Read - AP Government and Politics



AP review activitiesThese are some great sites to use for review! Just google AP Government Exam Review and get started!!Here are some of my favorites: Scroll all the way through this one. There’s some good stuff here. Select AP government, create a free account and you can do a fairly accurate pre-test. It will tell you areas you really need to focus on. The official AP site. It will answer some of your pre test questions! Teacher site Another really good teacher site. A good review of important Supreme Court cases. This is an AWESOME site. It is everything you need to know in video and text format. We’ve used these a lot in class.2085975249555I pity the fool who doesn’t study for the AP GoPo exam!00I pity the fool who doesn’t study for the AP GoPo exam!16859251143000Basic Knowledge for each UnitUnit OneThe ConstitutionStudents will be able to: Analyze the benefits and costs of democracy Describe the preconditions necessary for democracy to flourishEvaluate the ways in which the United States is and isn’t democraticDescribe the history of the Constitutional ConventionIdentify the conflicts and compromises in the writing of the US ConstitutionList the key points of the Federalists and Anti-FederalistsAnalyze the causes and effects of our system of checks and balancesIdentify concept of judicial reviewExplain the evolution of the Constitution through US historyDescribe the amendment process of he US ConstitutionCompare the key components of federal, confederal, and unitary governmentsUnit TwoPolitical CultureStudents will be able to: Identify the key components of American political cultureAnalyze the sources of political socializationDescribe key components of different political ideologiesDemonstrate an understanding of the political spectrumAnalyze charts and graphs describing American demographicsInterpret US demographic dataIdentify connections between demographics and ideology Describe the roots and evolution of American political culture over timeAnalyze the effect of US political culture on our political system.\Determine the effect of social capital on our political systemsUnit ThreeThe Political ProcessStudents will be able to: Identify key interest groups in the US political systemDescribe methods interest groups use to pursue their policy objectivesIdentify the platforms of the major political partiesIdentify and describe the tenants of third parties in the US political systemAnalyze the causes and effects of our two party systemDescribe the methods parties use to achieve their political objectivesExplain the power of the media in the electoral processExplain the evolution of the media in contemporary US politicsAnalyze the roles and powers of the different actors in the US political processWeigh the costs and benefits of public opinion polling on our political processDescribe the effects of public opinion on campaigns, elections, parties, and political policyIdentify the methods used to gauge public opinionAnalyze the effects of money on our electoral systemIdentify the key provisions of contemporary campaign finance reformsDescribe the steps of the electoral processDetail present proposals for electoral reform Analyze the evolution of our electoral processIdentify different types of campaign ads and their effectiveness on electionsAnalyze the causes and effects of realigning electionsUnit FourPolitical InstitutionsStudents will be able to: Identify the powers of the CongressList the differences between the House and the SenateDescribe the way bills become laws and identify the many hurdles bills faceExplain the congressional electoral processAnalyze the costs and benefits, causes and effects of effects of high incumbent reelection ratesIdentify the different leadership positions in CongressAnalyze the connection between representatives and constituentsEvaluate the weight of the different factors representatives consider when they voteIdentify the major powers of the presidentAnalyze the reasons for the evolution of presidential power over the 20th centuryDescribe the many different jobs of the president and evaluate their relative importanceAnalyze the connection between representatives and constituentsIdentify the duties and evaluate the relative power of different actors in the executive branchIdentify the members of the Supreme CourtDescribe the different steps in a Supreme Court caseList the powers of the Supreme CourtIdentify the key facts of landmark Supreme Court casesDescribe the evolution of judicial power over the past centuryIdentify the main tenants of the competing judicial philosophies and evaluate their meritsAnalyze the causes of the growth of the modern bureaucracyEvaluate the impact of an unelected bureaucracy on our democratic systemIdentify the major agencies of the US government and their powers Describe the methods of bureaucratic oversight of the bureaucracyEvaluate the relative power of the three branches of governmentUnit Five Civil Rights and Liberties Students will be able to: Identify the key components of the First AmendmentAnalyze the causes and effects of selective incorporationIdentify key First Amendment rights Supreme Court casesDescribe some of the major protections guaranteed by the First AmendmentDescribe the tension between security and liberty in contemporary politics and evaluate the merits of both sides of the argumentDescribe the evolution of First Amendment protections over the past two centuriesIdentify the key provisions and protections of the Fourth AmendmentDescribe the evolution of the rights of the accused over the past half centuryIdentify the parameters of student rights in schoolsDescribe the key moments in the history of the struggle for civil rights in the USAnalyze the state of race relations in the US race in today List and evaluate the success of different methods the US government has used to fight discriminationEvaluate the impact of race on US politicsDescribe key components of US social, economic, and foreign policyIdentify the key policy making institutions and actors in US social, economic, and foreign policyFree Response TrainingThe Five RsRelax You have twenty five minutes. You have plenty of time. Plan for at least five minutes.This is NOT an essay. Take your time to work thoroughly and carefully.ReadRead the question carefully. Look at the chart (if there is one) carefully. Don’t freak! Read the question again. Do you understand all the parts of the question? Highlight or circle the key words in each part of the question. Rewrite the question in your own words. Key Words Identify = List, Name, DescribeDescribe = List, Name, IdentifyDefine = Write what the term meansCompare = Contrast, Evaluate, WeighExplain = Clarify, Connect, Link, Analyze, Give reasonsDiscuss = Explain, Write about, Argue forRganizeBreak the question down into parts (a, b). Highlight the numbers of facts required for each part (identify 3). Organize and write the facts in a chart before you write the answer. Answer everything!RiteWrite your essay. Be specific and factual. Don’t be wordy. Get to the point! Less is More. Write one page maximum. Do NOT write an introduction or a conclusion.ReferMake sure you refer back to the prompt in your answer. For example, if the FRQ says to describe a beautiful fall day, you would not simply say, “It would be windy, slightly cool, and sunny”. Instead, you would refer back to the prompt and say, “A beautiful fall day would be windy, slightly cool, and sunny.”Unit I: Constitutional Underpinnings5600700-42862500Chapter One Key TermsGovernment:The institutions and processes through which policies are made for a society.Politics:The process by which we select our governmental leaders and what policies these leaders pursue. Also: The process by which we elect leaders to represent us in the “how.”Political participation:All the activities used by citizens to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they pursue; examples include voting, protest and civil disobedience.Single-issue group:Groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics. Link to: cohesiveness, free-rider problem.Policymaking system:The process by which policy comes into being and evolves over time. People’s interest and concerns create political issues for government policymakers. These issues shape policy, which in turn impacts people, generating more interests, problems and concerns.Linkage institutions:The political channels through which people’s concerns become political issues on the policy agenda; examples include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.Policy agenda:The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actually involved in politics at any given time. Link to: gatekeeper role of media; electronic throne.Policymaking institutions: The branches of government charged with taking action on political issues; examples include Congress, the Presidency, the Courts, and the Bureaucracy. Democracy:A system of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the publics preferences. Link to: republic; oligarchy.Majority rule:A fundamental principal of traditional democratic theory. In a democracy, choosing among alternatives require that the majority’s desire be respected. Link to: minority rights.Minority rights:A principal of traditional democratic theory that guarantees rights to those who do not belong to majorities but allows for their participation and protection. Link to: majority rule.Pluralist theory:A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies.Elite and class theory:A theory of government and politics contending that societies are divided along class lines and that the upper-class elite will rule; or perhaps should rule. Link to: oligarchy.Hyperpluralism:A cynical theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened; pluralism gone bad. Link to: policy gridlock.Policy gridlock:A condition that occurs when no coalition is strong enough to form a majority and establish policy. The result is that nothing may get done. Link to: hyperpluralism.Individualism:The belief that individuals should be left on their own by the government; a prominent belief in American political thought. Link to: conservative. Unit I: Constitutional Underpinnings5715000-54292500Chapter Two Key Terms Declaration of Independence The document approved by representatives of the American colonies in 1776 that stated their grievances against the British monarch and declared their independence. Link to: Locke’s natural rights.U.S. ConstitutionThe document written in 1787 and ratified in 1788 that sets forth the institutional structure of the U.S. government and the tasks these institutions perform. It replaced the Articles of Confederation.Natural rightsRights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments, which include life, liberty, and property. The concept was central to John Locke’s theories about government, and was widely accepted among America’s Founding Fathers. Link to Dec. of Independence. Consent of the governedThe idea that government derives its authority by sanction of the people (Locke).Limited governmentThe idea that certain restrictions should be placed on government to protect the natural rights of citizens. Link to: conservativism.Articles of Confederation The first constitution of the United States, adopted by Congress in 1777 and enacted in 1781. The articles established a national legislature, the Continental Congress, but most authority rested with the state legislature.Shays’ RebellionA series of attacks on courthouse by a small band of farmers led by Revolutionary War Captain Daniel Shays to block foreclosure proceedings. Historians consider this the last straw against the Articles of Confederation.FactionsInterest groups arising from the unequal distribution of property or wealth that James Madison attacked in Federalist Paper #10. Today’s parities or interest groups are what Madison had in mind when he warned of the instability in government caused by factions. Link to: political parties, interest groups.Connecticut CompromiseThe compromise reached at the Constitution Convention that established two houses of Congress: the House of Representatives, in which representatives is based on a state’s share of the U.S. population, and the Senate, in which each state has two representatives (bicameral legislature).Writ of habeas corpusA court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody. Link to: executive orders, “Imperial Presidency.”Separation of powersA feature of the Constitution that requires each of the