat in the galleries, while the commoners stood on the ground around the stage, with a few young men often sitting on the stage. The most popular playwrights of the era were Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare.

Another important form of public entertainment was literature. Elizabethan writers produced all kinds of texts, such as technical works, political and religious tracts, ballads, almanacs, and histories. People were able to buy a broadside or a pamphlet for a penny, making the pleasure of reading affordable to almost everyone.

During this time period, reading was a more public activity than it is today. People sometimes held readings where the latest works were read aloud.

Elizabethans also loved to listen to music, which, of course, was always performed live. For the most part, people made their own music. Laborers and craftsmen often sang while they worked, common people sang after a meal, and the well-bred people of society often played or sang a piece by rote during recitals.

Dancing, another popular activity, provided a great opportunity for interaction between unmarried people. The preferred type of dancing varied according to social class, with those of higher social position favoring the courtly dances imported from Italy and other European countries, and the ordinary people preferring "country" dances. The European courtly dances were mostly performed by couples and involved intricate and subtle footwork, while the English country dances were danced by couples in round, square, or rectangular sets with much simpler form and footwork. Queen Elizabeth herself encouraged country dances among the aristocracy.

In addition to social dances, there were performances and ritual dances . One favorite was Morris dancing, characterizing by the wearing of bells.

Sports were regulated by the government. Those of rank were expected to take part because sporting events trained men for war, whereas the laborers had to work six days a week and could not participate. On Sundays, the working class often practiced archery.

Hunting was also very popular with noblemen and gentlemen. The animals that were hunted the most were the stag or buck, and when the prey was felled, it was always eaten.

During mid-winter, when stag could not be hunted, the Royals and their nobles engaged in hawking. Falcons were trained for this sport, and laws were passed to punish any poacher who stole their eggs. Poaching by night was a much more serious offense than poaching by day. Henry VII, the first Tudor monarch, made unauthorized hunting in private forests a felony punishable by death if the offense was committed at night.

The sports most popular among the commoners were football and hurling. Football was much rougher in the Tudor times than it is today, with all sorts of injuries ranging from minor to fatal. There were no limits to the number of players, and no lines. Football was called "a friendly game of fight."

Hurling, which was played in two different versions, was as dangerous as football. The first form was played with a box ball. There were fifteen to thirty players per side, and the object of the game was to pick up the ball and run it through to the goal, passing the ball to teammates mates if tackled. This game was a forerunner of modern rugby.

The second style was played with wooden sticks and a ball. The ball was hit through the air into a goal, in a manner resembling modern-day hockey.

Hairstyles of the Elizabethan Period

Hairstyle was an important issue for the men and women of the Elizabethan time. Both sexes took pride and joy in making their hair look as fabulous as the next person's. The people of this time spent hours upon hours waiting in line to receive splendid hair-dos. Cost was not an issue with the wealthy people of this time. They would do almost anything to get the look that they wanted. They went through great extremes to change their hairstyles when fads came and went.

During the Elizabethan period men took as much pride in their hair as the women did. They would spend whole days sitting in the barber shop listening to music and talking to one another. The Elizabethan barber stiffened, starched, powdered, perfumed, waxed, and dyed the hair a fashionable red. The hair was worn shoulder length and curled with hot irons, which were then called "love locks." When the men of this time went bald, they depended upon wigs to help them keep up the latest fashion. The wigs worn at his time were usually a fashionable white or yellow color.

The men of this time were so facial hair-conscious that they spent a lot of money on keeping their beards trimmed to fit the fashion. Long beards needed little care except for occasional brushing. The short beards called for a hairdresser. The beards could be cut pointed, square, round, oblong, or T-shaped. In the daytime men brushed the beard to keep it in tip-top shape, and at night they often encased the beard in a special wooden press. Beards were considered to be attractive.