three branches of government-executive, legislative, and judicial-to be relatively independent of the others so that one cannot control the others. From this premise, Madison developed his system of checks & balances setting power against power. (Montesquieu).Checks and balancesFeatures of the Constitution that limit government’s power by requiring that power be balanced among the different governmental institutions. These institutions continually check one another’s activities. Link to: Madison’s Federalist No. 51.RepublicA form of government in which the people select representatives to govern them and make laws.FederalistsSupporters of the U.S. Constitution at the time the states were contemplating its adoption. A federalist favored a strong central government.Anti-federalistsOpponents of the American Constitution at the time when the states were contemplating its adoption. An Anti-Federalist viewed the constitution as a threat to both individual and state rights. Their solution was to propose a Bill of Rights.Federalist PapersA collection of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name “Publius” to defend the Constitution in detail.Bill of RightsThe first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, drafted in response to some of the Anti-Federalist concerns. These amendments define such basic liberties as freedom of religion, speech, and press and guarantee defendants’ rights.Equal Rights AmendmentA constitutional amendment passed by Congress in 1972 stating that “equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex.” The amendment failed to acquire the necessary support from three-fourths of the state legislatures. Link to: checks and balances.Marbury v. Madison, 1803The 1803 case in which Chief Justice John Marshall and his associates first asserted the right of the Supreme Court to determine the meaning of the U.S. Constitution. The decision established the Court’s power of judicial review over acts of Congress, in this case the Judiciary Act of 1789.Judicial reviewFirst asserted in the 1803 Supreme Court case, Marbury v. Madison, it is the right of the Court to determine the constitutionality of congressional laws and actions of the President. Link to: Marbury v. Madison. Unit I: Constitutional Underpinnings5715000-42862500Chapter Three Key TermsFederalism: A way of organizing a nation so that two or more levels of government have formal authority over the same land and people. It is a system of shared power between units of government.Supremacy clause:Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits. Link to: McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819.Tenth Amendment:The Constitutional amendment stating that “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.” Link to: reserved powers; elastic clause; loose vs. strict construction.McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819:A Supreme Court decision that established the supremacy of the national government over state governments. In deciding this case, Chief Justice John Marshall and his colleagues held that Congress had certain implied powers in addition to the enumerated powers found in the Constitution. Link to: elastic clause; supremacy clause, Federalists. Enumerated powers: Powers of the federal government that are specifically addressed in the Constitution; for Congress, these powers are listed in Article I, Section 8. Also called “expressed,” or “delegated.”Implied powers:Powers of the federal government that go beyond those enumerated in the Constitution. The Constitution states that Congress has the power to “ make all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution” the powers enumerated in Article I. Link to: elastic clause; Amendment 10; loose vs. strict construction.Elastic clause:The final paragraph of Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, which authorizes Congress to pass all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out the enumerated powers. Link to: (same as above).Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824:A landmark case in which the Supreme Court interpreted very broadly the clause in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution giving Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce, encompassing virtually every form of commercial activity. This case had the effect of greatly increasing the scope of congressional powers.Full faith and credit (clause):A clause in Article IV, Section 1, of the Constitution requiring each state to recognize the official documents and civil judgments rendered by the courts of other states.Extradition (clause):A legal process whereby an alleged criminal offender is surrendered by the officials of one state to officials of the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed. Privileges and immunities (clause):A clause of Article IV, Section 2, of the Constitution guaranteeing citizens of each state most of the privileges of citizens of other states.Dual federalism: A system of government in which both the states and the national government remain supreme within their own spheres, each responsible for some policies. Also called “layer cake federalism.” Link to: conservatism.Cooperative federalism: A system of government in which powers and policy assignments are shared between states and the national government. They may also share costs, administration, and even blame for programs that work poorly. Also called “marble cake federalism.” Link to: liberalism.Fiscal federalism:The pattern of spending, taxing, and providing grants in the federal system; it is the cornerstone of the national government’s relations with state and local governments.Categorical grants: Federal grants that can be used only for specific purposes, or “categories,” of state and local spending. They come with strings attached, such as nondiscrimination provisions. Compare to block grants.Project grants: Federal categorical grants given for specific purposes and awarded on the basis of the merits of application.Formula grants:Federal categorical grants distributed according to a formula specified in legislation or in a administrative regulations.Block grants:Federal grants given more or less automatically to states or communities to support broad programs in areas such as community development and social services. Link to: devolution; Republican revolution of the 1990s.Mandate:Requirements (sometimes unfunded) that direct states or local governments to comply with federal rules under threat of penalties or as a condition of receipt of federal grant funds. DO NOT confuse with mandate theory of elections. Link to: regulations; “red tape.” Cross-over sanctions:When the federal government uses federal grant dollars in one program to influence state and local policy in another (example: highway funds and drinking age). Link to: same as above.Cross-cutting requirements:When a condition on one federal grant is extended to all activities supported by federal funds, regardless of their source (example: discrimination). Link to: same as above.Unit II: Beliefs, Behaviors, & Elections5715000-42862500Chapter Six Key TermsPublic opinion:The distribution of the population’s beliefs about politics and policy issues.Demography:The science of human population changes.Census:A valuable tool for understanding demographic changes. The constitution requires that the government conduct an “actual enumeration” of the population every 10 years.Melting Pot:The mixing of cultures, ideas, and peoples that has changed the American nation. The United States, with its history of immigration, has often been called a melting pot. Link to: salad bowl.Minority majority: The emergence of a non-Caucasian majority, as compared with a white, generally Anglo-Saxon majority. It is predicted that by about 2060, Hispanic Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans together will outnumber white Americans.Political culture:An overall set of values widely shared within a society.Reapportionment:The process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives every 10 years on the basis of the results of the census. Link to: gerrymandering.Sample:A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole.Random Sampling:The key techniques employed by sophisticated survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample.Random digit dialing:A technique used by pollsters to place telephone calls randomly to both listed and unlisted numbers when conducting a survey.Exit polls:Public opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners with speed and precision. Link to: bandwagon effect.Political ideology:A coherent set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and public purpose. It helps give meaning to political events, personalities, and policies. Link to: liberalism; conservatism.. Gender gap:A term that refers to the regular pattern by which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates, Women tend to be significantly less conservative than men and are more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose higher levels of military spending. Link to: cross pressure.Civil disobedience:A form of political participation that reflects a conscious decision to break a law believed to be immoral and to suffer the consequences.Salad Bowl:A new term to describe, and celebrate the diversity of the United States without the controversial notion of assimilation found in the term melting pot. Bandwagon Effect:An effect caused by exit poll projections in which undecided voters turnout to support the candidate who is leading in the polls.Cross-pressure:A term used to describe being caught between two or more conflicting demographic tendencies. 5715000-11430000Unit II: Beliefs, Behaviors, & Elections Chapter Eight Key TermsPolitical party: A group of people trying to gain control of the country’s governing apparatus (at the local or national level) by winning elections.Party Identification:A citizen’s self-proclaimed preference for one party or the other. Link to: dealignment.Ticket-splitting:Voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices. It has become the norm in American voting behavior. Link to: dealignment.Party machines:A type of political party organization that relies heavily on material inducements, such as patronage, to win votes and to govern.Patronage:One of the key inducements used by party machines. A patronage job, promotion, or contract is one that is given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone.Primary election: A run-off election between the contenders within the parties. For example, in the year before the general election, the Democrats will need to hold a primary in order to narrow the field to their top candidate.Closed primaries:Elections to select party nominees in which only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote for that party’s candidates, thus encouraging greater party loyalty.Open primaries:Elections to select party nominees in which voters can decide on election day whether they want to participate in the Democratic or Republican contests.Blanket primaries:Elections to select party nominees in which voters are presented with a list of candidates form all the parties. Voters can then select some Democrats and some Republicans if they like.National convention:The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party’s platform.National committee:One of the institutions that keeps the party operating between conventions. The national committee is composed of representatives from the states and territories.National chairperson:The national chairperson is responsible for the day-to-day activities of the party and is usually nominated by the presidential nominee.Coalition:A group of individuals with a common interest upon which every political party depends.Party eras:Historical periods in which a majority of voters cling to the party in power, which tends to win a majority of the elections.Critical election:An electoral “earthquake” where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority party is often displaced by the minority party. Critical election periods are sometimes marked by a national crisis and may require more than one election to bring about a new party era.New Deal Coalition:A coalition forged by the Democrats, who dominated American politics from the 1930’s to the 1960’s. Its basic elements were the urban working class, ethnic groups, Catholics and Jews, the poor, Southerners, African Americans, and intellectuals. Party dealignment:The gradual disengagement of people and politicians from strict party identification. In the past 30 years, more Americans are calling themselves “independents,” and splitting their ballots up between parties.Link to: ticket-splitting.Party neutrality:A term used to describe the fact that many Americans are indifferent toward to two major political parties. Third parties:Electoral contenders other than the two major parties. American third parties are not unusual, but they rarely win elections as a result of the winner-take-all nature of the Electoral College.Winner-take-all system:An electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded only to the candidates who comes in first in their constituencies. For example, in the presidential election, the candidate who wins the most votes in Washington state receives ALL eleven of Washington’s electoral votes.Proportional representation: An electoral system used throughout most of Europe that awards legislative seats to political parties in proportion to the number of votes won in an election.Responsible party model:A view favored by some political scientists about how parties should work. According to the model, parties should offer clear choices to the voters, who can then use those choices as cuesto their own preferences of candidates. Once in office, parties would carry out theircampaign promises. Unit II: Beliefs, Behaviors, & Elections5715000-42862500Chapter Nine Key TermsNomination:A political party’s official endorsement of a candidate. Generally, success in the primary elections brings momentum, money, and media attention, which ultimately helps a candidate win the nomination from their party.National party convention:The supreme power within each of the parties. The convention meets every four years to nominate the party’s presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to write the party’s platform.Caucus:A meeting of all state party leaders for selecting delegates to the national party convention. Presidential primaries:Elections in which voters in a state vote for a candidate (or delegates pledged their support to him or her). Most of these delegates who attend the national party conventions are chosen this way.McGovern-Fraser Commission:A commission formed in 1968 Democratic convention in response to demands for reform by minority groups and others who sought better representations.Superdelegates:National party leaders (governors, members of Congress, etc) who automatically get a delegate slot at the national party convention.Frontloading:The recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention. This topic will be BIG in 2007-08 as states tinker with their election laws in order to jockey for media position.National primary:A proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries, which who would replace these electoral methods with a nationwide primary held early in the election year.Regional primaries:A proposal by critics of the caucuses and presidential primaries to replace these electoral methods with a series of primaries held in each geographic region.Party platform:A political party’s statement of its goals and policies for the next four years. The platform, crafted at the national convention, often appears as a mission statement on the party’s official website. Direct mail:A simple and highly effective method of raising money for a candidate or cause. It involves sending information and requests for money to people whose names appear on lists of those who have supported similar candidates in the past.Federal Election A law passed for reforming campaign finance that created the Federal ElectionsCampaign Act of 1974:Commission, provided public financing for primaries and general elections, limited presidential campaign spending, required disclosure, and attempted to limit contributions. Link to: FEC; soft money; BiCRA 2002; and “527s”Federal Elections Commission:A six member bipartisan agency that administers campaign finance laws and enforces compliance with their requirements. Link to: independent regulatory agency.Soft Money:Money given to a party for the purpose of building up the party at the grassroots level. This category of campaign contributions have been banned by BiCRA. Political Action Committee:Fundraising vehicles created by FECA 1974. A corporation, union, or some other interest group can create a PAC and register it with the FEC which will meticulously monitor their expenditures.Selective perception:The phenomenon that people often pay the most attention to things they already agree with and interpret them according to their own predispositions. This decreases the likelihood that average Americans challenge their own presuppositions.Bipartisan CampaignnReform Act of 2002(BiCRA or McCain-Feingold):Campaign finance regulations that double the amounts specified by FECA while trying to eliminate soft money contributions. It inadvertently created another loophole for Section 527 contributions. “527”Named for the section of the IRS Tax Code, a 527 is an advocacy group trying to influence elections through voter mobilization and the spending of unlimited dollars in “independent expenditures.” The most famous of these in the 2004 election cycle was the “Swiftboat Veterans for Truth.” Unit II: Beliefs, Behaviors, & Elections5715000-42862500Chapter Ten Key TermsLegitimacy:A characterization of elections by political scientists meaning that they are almost universally accepted as a fair and free method of selecting political leaders. When legitimacy is high, as in the United States, even the losers accept the results peacefully.Referendum:A state-level method of direct legislation that gives voters a chance to approve or disapprove proposed legislation or a proposed constitutional amendment.Initiative petition:A process permitted in some states whereby voters may put proposed changes in the state constitution to a vote if sufficient signatures are obtained on petitions calling for such a referendum. Suffrage:The legal right to vote, extended to African Americans by the Fifteenth Amendment, to women by the Nineteenth Amendment, and to people over the age of 18 by the Twenty-sixth Amendment.Political efficacy:The belief that one’s political participation really matters; that one’s vote can actually make a difference. Since the 1960s, it has been dropping – especially among 18-25 year olds.Civic duty:The belief that in order to support democratic government, a citizen should activelyparticipate in the political process.Voter registration:A system adopted by the states that requires voters to register well in advance of Election Day. A few states permit Election Day registration…but NOT Washington!Motor Voter Act:Passed in 1993, this Act went into effect for the 1996 election. It requires states to permit people to register to vote at the same time they apply for their driver’s license.Mandate theory of elections:The idea that the winning candidate has a mandate from the people to carry out his or her platforms and politics. Politicians like the theory better than political scientists do.Policy voting:Electoral choices that are made on the basis of the voter’s policy preferences and on the basis of where the candidates stand on policy issues. Link to: dealignment; ticket splitting.Electoral College:A unique American institution, created by the Constitution, providing for the selection of the president by electors chosen by the state parties. Candidates who win the popular vote in each state receive all of that state’s electoral votes. The candidate receiving 270 electoral votes wins the presidential election. Retrospective voting:A theory of voting in which voters essentially ask this simple question: “What have you done for me lately?” Link to: policy voting; pork barrel projects; incumbency.Bush v. Gore, 2000An extremely controversial U.S. Supreme Court ruling that stopped a manual recount of ballots in Florida, thereby awarding Florida’s electoral votes to George W. Bush and declaring him the winner of the 2000 election. Recall election:The power of the people at the state or local level to “recall” an elected official, or remove them from office and force a follow up election. Unit III: Mass Media & Interest Groups5715000-42862500Chapter Seven Key TermsMass media:Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and other means of popular communication.Media events:Events purposely staged for the media that nonetheless look spontaneous (a “photo op”). In keeping with politics as theater, media events can be staged by individuals, groups, and government officials, especially presidents.Press conference:Meetings of public officials with reporters. Since the Watergate/Vietnam era, the media hasbecome more aggressive in its scrutiny of the Whitehouse (watchdog); therefore, recent Presidents have preferred the electronic throne over the press conference.Investigative journalism:The use of detective-like reporting to unearth scandals, scams, and schemes, placing reporters in adversarial relationships with political leaders. Ever since the Washington Post broke the story of Watergate (Richard Nixon’s illegal activities) the media has been in a constant posture of suspicion against big government and big corporations.Print media:Newspapers and magazines, as compared with broadcast media.Broadcast media:Television and radio, as compared with print media.Chains:By 1994, more than 80 percent of America’s daily papers were controlled by national and regional chains.Narrowcasting:Media programming on cable TV or the Internet that is focused on one topic and aimed at a particular audience. Examples include MTV, ESPN, and C-SPAN. While it certainly increases our entertainment options, critics claim it makes our news coverage more biased and splintered, contributing to selective perception.Trial balloons:An intentional news leak for the purpose of assessing the political reaction.Sound bites:Short video clips of approximately 15 seconds, typically all that is shown from a politician’s speech or activities on the nightly television news.Talking head:A shot of a person’s face talking directly to the camera. Because this is visually unappealing, the major commercial networks rarely show a politician talking one-on-one for very long. Link to “infotainment.” Policy agenda:The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actively involved in politics at the time.“Electronic Throne:”The presidential skill of using the television as a platform for public persuasion; developed as an alternative to press conferences. Link to: media event; gatekeeper role of the media.“Infotainment:”A term used to characterize the recent trend in network television news production that blends analysis with entertainment. Many experts believe this trend can be linked to many other trends in politics and voter behavior. A good example is the ever-growing illusion that a Hollywood break-up is actually news.Unit III: Mass Media & Interest Groups5715000-42862500Chapter Eleven Key TermsInterest group: An organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at local and national levels in order to achieve policy change. Link to: PACs, 527s, iron triangles.Pluralist theory: A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies.Elite theory: A theory of government and politics contending that societies are divided along class lines and than an upper-class elite will rule, regardless of the formal niceties of governmental organization.Hyperpluralist theory: A theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened. Hyperpluralist is an extreme, exaggerated, or perverted form of pluralism.Subgovernments: (Iron Triangles)A term used to describe the relationship between interest group leaders interested in a particular policy, the government agency in charge of administrating that policy, and the members of congressional committees and subcommittees handling that policy.Free-rider problem: The problem faced by unions and other groups when people do not join because they can benefit from the group’s activities without officially joining. Link to: Olson’s Law; cohesiveness.Olson’s law of large groups: Advanced by Mancur Olson, a principle stating that “the larger the group, the further it will fall short of providing an optimal amount of a collective good.” Link to: cohesiveness.Selective benefits: Goods (such as information publications, travel discounts, and group insurance rates) that a group can restrict to those who pay their annual dues.Single-issue groups: Groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics. These