The women of the Elizabethan Age went through great extremes to achieve the look that was in. They dyed their hair blonde, which was the favorite hue. Women spent whole days sitting in the sun because they believed that the sun added a golden glint. Women who bleached their hair dried it from the terrace tops of their houses. When dying their hair, women wore hats without the crowns and with a brim, over which the hair was spread. The brim protected the wearer from the sun. The women also wore quantities of false hair, which was usually made from peasants' hair or formed by white and yellow silk. All of these things women did to their hair were hotly condemned, and some women were denounced for "ungodly exploitation" of themselves.

The women wore many accessories in their hair. The most popular of all accessories was the hair net. Women wore thread nets of silk, but the poor women who also wanted to keep up fashion wore nets made of crepe. Sometimes the hair was worn loose, filling in the pouch-like bag. The nets were then decorated with gold trimmings and jewels. Hairpins and hair combs were added to the net to give the hair a better look. Pointed hats were sometimes worn over the hair nets to emphasize the look.

The people of this time were very hair-conscious. Their hair was their most prized possession. With their high ranking, wealth, and elaborate clothing, it was demanded that their hairstyles were elaborate as well. Many people of the Elizabethan Age were very fashionable and splendid.

Men's Fashion during the Elizabethan Period

In the Elizabethan period, clothing was very different from the contemporary styles of Eddie Bauer. It was not at all uncommon for men to wear tights, make-up oreven jewelry.

A trend called "slashing" started in Italy spread through the rest of Europe very quickly. This trend was displayed by cutting fine slits in the outer wear and pulling an undergarment of a contrasting color through. Doing so was an excellent opportunity to show how resourceful an individual was. Fine linens were very difficult to obtain. This custom was believed to have been started by mercenary soldiers who wore good clothes under their rags.

Ornamentation was a widespread trend of the time, as well. Even though the clothing could not be washed, soap was beginning to be produced in London in 1524. It was expensive and could not be used with fine cloths such as silk.

The bills of laundering must have reached their peak in 1550 when people began to wear ruffs. A ruff is a natural development of the frill formed by the drawstrings that fastened men's shirts at the neck. Some ruffs were so extravagant that they were a foot deep. The French King Henry III wore a ruff so neatly folded with an ironing stick that it had eighteen yards of linen. Ruffs were known to be so inconvenient that a royal lady used a spoon with a handle two feet long to eat a bowl of soup.

In England, ruffs were usually about eight inches wide and were open in front. The stiffness of ruffs increased when starching was introduced by the wife of queen Elizabeth's Dutch coachman, Mrs. Dingham. Mrs. Dingham made starching a little more widespread by teaching people how to do it for a small amount of currency. Men and women wore ruffs to symbolize their higher social class.

There were problems in being so proper, and the first to realize this was Cardinal Richelieu of France. He tried to put a halt to all the reckless extravagance of court functions. The clothing just made people jealous. All the snazzy dressers would go to parties and would not be able to move because the shirts were too stiff or the gems were too heavy.

Boots were very fanciful in the seventeenth century. Long boots, long enough to reach the thigh, were made of fine leather and decorated with fringed tops, ruffles and jeweled buckles. Some of these boots were turned up at the toe to such an extent that it was almost impossible to walk in them. The quality of the leather made the peasants mad because they felt that this was a waste of materials on the rich.

For all the long dresses, ruffled collars, and long hair, men of this period were known for their quick tempers and fierce sense of honor. As has been said,"Hearts were bold and men were men." To the modern eye, the clothing may seem feminine; however, we usually fail to mention the sword and rapier hanging from men's belts at this time.

Children of both sexes wore dresses. The counterpart to todays man's suit consisted of "breeches," which were kind of like long underwear. Today something like this worn to be exposed would be considered a little too revealing for most men.

Dress of this time was considered an art. People of the Elizabethan period realized this and indulged themselves when their means permitted it. People of the time probably received sweaters from their grandmothers for Christmas, as well. Clothing was not the chief concern, of course, so maybe that's why men wore dresses.