features distinguish them from traditional interest groups.Lobbying:According to Lester Milbrath, a “communication, by someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf, directed to a governmental decisionmaker with the hope of influencing his decision.” Electioneering: Direct group involvement in the electoral process. Groups can help fund campaigns, provide testimony, and get members to work for candidates, and some form political action committees (PACs). Link to: 527s; FECA 1974; BiCRA 2002.Political action committees (PACs): Political funding vehicles created by 1974 campaign finance reforms. A corporation, union, or some other interest group can create a PAC and register it with the Federal Election Commission (FEC), which will meticulously monitor the PAC’s expenditures. Amicus curiae briefs: Legal briefs submitted by a “friend of the court” for the purpose of raising additional points of view and presenting information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties. These briefs attempt to influence a court’s decision.Class action suits: Lawsuits permitting a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similarly situated.Cohesiveness:A unified sense of purpose among all of the members; the single most important goal for any interest group. Link to: Olson’s Law; free-rider problem.Unit IV: Policymaking Institutions5715000-42862500Chapter Twelve Key TermsIncumbents:Members of Congress who already hold office. Link to: safe seat; gerrymandering; US Term Limits v. Thornton, 1995.Casework:Activities of members of Congress that help constituents as individuals cut through bureaucratic regulations (red tape) to get things they want. Link to: incumbency; red tape; pork barrel.Pork barrel:The list of federal projects, grants, and contracts that incumbents secure for their constituents. Link to: incumbency; casework; Janet Jackson.Bicameral Legislature:A legislature divided into two houses; like the US Congress with its House of Representatives and Senate. The bicameral nature of a governing body provides for increased checks and balances, and deliberate inefficiency.House Rules Committee:Committee that reviews all bills (except revenue, budget, and appropriations) that come out of committee before they enter the full House for debate; they attach “rules” to bills.Filibuster:Stalling technique unique to the Senate used to “talk a bill to death.” Link to: cloture. Speaker of the House:Constitutionally mandated position chosen by the majority party in the House; first in command in the House of Representatives; second in the line of Presidential succession.Majority leader:Responsible for scheduling bills, influencing committee assignments, and rounding up votes.Whips:Leaders who track vote totals and lean on anyone who may be influenced before the vote occurs; target undecided members.Minority leader: The principal leader of the minority party in the Senate and House of Representatives.Standing committees:Separate subject-matter committees in each house that handle bills in different policy areas.Joint committees:Committees on a few subject-matter areas with membership drawn from both houses.Conference committee:Committees formed from each house to reconcile the language of a bill as it emerges from the House and the Senate; “iron out” language differences.Select committee:Committees appointed for a single purpose, such as an investigation. Link to: watchdog role of the press; iron triangle; legislative oversight.Legislative oversight:Congressional monitoring of the bureaucracy and its administration of policy; performed mainly through hearings. Link to: select committee; independent regulatory agency, iron triangle; “power of the purse.” Committee chairs:A leadership position in Congress that has the most important influence on the congressional agenda; scheduling hearings, hiring staff, appointing subcommittees, and managing bills. They were once chosen strictly based on the seniority system, now they are mostly determined by the party in power. Seniority system:A rule for choosing committee chairs that has slowly been replaced since the 1970s. Bill:A proposed law (also referred to as “legislation”) that must be formally introduced by a member of the House or Senate. Most bills actually die in the committee process, but those that make it through committee and debate have the chance to become law with presidential approval. Link to: House Rules Committee; pigeonhole; filibuster.Cloture:The vote (requiring 60 members present) to end a filibuster. Omnibus legislation:Nickname given to miscellaneous, all-inclusive spending bills. Link to: pork barrel; incumbency.Reciprocity:The tradition in Congress of trading votes; also called “logrolling.”“Junket:”Name given to congressional trips (for legislative business…or not) at the expense of taxpayers or interest groups and corporations.Gerrymandering:Strategic redistricting performed by the majority party of the state legislature after the census. Gerrymandering seeks to gain a geographic advantage for one party. Link to: safe seat; Shaw v. Reno, 1993.Shaw v. Reno, 1993:U.S. Supreme Court case that banned racial gerrymandering.US Term Limits, Inc. vs Thornton, 1995:U.S. Supreme Court case striking down term limits for incumbents.“Safe seat:”Nickname for a seat of Congress that is well protected by incumbency. Link to: gerrymandering; Shaw v. Reno, 1993; US Term Limits Inc vs. Thornton. “Power of the purse:”Phrase describing Congress’ budget appropriations power, one of the most powerful methods of legislative oversight.Congressional Budget Office:Non-partisan congressional agency responsible for analyzing the president’s proposed budget. Link to: OMB; Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act, 1974.General Accounting Office:Non-partisan congressional agency that performs audits of the executive branch thereby helping with legislative oversight. Link to: iron triangle; “power of the purse.”Congressional Research Service: Non-partisan congressional agency that provides research for members and staff of Congress.Unit IV: Policymaking Institutions5715000-42862500Chapter Thirteen Key TermsTwenty-second Amendment:Passed in 1951, the amendment that limits presidents to two terms of office. Impeachment:The political equivalent of an indictment in criminal law, prescribed by the Constitution. Impeachable offenses include “treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.”Watergate: The events and scandal surrounding a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in 1972 and the subsequent cover-up of White House involvement, leading to the eventual resignation of President Nixon under the threat of impeachment. Link to: EVERYTHING!Twenty-fifth Amendment:Passed in 1951, this amendment permits the vice president to become acting president if both the vice president and the president’s cabinet determine that the president is disabled. The amendment also outlines how a recuperated president can reclaim the job. Cabinet: A group of presidential advisors not mentioned in the Constitution, although every president has had one. Today the cabinet is composed of 14 secretaries and the Attorney General. Office of Management and Budget (OMB): An office that grew out of the Bureau of the Budget, created in 1921, consisting of a handful of political appointee and hundreds of skilled professionals. The OMB performs both managerial and budgetary functions. See also Congressional Budget Office. Veto: The constitutional power of the president to send a bill back to Congress with reasons for rejecting it. The president must veto the entire bill even if he dislikes a small portion of it. A two-thirds vote in each house can override a veto.Pocket Veto: A veto taking place when Congress adjourns within 10 days of submitting a bill to the president, who simply lets it die by neither signing nor vetoing it. War Powers Act: A law passed in 1973 in reactions to American fighting in Vietnam and Cambodia, requiring president’s to consult with Congress whenever possible prior to using military force and to withdraw forces after 60 days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension. Most view the law as powerless as it currently stands. Link to: legislative veto; INS v. Chadha, 1983.Legislative Veto: The ability of Congress to override a presidential decision. Although the War Powers Resolution asserts this authority, there is reason to believe that, if challenged the Supreme Court would find this legislative veto in violation of the doctrine of separation of powers. Link to: INS v. Chadha, 1983. INS v. Chadha, 1983U.S. Supreme Court case striking down the legislative veto on account of its violation of the separation of powers.U.S. v. Nixon, 1974U.S. Supreme Court case defining executive privilege and limiting the president’s use of it in cases of national security.Impoundment A presidential effort to temporarily or permanently block the flow of funds that Congress has already approved. Link to: Budget and Impoundment Control Act, 1974Budget and ImpoundmentControl Act, 1974Legislation creating the Congressional Budget Office and requiring congressional approval for the president’s use of impoundment.Korematsu v. U.S., 1944U.S. Supreme Court case upholding the constitutionality of internment camps for Japanese Americans. Link to: Executive OrderClinton v. N.Y.C., 1998U.S. Supreme Court case that strikes down the line-item veto, passed by Congress only two years earlier.Unit IV: Policymaking Institutions5715000-42862500Chapter Fourteen Key TermsBudget:A policy document allocating burdens (taxes) and benefits (expenditures).Deficit:An excess of federal expenditures over federal revenues.Expenditures:Federal spending of revenues. Major areas of such spending are social services and the military.Revenues:The financial resources of the federal government. The individual income tax and SocialSecuritytax are two major sources of revenue.Income tax:Shares of individual wages and corporate revenues collected by the government. The Sixteenth Amendment explicitly authorized Congress to levy a tax on income. See also Internal Revenue Service.Sixteenth Amendment:The constitutional amendment adopted in 1913 that explicitly permitted Congress to levy an income tax. Federal debt:All the money borrowed by the federal government over the years and still outstanding. Today the federal debt is about $5.6 trillion.Incrementalism:The belief that the best predictor of this year’s budget is last year’s budget, plus a little bit more (an increment). According to Aaron Wildavsky, “Most of the budget is a product of previous decisions.”Uncontrollable expenditures: Expenditures that are determined not by a fixed amount of money appropriated by Congress but by how many eligible beneficiaries that are for a program or by previous obligations of the government. Entitlements:Policies for which Congress has obligated itself to pay X-level of benefits to Y number of recipients. Social Security benefits are an example. Unit IV: Policymaking Institutions5715000-42862500Chapter Fifteen Key TermsPatronage: A job, promotion, or contract given for political reasons rather than on merit alone. One of the key inducements among corrupt urban party machines of the past. Link to: Pendleton Civil Service Act, merit principle.Pendleton CivilService Act:Passed in 1883, an Act that created a federal civil service so that hiring and promotion would be based on merit rather than on patronage. Link to: merit principle.Merit principle:The idea that hiring should be based on entrance exams and promotion ratings to produce administration by people with talent and skill. Link to: Pendleton Civil Service Act.Hatch Act:A federal law prohibiting government employees from active participation in partisan politics during work hours. Link to: electioneering. Bureaucracy:The authority structure of the executive branch. After Congress makes a law, the executive bureaucracy, headed by the President, is responsible for executing/carrying out/enforcing that law. Link to: iron triangle, merit principle, administrative discretion.Independent Regulatory Agency:A government agency responsible for some sector of the economy, making and enforcing rules to protect the public interest. It also judges disputes over these rules. Examples include the SEC, FCC, FTC, FEC. Link to: regulation, deregulation, conservatism, liberalism, federalism.Policy Implementation:The stage of policymaking between the establishment of a policy and the consequences of the policy for the people whom it affects. Implementation involves translating the goals and objectives of a policy into an operating, ongoing program.Regulation:The use of governmental authority to control or change some practice in the private sector. Regulations pervade the daily lives of people and institutions. Link to: cooperative federalism, categorical grants, liberalism.Deregulation:The lifting of restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities for which government rules had been established and that bureaucracies had been created to administer. Link to: conservatism, devolution, dual federalism. (Administrative) discretion:The authority of bureaucratic administrators (“street-level bureaucrats”) to choose from various responses to a given problem; to be flexible. This power is what often leads to poor implementation and legislative oversight.Red tape:Derogatory nickname for regulations imposed by the bureaucracy. Link to: regulation; bureaucracy. Voting Rights Act 1965:Major civil rights legislation that banned discrimination in voting. It appears in this chapter as an example of effective policy implementation; clear, specific goals with measurable results. Title IX of the Education Act of 1972:Major civil rights legislation that banned discrimination in education. It appears in this chapter as an example of ineffective policy implementation; unclear goals open to inconsistent interpretation.5715000-11430000Unit IV: Policymaking Institutions Chapter Sixteen Key TermsStanding:The requirement that plaintiffs have a serious interest in a case; depending on whether they have sustained a direct injury. Link to: writ of certiorari; “rule of four.”Original jurisdiction: The jurisdiction of the courts that hear a case first, usually in a trial. These are the courts that determine the facts about a case. Link to: Fifth Amendment; due process.Appellate jurisdiction: The jurisdiction of courts that hear cases brought to them on appeal from lower courts. These courts do not review the factual record, only the legal issues involved. District courts: The 91 federal courts of original jurisdiction. They are the only federal courts in which trials are held and in which juries may be impaneled. Link to: Sixth Amendment.Courts of Appeal: Appellate courts empowered to review all final decisions of district courts, except in rare cases. In addition, they also hear appeals to orders of many federal regulatoryagencies. Supreme Court:The “highest court in the land,” ensuring uniformity in interpreting national laws, resolving conflicts among states, and maintaining national supremacy in law. The Supreme Court has the power to set “precedent,” that is, to make decisions that carry the force of law for future generations. Link to: the long and nasty list of Supreme Court cases that you will memorize for the rest of your miserable lives. Senatorial courtesy:An unwritten tradition whereby nominations for state-level federal judicial posts are not confirmed if they are opposed by a senator from the state in which the nomineewill serve. Solicitor General:A presidential appointee in the Department of Justice responsible for choosing and arguing cases before the Supreme Court on behalf of the U.S. government.Opinion:A statement of legal reasoning behind a judicial decision; the content of which may be as important as the decision itself (majority, concurring, dissenting).Precedent:How similar cases have been decided in the past. Link to: stare decisis.Original intent:A view that the Constitution should be interpreted according to the original intent of the Framers. This intent is mainly expressed in the convention debate notes as well as the Federalist Papers. Link to: conservative; strict-construction.Judicial implementation:The process of remanding decisions to the lower courts to be enforced, and therebyconverted into actual policy. Link to: Brown v. Board of Education (II), 1955.Judicial restraint:A judicial philosophy in which judges play minimal policymaking roles. Link to: original intent; conservative; strict-construction.Judicial activism:A judicial philosophy that advocates bold policy decisions to correct social and political problems. Link to: liberalism; loose-construction; Rehnquist Court?Writ of certiorari:A formal document from the U.S. Supreme Court that calls up a case from the lower courts. Link to: standing.Rule of Four:Minimum number of justices that must be in agreement to grant the writ ofcertiorari.Vetting:A term describing the senatorial screening process for all presidential appointees.“Paper trail:”A nickname given to a federal judge’s record of judicial rulings. This becomes relevant during the vetting process in the Senate. Link to: Miguel Estrada; filibuster.“Doctrine of stare decisis:”From the latin for “let the decision stand” this doctrine holds that judicialprecedent has the force of law. Strict supporters of this doctrine don’t like to see judges “legislate from the bench” and steer away from established precedent. Today, Supreme Court nominees are often asked about their stance regarding this doctrine.Unit V: Civil Liberties & Rights5715000-42862500Chapter Four Key TermsBill of Rights:The first ten amendments to the Constitution. Link to: incorporation doctrineCivil Liberties:Legal and constitutional protections against government infringement of political liberties and criminal rights. Cruel & Unusual Punishment:Eighth Amendment prohibits such punishment. Eighth Amendment:Forbids “cruel & unusual punishment”, although it does not define the phrase.Establishment Clause:First Amendment prohibits the government from establishing a religion; is the basis for separation of church and state. Exclusionary Rule:Prohibits the government from including illegally obtained evidence in a trial. Fifth Amendment: Prohibits government from forcing individuals to testify against themselves. First Amendment:Establishes freedom of religion, press, speech, and assembly. Fourteenth Amendment:Prohibits states from denying equal protection of the laws. Free Exercise Clause:Government is prohibited in the First Amendment from interfering in the practice of religion.Incorporation Doctrine:Legal concept under which the Supreme Court has “nationalized” the Bill of Rights by making most of its provisions applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Libel:Publication of false or malicious statements that damage someone’s reputation. Plea Bargaining:An actual bargain struck between the defendant’s lawyer and the prosecutor to the effect that the defendant will plead guilty to a lesser crime (or fewer crimes) in exchange for the state’s promise not to prosecute the defendant for more serious (or additional) crimes. Prior Restraint:Government instrument to prevent material from being published. Probable Cause:Police must have a good reason to arrest or search someone. Right to Privacy:A contrived right from unstated liberties in the Bill of Rights.Self-incrimination:Testifying against oneself; forced confession.Sixth Amendment:Designed to protect individuals accused of crimes; includes the right to counsel, the right to confront witnesses, and the right to a speedy and public trial. Unreasonable Searches & Seizures:Obtaining evidence without a good reason. 5715000-11430000Unit V: Civil Liberties & Rights Chapter Five Key TermsAffirmative Action:A policy designed to give special consideration to those previously discriminated against. Americans w/ Disabilities Act:Passed in 1990; strengthened protections of individuals with disabilities by requiring employers and public facilities to make “reasonable accommodations” and prohibiting employment discrimination against people with disabilities. Civil Rights:Extending citizenship rights to those previously denied them. Civil Rights Act of 1964:Forbids discrimination in public accommodations and facilities. Equal Protection of the Laws:Provided by the Fourteenth Amendment mandating that all people be protected by the law. Link to: incorporation doctrine.Equal Rights Amendment:Proposal that equality of rights under the law not be denied on the account of gender. Link to: federalism.Fifteenth Amendment:Provides the right to vote for African Americans. Fourteenth Amendment:Prohibits states from denying equal protection of the laws. Nineteenth Amendment:Provided women with the right to vote. Poll Taxes:Taxes levied on the right to vote designed to disenfranchise poor blacks. Suffrage:The legal right to vote. Link to: Amendments 15, 19, and 26Thirteenth Amendment:Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude. Twenty-fourth Amendment:Prohibited poll taxes in federal elections. Voting Right Act of 1965:A policy designed to reduce the barriers to voting for those suffering discrimination. White Primary:Practice where only whites could vote in primaries. AP GoPo Exam Study guide The Constitutional UnderpinningsThe Articles of Confederation- the first government of the United StatesAccomplishments:Establish methods by which new states would be addedNegotiating a treaty that ended the American RevolutionSetting the precedent of federalismProblems in the new country:Trade between states in declineValue of money droppingPotential threats from foreign enemies growingThreat of social disorder within the countryShays’ RebellionWeaknesses of the Articles:Could not raise an armyCompletely dependent on the states for revenue (couldn’t tax citizens)Could not pay off war debtsCould not control interstate tradeNo supreme courtNo executive branchNo national currencyNo control over import and export taxesThe Constitutional ConventionConvened to revise the Articles of ConfederationMet in Philadelphia in 1787Most agreed that a strong federal government was necessary, but were fearful that the states would lose powerMajor Debate: What type of federal legislature should we have?Virginia Plan- large states; bicameral legislature with membership based on populationNew Jersey Plan- small states; unicameral legislature with membership equal for each stateGreat (or Connecticut) Compromise- bicameral legislature, one house (House of Representatives) based on population, one house (Senate) equal for each state2nd Debate: Should slaves count for the population total?Northern: No! Slaves don’t have rights and shouldn’t countSouthern: Yes! 3/5 Compromise: Slaves will count as 3/5 of a person for both representation and tax purposesAlso established a chief executive (President) and a Supreme CourtOnce completed, it had to be ratified by 9 of the 13 statesFederalists-supported the constitution; Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay wrote The Federalist Papers a series of essays published in newspapers and aimed at getting the colonists to support the strong central government in the ConstitutionAntifederalists- opposed to the Constitution for many reasons, most because they feared that the strong central government was not going to protect the individual rights of the citizensCompromise: The Bill of Rights would be added to the Constitution, thereby protecting the rights of citizensThe ConstitutionThe “Living Constitution”- intentionally skeletal; a blueprint for the structure of government; branches have evolved:Legislative Expansion of PowerNecessary and Proper Clause- aka Elastic ClauseExecutive expansion of power through executive orders (same effect as law but doesn’t require Congressional approval) executive agreements (between foreign leaders, basically the same as treaties but don’t require Senate approval) and communication with the electorate through Oval Office addresses and mediaJudicial expansion of power- done through Marbury v Madison in 1803; said that Supreme Court has the power to overturn laws that are deemed unconstitutional; called judicial reviewPolitical-party system has developed Federalism- system of government in which the national and local (state) governments share power (US, Germany, Switzerland and Australia)Delegated, or enumerated powers belong solely to the national government:Printing moneyRegulating interstate and international tradeMaking treaties and conducting foreign policyDeclaring warReserved powers- belong to the states10th Amendment says any power not specifically given to the national government belongs to the stateissue licensesregulate intrastate commerceConcurrent powers- shared between the national and state governmentsCollect taxesBuild roadsOperate courtsBorrow moneyDenied Powers- listed in the ConstitutionDenied to the Federal Government: suspension of writ of habeas corpus <except in national crisis>, passage of