Women's Fashions of the Elizabethan Period

In the Elizabethan day the goal of women's fashion was to show the woman's status in society and make her as attractive as possible. Women wanted as small and petite waist as possible, so they did anything to make their waists small or appear smaller than the actual size. Women in the Elizabethan days wore ruffles to show status in society. Sleeves of women's gowns had a certain appearance of being puffy.

It was not only in the colors, or the lack of them, that the new fashions differed from those of the preceding generation. Bombast was the stuffing used in doublets and hose in order to swell them out, eliminating all folds and creases. It consisted of rags, flock, horsehair, cotton, or even bran, although bran sometimes led to disaster, since all the bran ran out if the clothes got torn. The bombasting of the doublet over the chest and the stuffing out of breeches naturally made the waist seem smaller, and the effect was increased by the use of tight-lacing. The short, bombasted breeches, especially in the form of trunk hose, exposed a considerable amount of leg, and the introduction of knitting made it possible for leg coverings to fit the limbs more neatly than they had done before.

There was a growth in the ruffle in the 1500's. A simple string was drawn through the upper edge of the shirt to form a ruffle. The ruffle was an example of the "hierarchical" element in dress. When women wore them, they always had another element to be noted. This was the "Seduction Principle," as it has been called, an attempt to exploit the wearer's charms as a woman. For example, women wore a ruffle in order to show their status in society. The Elizabethan compromise was to open the ruffle in front to expose the bosom, and to allow the ruffle to rise in gauze wings at the back of the head. This fashion can be seen quite clearly in portraits of Queen Elizabeth.

  In Elizabethan times, women's fashion had a new style for sleeves in gowns. The sleeves became a complicated collection of small pieces held together with jeweled fasteners. The under-sleeve was made in vast quantities of fabric, which projected a puffy style.

Women in the Elizabethan time had many different ways of showing their fashion styles. Elements such as puffy sleeves, tight-fitting bodices of dresses, and ruffles showed status in society. The women of Elizabethan times used different types of clothing to make themselves appear more petite than they actually were.

Fashions: Women and Men

The Elizabethan age brought about a great development of culture in sixteenth century England. One way this great development of culture came about is through fashion and costume. Fashion in the Elizabethan age was a way of expressing one's self: the fashion truly helped to reveal the general culture of the period.

In the early stages of the Elizabethan era women generally wore clothes that covered them completely. The bodice or the top part of the gown was generally tight fitting with square shoulders. The yoke was usually of a dark color, and there was often some type of high collar. The collar would extend all the way to the chin and usually would ruffle at the top.

The sleeves were usually full from the shoulder to the elbow and then more tight and form-fitting from the elbow to the wrist. At the wrist the sleeves would open wide into a large ruffle.

The gown usually contained a v-shaped point at the waistline and then expanded into a sort of funnel shape reaching the ground. The shoes the women wore in this beginning period were not important because the gown reached to the floor; the shoes most often were not seen. As for jewelry, many woman in this period wore large pendants of gold around their necks. Earrings were not very common except among the very sophisticated, who would wear pearls.

The headgear of the beginning of the Elizabethan period was an English version of the French hood. This "hood" was placed near the back of the head and was worn with a stiff base that was very close fitting. Many women in this period also opted for small-jeweled caps decorated with jewels, pearls, or lace.

As the period went on, the women's style of dress saw a few changes. The bodice of a dress was still tight-fitting, but instead of a v-shaped waistline, the bodice was cut in a straight line around the hips. The sleeves also changed. Instead of ruffling between the shoulder and the elbow, they were tight-fitting all the way down to the wrist. The skirt became heavily embroidered, yet still remained long enough to drag the ground.

The men's style of clothing was also very distinct during the beginning of this great period. The men wore embroidered vest-like shirts called jerkins, which had square shoulders and buttons down the front. The sleeves were often decorated and loose- fitting all the way to the wrists. The pants were loose-fitting and extended to about three to four inches above the knee. They were padded with horse-hair and slashed in order to show the knitted silk stockings underneath.