ex post facto (retroactive) laws, or issuance of bills of attainder (declare someone guilty without a trial); imposition of an export tax, use of money without appropriations bill, granting titles of nobilityDenied to the State Governments: treaties with foreign nations, declarations of war, maintenance of a standing army, printing money, passage of ex post facto laws or issuance of bills of attainder, granting titles of nobility, import or export dutiesPromises of the national government to the states:Republican form of governmentProtection from foreign invasion and domestic rebellionPrevent the states from subdividing or combining without Congressional consentPromises of the states to the national government:Accept court judgments, licenses, contracts, and other civil acts of all other states: full faith and credit clauseWill not refuse political protection or access to their courts to a us citizen who lives in another state: privileges and immunities clauseReturn fugitives to the states from which they have fled: extraditionSupremacy Clause- in disputes between federal and state law, the federal law will winFederalismFederalism has changed over time; early period is called dual federalism- national and state governments were quite separate from each other with the national government sticking to national issues (aka layer cake)marble-cake federalism- federal government boundaries begin to blur (around New Deal time)Fiscal Federalism- now; federal government is involved in most state powers- gives them moneyMost federal government programs (aid to poor, clean the environment, improve education, protect handicapped) administered through the states with the federal government giving money- fiscal federalismLiberal vs Conservative Views of Fiscal Federalism:Liberals- want strings attached to money given to the states for government programs so that the federal government stays in control; they prefer categorical grants (aid that has strings attached)Conservatives- want the decisions about fund usage and programs to be left up to the states; federal government is not in total control; they prefer block grants (blocks of money that the states can use as they see fit)Solution: the national government uses a variety of methods:Direct orders and preemption- force states to follow national government’s ordersCross over sanction- require states to do something before grant money will be givenOur GovernmentSeparation of Powers- borrowed from French philosopher Montesquieu; no one faction (branch) of the government will be able to acquire too much power:Separate and Equal powers to the three branchesExecutive- enforces lawsLegislative- makes the lawsJudicial- explains or interprets the lawsNo one can serve in more than one branch of the government at the same timeChecks and Balances- prevent one branch from becoming dominant; they must share power and cooperateLegislation-President can veto lawsCongress can override veto with a 2/3 voteCourts determine the constitutionality of a law and can throw it out if they think it is unconstitutional Nomination-President chooses judges, cabinet officials and ambassadorsSenate approves or reject nomineesTreaties-President negotiatesSenate must approve by 2/3 voteAmendment Process:Informal- laws passed by CongressFormal- Proposed amendment introduced to both houses of Congress and approved by 2/3 vote; each of the 50 state legislatures gets it and ? must ratify (states can be forced to use a ratifying convention as was used with the 21st amendment)2/3 of state legislatures can petition for a constitutional convention; people are scared of this because it could result in drastic change; a recent call for this dealt with a balanced budget amendment and was defeatedAmendments:Bill of Rights- first 10 amendments1st- freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly and petitionFreedom of Religion- Free exercise Clause- you are free to practice any religion you wantEstablishment Clause- congress will not establish a national church nor give any preferential treatment“wall of separation” between church and stateNeed to know Lemon test (look it up)Supreme Court Cases to know-Engle v VitaleLemon v KurtzmanFreedom of speech and press-No law preventing opinionsLimits:No child pornography Limits on obscenitySpeech can no incite violenceNo libel or slanderCriticism of government is okClear and present danger test- if it is going to cause danger it is not okSupreme Court Cases to know: (Schenck v United States, Tinker v DesMoines, Texas v Johnson, “Bong hits for Jesus")Freedom of assembly and protestPeacefully only and can be limited by registration requirements, etc.Can’t encourage or incite violence2nd- right to bear arms-debate over whether this means individuals can own weapons under all circumstances or only when serving in a state militiaNRA is a major interest group that works with thisCourt CasesSupreme Court CaseUnited States v MillerBrady Bill- restrictions on handgun purchases3rd- no quartering of soldiers, 4th- no illegal search or seizure, right to privacymust have a warrant from a judge or probable cause to search Key Court CasesMapp v OhioGriswold v ConnecticutKatz v United StatesRoe v Wade5th- no double jeopardy, right to remain silent and not give testimony that will incriminate you, due process (must be treated fairly and given all the rights you are due)6th- right to a fair, speedy, public trial, right to a lawyer, right to witnesses, jury trial in criminal cases7th- right to a jury trial in civil casesDue ProcessProvided by 5th and applied to the states by the 14th AmendmentWrit of Habeas Corpus- in the Constitution, police have to show evidence as to why someone is being held for a crimeKey court CasesEx parte MilliganEscobedo v Illinois (lawyer)Gideon v Wainwright (lawyer)Miranda v Arizona (informed of your rights)8th- no cruel/unusual bail, fine, punishmentKey Court CasesGregg v Georgia9th- protects citizens’ rights from the states10th- states have any power not granted to the national government, reserved powers amendmentKey court Cases for 9th and 10th-Cruzan v Missouri Dept. of Health14th Amendment- the bill of rights protected citizens from abuse by the national government but not the state governments; this amendment done after the civil war said that states have to give citizens their due process laws but it did give full equal protection. This has been done on a case by case basis and is called selective incorporation.Voting Rights Amendments-15th 1870- voting rights to all men17th 1913- direct election of US Senators (previously they were chosen by the state legislatures)19th 1920- voting rights to women23rd 1961- residents of Washington, DC get to vote in presidential elections24th 1964- outlawed polls taxes26th 1971- lowered voting age from 21 to 18Other Important Amendments- 13th 1865- abolished slavery16th 1913- congress can impose and collect income taxes18th and 21st- began and ended prohibition22nd 1951- limited president to two terms (FDR broke the previous trend before WWII)25th 1967- VP selection process and assume presidency if president is disabled27th 1992- congressional pay increases don’t go into effect until after the next election Important things NOT in the Constitution:Judicial review- courts can declare laws or acts of the government unconstitutional, established by the supreme court in marbury v MadisonPolitical parties and conventions- framers did not like themThe cabinetState and Local GovernmentsStates are free to form whatever type of government they wish, but most are structured after the federal governmentGovernors- head of the executive branch in the states, similar powers to the President except most have the line-item veto powerBicameral Legislatures- all states except for NebraskaState judiciaries that consist of trial and appellate courts, civil and criminalLocal Governments: more varied, 86,000 +, most have three branchesState and local raise money through taxes, income taxes, property and business taxes Public Opinion and the Mediapublic opinion- how the public feels about something; most people care very little about political issues, especially those that don’t immediately affect themCharacteristics of Public Opinion-Saliency- degree to which it is important to an individual or group; Social Security has high saliency amongst older voters, low saliency amongst young votersIntensity-how strongly do people feel about it?, high intensity of even a small group of people can have a political influence far more than low intensity of a large group <ex: gun control; majority favor stricter legislation at a low intensity but NRA is a small group that has a high intensity opposed to stricter legislation- they win>Stability- how will public opinion change over time?Polls- used to measure public opinionUse random sampling to polls a representative cross section of the publicQuestions must be carefully worded to avoid bias, questions are multiple choice and close-ended to yield more accurate resultsAccuracy is not 100%; measured with a sampling errorWhere does public opinion come from?Through individual views that are developed through political socializationFactors of political attitudes-Family- most people affiliate with the same party as their parentsSchoolReligious institutionsMass mediaHigher Education- traditionally are more liberal, but conservative colleges are popping upReal life experiencesPolitical Ideologies- coherent set of thoughts and beliefs about politics and government- three most common:Conservative- individuals are responsible for their own well-being and should not rely on the government, tend to oppose government interference in the private sector, oppose federal regulations on business and economy, most do support government action on social issues that they deem “moral” issuesLiberal- government should be used to remedy the social and economic problems that people face, government should regulate the economy, support affirmative action, strictly enforce separation of church and stateModerates- largest portion, nearly ? of the population in 1993; no coherent ideologyUS vs other western democracies- people are not highly ideological; extreme political parties that exist in Europe don’t really exist here, Americans don’t gold to their political beliefs stronglyMost politically ideological are the most active, more likely to join organizations and participate in political activities, most likely to vote in a presidential primary so the candidates tend to be more extreme in the primary race and more moderate in the general raceDetermining Factors in Ideology and Behavior-Education Level- more education= more liberal and more activeRace/Ethnicity- African Americans and Hispanics tend to be more liberal; Cuban Americans are more conservativeReligion- Jewish and African American Protestants are more liberal, Catholics used to lean heavily to the left but are now becoming more conservative especially on social issues, devout white protestants are the most conservativeGender- women are more liberal than men, more likely to support Democrats, social welfare programs and less spending on the militaryIncome Level- higher income tend to be more supportive of racial and sexual equality but less supportive of liberal social welfare programs; lower income more conservative on all issues except social welfareRegion- arise from different economic and social interests, Midwest is highly unionized and liberals tend to do better, south is more religious and more conservative, east coast racial diversity makes it more liberal, liberals tend to be in citiesRole of the Media- important role in public opinion, they expose people to politicians and can act as intermediaries between the government and the peopleNews Media- news broadcast on television and radio, newspapers, news magazines, magazine broadcast programs, interview programs, political talk radio, websites, blogs and online forumsIncrease over time in amount and influencePublic Agenda setting- the most important role the media plays, they decide which news stories to cover and which to ignore attempting to gauge what the public is/will be interested inPrimary way that politicians communicate with the publicMedia is primary concerned with the day-to-day activities of candidatesDoes the media have the power to alter public opinion?Only when coverage is extensive and strongly positive or negative (ex: Vietnam War coverage was very negative)No clear answer to is the media biased; but can be based onWhat they choose to reportTime and space allotted to issuesSources used to get informationSpecial Interest Groups- Lobbyists and PACSOften criticized component of politicsInterest group- a public or private organization, affiliation, or committee that has as its goal that others adopt its viewpoint, they want to influence legislation to fit their goals (ex: if I am a lobbyist for stay at home moms, I want bill passed to help my group out)Lobbyists and Political Action Committees do the work of the interest groupsInterest Groups and Political Parties: Similar: they identify with a common set of beliefs and are part of a groupDifferent: interest groups don’t nominate people for office, I.G. only have to make their members happy, not the public at large; Good things about Interest groups- they speak for citizens and can help get important bills passed; they offer information to legislators on topics the legislators don’t have time to go research themselves, they can “check” legislators by holding them accountable for the way they vote and informing the public on how the legislators vote on the issuesBad things about Interest groups- they create gridlock, they can do bad things like bribing or offering campaign funds in turn for votesJames Madison in Federalist 10 had a deep fear of interest groups and political parties but thought that the Constitution set up a government that was able to protect against the bad effects of themTypes of Interest GroupsEconomic and Occupational (business, labor unions, trade associations, professional associations)National Association of ManufacturersAir Line Pilots AssociationAFL-CIO- 13.2 million membersEnergy and EnvironmentSierra ClubAmerican Petroleum InstituteReligious, Racial, Gender, EthnicNational Organization for WomenNAACPNational Urban LeaguePolitical, professional, ideologicalNational Rifle Association- 3.1 million membersVeterans of Foreign War- 2.1 million membersInterest groups have offices in Washington, DC, staffs, and most have hired lobbyistsImpact of Interest groupsTestify at congressional hearingsContact government officialsProvide info to officialsSend letters to constituentsInfluence the pressSuggest legislationGive feedback to legislatorsMake contributions through PACs to campaign committeesTake congressmen on trips and dinnersEndorse candidatesWork on campaignsLobbyists- the people who do the work on special interest groupsGood things for lobbyists to do is be honest, know your goals, use friendly persuasionBad things: bribe, use contacts made when you were in office <many are former politicians themselves>, blackmailPACs- political action committeesRaise money and make contributions to campaigns on behalf of interest groupsAmount on money given by PACs is rapidly increasingPolitical PartiesNot mentioned in the Constitution- the framers disliked them and hoped to prevent them from formingHad become a mainstay by 1800- formed by people united in the struggle over how strong the central government should beParty purposeEndorse candidatesGet them elected 2 party system (Democrats and Republicans) reinforced byElectoral System- winner-take-all system means that the majority winner gets all of the electoral college votes from that state makes it virtually impossible for 3rd parties b/c their support is so minimal they cannot get a majority of the votes.Party strength has weakened in the USThe party no longer chooses the candidate- since 1960 candidates have been selected through state-run primary electionsCandidates raise their own money now and don’t get it from the partyParty leaders no longer control the candidateMultiple candidates from each party can splinter the party3rd partiesSplinter parties (aka bolter parties)- break off of major parties, ex: Reform PartyIdeological parties (aka doctrinal parties)- have a whole system of beliefs, ex: LibertarianSingle-issue parties- have one issue they are promoting, ex: American Independent PartyIndependent Candidates- run with NO party affiliationFunctions of political parties:Recruit and nominate candidatesEducate and mobilize votersProvide campaign funds and supportOrganize government activityProvide balance through opposition of two partiesReduce conflict and tension in societyParties are separate at the national, state, and local levels (the national Democratic party does not control the Georgia Democratic party which does not control the Douglasville Democratic party)National conventionOrganized by the national partyHeld every 4 yearsNational PartyRaises funds Soft money: unlimited contributions for “party-building activites”Corporations, unions, trade groups cannot give money directly to a candidateAre parties in decline?Many believe that they are no longer as strong as they once wereSince 1968, one party rarely controls both the executive and legislative branchesSplit ticket voting in on the increase, voting for a different party in the President and CongressSplit ticket voting leads toDivided government (one party in the White House, the other in Congress)Gridlock because branches are at odds with each otherParty dealignment (voters aren’t as solidly supporting a party anymore)Candidates no longer need the party to communicate with voters- they have the TV!Voting coalitions (groups of people who vote a certain way) make a big difference for parties. They tend to go after these groupsRepublicans in 2000 election sought “angry white male” Protestants, the religious right, veterans’ groupsDemocrats in 2000 sought city dwellers, environmentalists, blue-collar workersDemocrats tend to be:Not into defense spendingNo into using public money to send kids to private schoolsLess supportive of school prayerMore into spending money on social welfare programsMore money for public educationMore money on government health programsMore into tax relief for lower and middle classesLess into gun ownershipRepublicans tend to be (the opposite on the Democratic things listed above!)Party realignments-We coalitions shift and change the party they supportVery rare- usually occur after economic depression or warSignaled by a critical election- a new party comes to dominate electionsLast one in 1932 after the Great DepressionDealignmentThe trend todayInstead of switching parties, people are no longer supporting a partyDemocratic party membership has declinedIndependents have increasedRepublican party has stayed the sameNow the democratic and republican party membership is about equalElectionsHeld every 2 years by federal governmentEvery election has House of Representatives running; every other has President; two out of three have SenatorsStates have their elections at the same time (save money)Congressional IncumbentsWin almost 90% of the timeHave an easier chance of winning in the House than the SenateElection CycleNomination- voters chose the candidates for the parties39 states use primaries over caucusesHeld from Jan-late Spring of the election yearRun by the individual states3 typesClosed primary- most common, only registered party members can voteOpen primary- any voter can vote, but only in one party’s primaryBlanket primary- voters can vote for any candidate <only Alaska and Washington>Candidate who wins a plurality of votes wins, and delegates attend the national convention from each state to vote for the candidates that won the primary in their stateSuper-delegates- only in the Democratic party, many elected party leaders who aren’t tied to any state winner and can vote for whichever candidate they wantGeneral Election- voters decide who will hold the officeHeld the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November every two yearsPresidential elections- President is being chosenMidterm Elections- President is not being chosenCampaigns take a long time- up to 2 years, candidates must get endorsements, support of political parties, public attention and raise LOTS of moneyCampaign FundingSome federal funding:Primary matching funds (if you receive more than 10% of the vote in an election)- they will match all donations of $250 and underGeneral election campaigns are funded for the major parties only if they agree not to accept any other fundsMoney spent is increasing (Obama spent over $700 million)No federal funding for any other races- only PresidentialThere are limits on how much people, PACs and 527s can giveElectoral College- officially selects the PresidentWhoever wins the state gets their electoral votes (# of Reps + # of Senators)Can lead to candidates targeting specific statesCan also lead to someone being President who lost the popular voteMedia influence on campaigns in increasingNews media rarely talks about the candidate positions on issues, instead focusing on the day to day activitiesCampaign advertisements- attempt to build an image with the public?Examples of Checks and Balances:- separation of branches: legislative, executive, judicial- legislative branch = Congress divided into Senate and House of Rep.- overlapping of power and shared duties- judicial review separate to check powers of other two branchesPolitical Values: Liberal - classical liberalism: minimize role of government (threat to rights and liberties), stressed individual rights, protection from governmental harassment- government protecting individuals fr. abuse by forces - business, market, discrimination- positive use of govt. to bring justice and equality of opportunity- right to own private property- government intervention in economy, protection from bad health care, housing, education- believe in: affirmative action, worker's health and safety protections, tax increasing with increased income, union rights to organize / strike, minimum wage- progress, better future, overcome obstacles, trust in govt.- people are equalPolitical Values: Conservative - small govt., especially national govt., with exception for national defense- people need strong leadership institution, firm laws, strict moral codes- failures are responsible for their misfortune, need to deal to solve their own problems- status quo = change in moderationTraditional Conservative- pro-business; against high taxes, antitrust, trade, environmental regulations on corporations- govt. = family values, protect nation fr. foreign hostilities, preserve law and order, enforce private contracts, foster competitive markets, encourage free / fair trade- opposed New Deal (30's), War on Poverty (60's), civil rights / affirmative action programs- help should be cared for by family and charities; faith in private sector- government social activism = expensive, inefficient, counterproductive; private giving, individual voluntary efforts for social / economic programsSocial Conservatives- strong govt. action against porn and drugs- stringent limitations abortion- New Right, ultraconservatism, Radical Right (1980's): freedom, protection of US interests abroad, organized school prayer; oppose job quotas, busing, homosexuality tolerance- Christian Coalition: pro-family, anti-abortion, anti-gay, right to prayer in public schools religious symbols in public placesclosed primary: primary in which only person registered in party holding primary may voteselection of VP candidate - choice of vp nominee made at convention, timely announcement to enhance media coverage momentum- balance ticket: woman VP (Mondale), from different regionprimary function of PAC's: political arm of interest group legally entitled to raise funds on voluntary basis from members, stockholders, or employees in order to contribute funds to favored candidates or political parties- seek influence by giving money and political aid to politicians- persuading officeholders to act or vote a certain way- interest groups want to influence election of legislators and what they do in office- categories based on interest representing: corporations, trade / health org., labor unions, ideological organizations, etc. Bakke vs. UC Regents (1978): affirmative action of UC system = unconstitutionalWho can we elect directly in elections?