The shoes of the men were generally made with the finest of leather. They contained a small leather heel and were often decorated with slashes. The headgear was either a small flat hat made of velvet or silk or a tall crown hat that was covered by fine fabric or feathers. Some of the more distinguished men wore small capes with big-edged collars.

As the period continued, so did the development of men's fashion in this culture. Stockings began to be replaced by garters, and silk stockings were replaced by horse hair trunk hose. The most distinguished men began to wear crowned beaver hats and wide cloaks held by a chain and a crucifix. The tailored stockings were plain. The pumps had rounded toes and closed at the ankles. The bonnet was trimmed around the edged and decorated with a plume on one side. The men also began to carry short perfumed gloves.

There really isn't much to be said about the fashion of children in this age. They usually wore smaller versions of the adult fashions, and even the infant girls were required to wear long gowns. The boys generally wore miniature versions of clothing worn by the men. Their doublets and shirts had slashes in them, and they wore silk stockings of color underneath. The girls generally wore long braids in their hair; the braids would either be tied with ribbon or made into a crown.

Throughout the Elizabethan period there was a great development of culture in England. The influences of this culture can be seen through the fashion and costume of the sixteenth century English people.

Elizabethan Food and Drink

Food and drink were a major part of life in Elizabethan times. People had three main meals per day. Breakfast was the first and most important meal of their day. The people of this time ate a variety of different foods and had many creative ways of preparing them. The people also had distinct table manners.

In eating breakfast, many people wanted a fine diet. Instead of eating normal bread, many ate manchets. Manchet was a round loaf which weighed about six pounds after it was cooked. It was browner than normal bread. When bread was eaten in the morning, butter was used to flavor it so that the bread was not so boring. Children often ate butter in Lent. However, adults who kept the fast strictly avoided butter during this time. Eggs were also eaten at breakfast. They were eaten "sunny side up" or beaten to make scrambled eggs. They were also mixed with bread crumbs to fry things such as fish. Another popular food for breakfast was pancakes, which were made from flour and egg batter. They were a treat for Sunday mornings. Elizabethans usually put jams such as grape, strawberry, and sometimes powdered sugar on them for a sweeter taste. Breakfast, the hardiest of all their meals, gave a healthy start to their day.

In earlier times, water was the main beverage. However, as farmers became more important, other drinks came along also. Milk was known for building healthy bones and giving a refreshing taste after a dessert. Farmers got milk from cows and she-goats. Other sources of liquid were a part of stews and potages. Other beverages were created from a wine base.

A famous hot wine recipe from this time is as follows:

1/2 put (275 ml) water

11/2 (850 ml) white wine

8 oz (225 g) ground almonds

1/2 tsp (2.5 ml) ground ginger

1 tsp (5 ml) clear honey or white sugar

A good pinch of salt

A good pinch of Powdered Saffron or a few drops of yellow food coloring.

Bring the water and wine to a boil in a sauce pan. Put in the almonds and add the ginger, honey, or sugar and salt. Stir in the saffron or food coloring, and leave off the heat to stand for 15-30 minutes. Bring back to a boil, and serve very hot, in small heat proof bowls.

Another popular wine base drink was a caudle, a hot drink thickened with eggs and drunk at breakfast or at bedtime.

There were many differences between the meals of the higher and lower classes. Dinner was the most important meal for any class and came usually from 10:00 a.m. till noon. Ploughmen were well-scrubbed and usually ate at bare tables. Country table manners were not the daintiest. In a well-to-do household, however, a greater ceremony was observed. There was a cloth placed upon the table. Next, a trencher, a napkin, and a spoon were set at every place. Elizabethans loved fine linens.

An Elizabethan dinner usually consisted of several kinds of fish, half a dozen different kinds of game, venison, various salads, vegetables, sweet meats, and fruits. Rich men usually served food that suited them. Most had noted French chefs to prepare their meals. Many had a very moderate diet. Guests at a pleasant dinner table were offered oysters with brown bread, salt, pepper, and vinegar.

A pepper box and a silver chafing dish were among the table accessories. The wine was kept cool and fresh in a copper tub full of water. Each time a guest handed back an empty glass or goblet it was rinsed in a wooden tub before being refilled.

Guests were able to choose between roast beef, powder (salted) beef, veal and a leg of mutton with a "galandine sauce." There was often a turkey, boiled capon, a hen boiled with leeks, partridge, pheasants, larks, quails, snipes, and woodcock, in addition to the other foods. Salmon, sole, turbot, and whiting, with lobster, crayfish, and shrimps, were set before dinner guests. Young rabbits, leverets, and marrow on toast tempted those who did not care for the gross meats. Artichokes, turnips, green peas, cucumbers and olives were provided as vegetables. Attractive salads, including one of violet buds, were also served as vegetables. Finally, the host or hostess would usually offer guests quince pie, tart of almonds and various fruit tarts. They would also be offered several kinds of cheese and desserts, including strawberries and cream.

The midday meal in a good citizen's home consisted of certain coarser foods like sausage, cabbage (usually badly cooked) and porridge for the children. It was customary to spend two to three hours over this chief meal of the day. The nobility, gentleman, and merchant men commonly sat at the board till 2:00 or 3:00 in the afternoon. Country fare was given with fat capon or plenty of beef and mutton. They also recieved a cup of wine or a beer. They were also given a napkin to wipe their lips. In the holiday season, rich and poor alike indulged in leisure time and feasting.

People in the middle and lower classes ate lots of potages and stews. They also had fish and vegetables at dinner. Behind the first cooked potages was the tradition of food processing. This consisted of soaking roots, leaves, seeds, nuts, and berries in cold water. They were soaked several hours in order to soften them, which made them easier to digest.

Next, the pot boiler method was used for cooking meat in water to make it more tender. Potage was made primarily from cereals and large weed seeds, which were roughly ground into bits and pieces.

Altogether there were many things to eat during this period. Overall the diet was much healthier than what many people eat now. During the holiday seasons everyone, including farmers and laborers, celebrated in holiday feasts.

The two main parts of a normal diet in the Elizabethan England time were bread and meat. Bread was the most important component of their diets. The wealthy people ate manchet, a loaf made of wheat flour. In the country districts, a lot of rye and barley bread were eaten.

Another important component of an average diet was meat. England had been noted for its meats and means of preparing them. The English had a way of making tainted meats edible. First, a person would remove the bones from the meat. Then, they would wrap it in an old, coarse cloth. After it was wrapped, they would bury it at least three feet underground. It was left underground from twelve to twenty hours. When the meat was dug up, they found it sweet enough to eat. They also used a lot of spices to add flavor to the unrefrigerated meat. Soaking the meat in vinegar and adding sauces also flavored the meat.

One particular meat dish was Polonian Sawsedge, usually eaten from November to February, when fresh meat was scarce. The dish was made from the fore part of a one or two year old tame boar. It was a very heavily spiced dish. The recipe is as follows:

Platt's Recipe for Polonian Sawsedge

"Take the fillers of a hog; chop them very small with a handful of red sage: season it hot with ginger and pepper, and then put it in a great sheep's gut; then let it lie three nights in brine; then boil it and hang it up in a chimney where fire is usually kept; and these sawsedges will last a whole yeere. They are good for sallades or to garnish boiled meats, or to make one rellish a cup of wine."

In Elizabethan times, the word "herb" stood for all things that were green. This included things from grasses to trees. One popular vegetable of the time was turnips, which were usually either boiled or roasted. The poor, however, ate them raw. Artichokes were eaten raw with added salt and pepper. Aaparagus, which was known as "sperage" during this time, was boiled and eaten with salt, oil, and vinegar. The sweet potato, a popular dish, was roasted in ashes, sopped in wine, or topped with oil and vinegar. Sometimes, sweet potatoes were even boiled with prunes for flavor. Regular potatoes were also either boiled and roasted.

The cooking techniques related to the kitchens of the landowners. There was invariably some kind of fresh meat to replace the preserved foods on which lesser households depended in winter and spring. Fresh or salted ingredients were used according to availability. Cooks used a great deal more than a pinch of pepper, ginger, cinnamon and saffron due to the starchy ingredients and creamy sauces. Many techniques and materials solved contemporary food preparation problems.

Texture was important because of the limited number of eating tools used. Most people carried a general-purpose dagger-shaped knife and spoons. The dinner fork was an oddity until the 18th century. People tried inventing different eating tools but failed. A few eccentrics used a fork for dining, but most continued to eat with their fingers. Supposedly, it was Henry VIII who introduced the fork into England. In some places, such as the Navy, knives and forks were regarded as being prejudicial to discipline and manliness.

The absence of the table fork would have had few repercussions on table manners, had it not been for the way in which the service of food was organized. Very high ranked men had their own dishes, plates, and drinking cups. No napkins were used at this time. Men had to remember to clean their hands before their meal and keep them clean during the meal. Other table manners were not to blow one's nose with the fingers and not scratch at any anatomical parts at the table. Poking at the meat or any dish was considered unpleasant and annoying to others. When dinner guest were finished with the meal, the bones were thrown on the floor, not on the plate. This was a custom in elevated households. Finally, to finish the meal right, a delicate burp was acceptable. Whether one was a member of the high or low class, manners were the same for everyday life.

In conclusion, food and dining were a part of everyday life in Elizabethan time. They had many different dishes and styles of cooking. They also had distinct manners and traditions that went along with their meals.

Medical Beliefs and Practices

D. Pedro: Sigh for the tooth-ache?

Leon: Where is but a humour of a worm?Through all thy veins shall run

A cold and drowsy humour.

This is undation of mistemper'd humour

Rests by you only to be qualified;

Then pause not; for the present time's so sick,

That present medicine must be minister'd.

These lines from Shakespeare's Much Ado About Nothing give a brief glimpse into the world of Elizabethan medicine. The beliefs, practices, and medical problems of the sixteenth century were very different from those of today.

One of the most common beliefs during this time concerned the humours. It was believed that four humours or fluids entered into the composition of a man: blood, phlegm, choler ( or yellow bile), and melancholy ( or black bile). According to this belief, the predominance of one humour over the others determined a person's temperament as sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, or melancholy. Furthermore, they believed that too much of any of them caused disease, and that the cure lay in purging or avoiding the peccant humour, as by reducing the amount of blood by cupping or reducing the bile by means of drugs.

Epidemic diseases became more common in the sixteenth century. Among them were typhus, smallpox, diphtheria and measles. Scurvy also increased in frequency. During this time leprosy became rare.

In children there were epidemics of plague, measles, smallpox, scarlet fever, chicken pox, and diphtheria. Many children were abandoned, especially infants with syphilis (it was feared they would pass it on ). Dental disease sometimes caused death, and congenital and acquired blindness were also common for the children.

In the sixteenth century syphilis continued to be common. The favored treatment was with mercury or guaiac. Gonorrhea became even more common. These two venereal diseases were directly responsible for the stopping of communal baths, which were the only convenient means of personal hygiene.

Elizabethan medical treatments were quite varied. The first effective remedy for ague (malaria) was a plant derivative from Peru called cinchona. It cured quickly and acted specifically on only a certain kind of fever. The belief in fever as a general manifestation of unbalanced humours received a severe blow. It was then felt that each fever could be different diseases.

For an earache, a common remedy was to put a roasted onion in the ear. To cure a stye, a person was supposed to rub his eye with the tail of a black tomcat. Captain Cook kept his sailors healthy from scurvy by giving them lemon juice, a source of much-needed vitamin C.

For mental illness, Jean-Baptiste Denis extended the new technique of transfusing blood to the treatment of mental patients. When arterial blood of lambs was injected into the venous system, the patients seemed to recover. This method was stopped when a patient died.

Large scale preventative measures for epidemic diseases did not come about until over a hundred years later. In 1764, Dr. Clarke inoculated against smallpox with the virus of the disease itself. The doctors discovered that if people had one slight attack of small pox, later they were immune to the disease. In 1776, people who contracted cowpox seemed to be protected from smallpox.

The physicians of the Elizabethan period were men of good education. Their degrees were generally taken abroad and were then incorporated at Oxford or Cambridge. A very thorough examination had to be passed before licenses were granted for practicing in the metropolitan area. The college was less severe about licenses to practice in the country.

Ambroise Pare, an army physician, discovered the effectiveness of hygiene on wound healing. One night after treating many gunshot wounds with boiling oil, he ran out of oil. Many soldiers' wounds were uncared for, so Pare simply cleaned and dressed their wounds and went to bed. The next day he awoke to see that the wounded treated with oil were feverish and in pain, while the ones cleaned and dressed were sleeping and doing well. As Pare's fame grew, his story was made common knowledge, and boiling oil was no longer used on the battlefield. Pare also reintroduced the ancient method of stopping hemorrhage by using ligatures. He influenced many practitioners to abandon the cauterizing irons.

In 1616, physician William Harvey studied of the circulation of the blood and disproved the existing notion that the heart was merely a fountain of supply. For the first time he demonstrated the real action of the heart and the course that the blood took through the arteries. Other physicians had suggested this explanation, but Harvey was the first to demonstrate it.

Jan Baptista Van Helmont believed that fever was not due to an excess or unbalanced humours but represented a reaction to an invading irritating agent. He declined to use bloodletting and purging and rejected their supposed value in restoring the humoral balance. He used chemical medicines and improved on the use of mercury.

In conclusion, Elizabethan medicine was very different from our present day practices and beliefs. Furthermore, the medical problems of the sixteenth century were very different from those of our own time.

Plague

Plagues devastated Elizabethan England. They were a constant threat to the people and the land. The most devastating to England was the bubonic plague. London was afflicted over a dozen times during the 1500's.

The bubonic plague originated in Central Asia, where it killed 25 million people before it made its way into Constantinople in 1347. From there it spread to Mediterranean ports such as Naples and Venice. Trade ships from these Mediterranean ports spread plague to the inhabitants of southern France and Italy. It had spread to Paris by June of 1348, and London was in the grips of plague several months later. By 1350, all of Europe had been hit by plague. From this time to the mid 1600's, the disease was seen in England.

This particular type of plague was the bubonic plague, which is caused by the bacteria called Yersinia pests. This bacteria lived in rats and other rodents. Human beings were infected through bites from the fleas that lived on these rats. The symptoms associated with plague are bubos, which are painful swellings of the lymph nodes. These typically appear in the armpits, legs, neck, or groin. If left untreated, plague victims die within two to four days. Victims of this disease suffered swelling in the armpit and groin, as well as bleeding in the lungs. Victims also suffered a very high fever, delirium and prostration.

During the sixteenth century, plague teased England's countryside with isolated outbreaks. The major outbreaks were in London, due to its large population. Historian Rappel Holinshed wrote: "many men died in many places, but especially in London." At the beginning of the century, London had a few mild winters, allowing the infected rats and fleas (which usually hibernated) to remain active. Contemporary observers estimate that this epidemic took almost 30,000 lives, almost half of London's population at the time. However, church records show this estimate to be exaggerated, putting the actual number closer to 20,000.

In 1563, London experienced another outbreak of plague, considered one of the worst incidences of plague ever seen in the city. The bubonic plague took almost 80,000 lives, between one quarter and one third of London's population at that time. Statistics show that 1000 people died weekly in mid August , 1600 per week in September, and 1800 per week in October.

Fleeing form the cities and towns was common, especially by wealthy families who had country homes. Queen Elizabeth I was no exception. She took great precaution to protect herself and the court from plague. When plague broke out in London in 1563, Elizabeth moved her court to Windsor Castle. She erected gallows and ordered that anyone coming from London was to be hanged. She also prohibited the import of goods as a measure to prevent the spread of plague to her court.

Later, in 1578, when plague broke out once again, Elizabeth took action. This time she ordered physicians to produce cures and preventative medicine. Also, most public assemblies were outlawed. All taverns, plays, and ale-houses were ordered closed.

Plague devastated England and its people during the Elizabethan period. Despite all of the hardships involved with plague, there were many advances made. Writers wrote of preventative measures, causes and recommended cures, which led to the basic medical practices and sanitation practices of the time.

Great Plagues of the Elizabethan Period

Widespread diseases have been serious medical problems for a long time. From the very earliest plagues, there were simple bans on preventing movements of goods and people from one area to another. By the sixteenth century, however, there were systems of quarantine in many parts of Europe.

As many writers have stated, the first case of a water-borne disease was probably caused by an infected cave man polluting the water upstream of his neighbors. Entire clans were probably destroyed, or maybe the panicky survivors packed up their gourds and fled from the "evil spirits" inhabiting their camp to some other place.

As long as people lived in small groups, isolated from each other, there were not many incidents of widespread disease. But as civilization progressed, people began clustering into cities. They shared communal water, handled unwashed food, stepped in excrement from casual discharge of manure, and used urine for dyes, bleaches, and even treatment of wounds.

Several Christians of the 14th and 15th centuries earned status as saints by setting an example of helpful charity toward plague victims. They also were thought to preserve the healthy from the ravages of the plagues. The popularity of St. Roch of Montpelier grew steadily during the 15th century, especially in Italy and Germany.

Writers of this time described plague in great detail in their diaries and chronicles. One of the most common observations was the Italian writer Boccaccio's description of people being abandoned in the epidemic. His description was picked up by other writers. Images of abandonment because of plague can be traced from Italy to writers in France and Germany.

As cities grew and became crowded, they also became the nesting places of water-borne, insect-borne, and skin-to-skin infectious diseases. Typhus was most common, reported in the 17th century by Thomas Sydenham, England's first great physician. Next came relapsing fever, plague and other pestilential fever, smallpox and dysentery (a generic class of disease that includes what is commonly known as dysentery), as well as cholera.

Nonexistent or poor plumbing was merely one of many sanitation factors that gave rise to the Black Death of the Middle Ages. Other scourges are also directly related to human waste. Dysentery is one that has left an indelible mark on history. Characterized by painful diarrhea, dysentery is often called an army's "Fifth column." Dysentery was dentified as the time of the Hippocrates and before. It comes in various forms of infectious disorders and is said to have contributed to the defeat of the Crusaders.

Typhus fever is another disease born of bad sanitation. It has come under many headings, including "jail fever" or "ship fever," because it is so common among men in pent-up, putrid surroundings. Transmitted by lice that dwell in human feces, it is a highly contagious disease. Typhoid fever, a slightly different disease, involves a salmonella bacillus that is found in the feces and urine of infected people.

Another water-borne disease, cholera, has been one of history's most violent killers. However, through cholera epidemics, the link between sanitation and public health was discovered, which provided the impetus for modern water and sewage systems.

Cholera is caused by swallowing water, food or any other material contaminated by the feces of a cholera victim. Casual contact with an infected bathroom, clothing, or bedding might be all that is required. The disease is amazingly rapid-acting. Extreme diarrhea, sharp muscular cramps, vomiting and fever, and then death, can occur within 12-48 hours of infection.

In the 19th century cholera became the world's first truly global disease in a series of epidemics. Eventually these epidemics led to a better understanding of the causes of the disease, followed by improvements in sanitation and plumbing.

Man has a long history of battling epidemic or plague-like diseases. The treatments have advanced from hoping that a disease will cure itself (most of the time it never did) to administering modern preventive measures, medications and treatments.

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