- president (and VP)- senators by 17th amendment- house representatives- mayorsCongressional conference committees: committee appointed by president officers of each chamber to adjust differences on particular bill passed by each but different forms- both parties represented = majority party with more members- bargaining process to create identical measure for submission to chambers- acceptance / rejection by chamber report = negotiations but no amendments- House has more impact on final outcome in conference committees by approving initial bill first and setting agenda on issueWhy Supreme Court Justices have life tenure (Fed. #78)- life tenure instead of frequent elections prevent justices from ruling to keep their jobs or meet up to the public's current moodsWhy are committees more important in the House than in the Senate?Committees are more important in the House than in the Senate because the House involves more representatives where the way things are done affects what is done (Pg. 248). Therefore, they assign different types of bills to different calendars for quicker action and the different committees provide opportunity for legislators to be involved as well as develop expertise(??).Source of Supreme Court Caseload- appeals come by means of discretionary writ of certiorari: formal writ to bring case b4 SC- cases of broad public significance- cases where rulings of courts of appeals conflict - supreme court decides which ruling- (chart on pg. 320) Supreme Court connected to: court of appeals for armed forces, 12 courts of appeals, court of appeals for federal circuit, and state courts of last appealPresidents trying to influence Congress - bully pulpit: threatening to use position against Congress- threat of veto: pocket veto and item veto- patronage- social events, leadership meetings, bill-signing committees- campaign aid: special appearance at fundraising event or visit during campaign- constituency favors for certain legislator's constituents- log-rolling: expanded bargaining with Congress where president passes certain congressional legislation in exchange for support on his initiatives- appeal to media and publicPresidents and the Judiciary- presidents appoint, senate confirms; selects with advice and consent of Senate- considers judges party affiliation, race, gender, and ideologyBrown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)marked the beginning of the judicial era of civil rights. The Supreme Court used Brown v. Board of Education to set aside its earlier precedent of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), overturning the doctrine of "separate but equal." The Court held that school segregation was inherently unequal. The Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education was based on the legal argument that segregation violated the Fourteenth Amendment. In 1955, once again in Brown v. Board of Education (Brown II) (1954), the Court ordered lower courts to proceed with "all deliberate speed" to desegregate public schools; however, desegregation moved very slowly until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which denied federal funds to segregated schools. (HOM)Civil Rights in the 1950's- Brown vs. Board of Education (1954): separate but equal = unconstitutional- Civil Rights Act of 1957: federal crime to prevent person from voting in fed. electionsRights of Free Speech- clear and present danger: govt. cannot punish person for speech unless it presents clear and present danger that will lead to illegal acts… shouting fire in crowded theater- nonprotected speech: libel, obscenity, fighting words, commercial speech- libel: written defamation of another person - obscenity: quality or state of work, when taken as whole, appeals to prurient interest in sex by depicting sexual conduct in offensive way, lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value?Gitlow v. New York (1925)Freedom of speech and press are among rights granted in the 14th amendment from impairment by the states. Basically, states’ rights could not deny any individual freedom of speech or press on a state level anymore because it was protected under the first and fourteenth amendments. (Book Ref. Page 365)Shay's Rebellion- rebellion by farmers in western Massachusetts to protest mortgage foreclosures- demonstrated need for stronger national government- timing: call for Constitutional ConventionFederal System of Government- federalism: separation of state and national government- dual federalism: Constitution gives limited powers (foreign policy, national defense) to national government, most powers to sovereign states, supreme court as umpire btw. national govt. and state govt.- cooperative federalism: deliver govt. goods / services to people, cooperation among levels of govt. to get job done- marble cake: all levels of govt. are involved in issues and programs- competitive: national govt. and 50 states competing to assemble packages of services, taxes, and seeking support from citizens- permissive: sharing of power and authority between national / state government states' portion depends on permission / permissiveness of natl. govt.- new federalism: Nixon, Reagan, Bush; return fiscal resources and management responsibilities to states through large block grants and revenue sharingVoting Tendencies: Jews tend to vote Democrat, as do African Americans, Lobbyist- person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to influence decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches?Presidential nominating trends?Congressional Standing Committees: permanent subject-matter committees, formed to handle bills in different policy areas. In Congress, the typical representative serves on two committees and four subcommittees, while senators average three committees and seven subcommittees each. During the mid to late 20th Century, prior to Congressional reforms, power in the House of Representatives was primarily concentrated in those senior members who chaired the standing committees.?Powers of the President: treaty, appointment, enforcement of laws?Budget and Impoundment Control Act: Congress’ own financial research (a check on the OMB of the executive branch). Provides budget calendar, report by April 1st. Specified how a president could spend or refuse to spend monies approved by Congress.?Competition in Congressional Races: Competition is scarce. Challengers are reluctant to run for office due to the political scrutiny of candidates as well as the high cost of campaigning. As a result, the Rates of Incumbent Reelection in Congress are extremely high, and the most qualified person for a given position may not necessarily hold the office.?Congress Supreme Court relations?War Powers Resolution: Declared henceforth that a president can commit the armed forces of the US only: 1- after a declaration of war by Congress; 2- by specific statutory authorization; 3- in a national emergency created by an attack on the US or its armed forces. This must be reported to Congress within 48 hours. Unless Congress declares war, the commitment must end in 60 days.?1992 Congressional election: PACs have proliferated in recent years and play a major role in paying for expensive campaigns. PACs contributed $178 million to congressional candidates for the 1992 campaign.?Civil Rights Act of 1964: Provided for the enforcement of: the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes.?Fourteenth Amendment (Incorporation Doctrine): provides the rationale for the process by which fundamental freedoms have been applied against state action through interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment.?McCulloch vs. Maryland (1819): the Supreme Court ruled that because of the "necessary and proper" clause in Article 1, Section 8, the national government had additional powers that were implied in that clause. Implied powers are powers of the national government that flow from its enumerated powers and the "elastic clause" of the Constitution. (Burns 63)?Political Socialization: The process through which a person acquires knowledge, a set of political attitudes and forms opinions about the political system and other social issues. Agents of socialization are numerous; they include family, the media, and schools. A family's role is central because of its monopoly on two crucial resources in the early years — time and emotional commitment.?Gideon vs. Wainwright (1963): the Court extended the same right to everyone accused of a felony, ruling that defendants in all felony cases had a right to counsel, and if they could not afford to hire an attorney, one must be provided free of charge.?Baker vs. Carr (1962): Supreme Court ruled that a voter could challenge legislative apportionment on the grounds that it violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. (Burns 245)?Most important influence in a Presidential election: Money? Media? Momentum??Advantages of incumbency: name recognition, free mailings (franking privilege), greater access to the media, PAC money, campaign experience, casework, credited for allocation of federal money (Burns 245)?The House and Senate Rules: the chairs of the standing committees are held by members of the majority party, but not necessarily the most senior members of that party. Both parties in both houses permitted members to vote on committee chairs. Today, seniority remains the general rule for selecting chairs, but there have been notable exceptions. In order to be debated on the floor, the House Rules Committee must give each bill a rule, or approval for its appearance on the floor (unless the bill is privileged or the rules are suspended), as well as the conditions under which a bill can be debated on the floor of the House of Representatives.. The House Rules Committee can kill a bill even after it has been recommended by a standing committee by refusing to perform any of the above.?Impeachment Process: Majority vote of the House to impeach, 2/3 vote of Senate to commit.?Interest Groups influence: influence political agenda by financially supporting candidates whose ideological views coincide with those of the interest group.?Boundaries of Congressional Districts is determined by whom: state legislatures?Public Monies are used to finance which campaigns: Monies for public funding of Presidential campaigns are contributed by individual citizens at income-tax time.?? Diversity of public policy is a consequence of: the diversity of political opinions in society, which in turn influences the government's policy agenda.?Increased Presidential Power since post 1945: According the Arthur Schlesinger, the Imperial Presidency results from: The swelling of the presidential bureaucracy, the pressures of the cold war and demands for secrecy in the name of national security have produced a president who is increasingly ISOLATED and UNACCOUNTABLE. Centralization of decisions of war and peace into the presidency -- due to cold war, prolonged war in Vietnam. Decay of the traditional party structure led to the presidency as "the central focus of political emotion." Nixon tried to isolate himself from challenge.?Congressional Oversight of the Bureaucracy: congress ensures that laws and policies approved by congress are faithfully carried out by the executive branch and accomplish what was intended.?Earl Warren Decisions - Brown v. Board, Miranda v. AZ:Miranda Warnings their right to remain silent; that what they say can be used against them in a court of law; and, that they have a right to have a lawyer present during an interrogation, and that a lawyer will be provided if the accused cannot afford one. ?Miranda vs. Arizona (1966): set guidelines for police questioning of suspects. Before suspects are questioned, they must be given the Miranda warnings.?Reserved powers clause: The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively?Critical elections - 1824: Andrew Jackson and the Democrats; 1860: The Civil War and the Rise of the Republicans; 1896: A Party in Transition (Republicans and the Progressive Era); 1932: Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal Alignment.?Voting Rates of 18-24 yr olds: the lowest.?Media Coverage of Political Campaigns: Success in the nomination game generally requires money, media attention, and momentum. New Hampshire primaries typically get an overwhelming amount of media attention. Running for the presidency has become a full-time job, and prominent politicians find it difficult to take time out from their duties to run, consequently, there in a greater reliance by the candidates on the mass media in the presidential nominating process. ?Electoral College: the electoral system used in electing the president and VP, in which voters vote for electors pledged to cast their ballots for a particular party’s candidates. Created originally out of mistrust of the general populous and its general vote.?Political Parties in the U.S. Two main parties: Republican and Democratic. Third parties in our history include: Anti-Masonic- William Wirt, American (Know-Nothing)- Millard Fillmore, Democratic (Sessionist)- J.C. Breckinridge, Constitutional Union- John Bell, People’s (Populist)- James B. Weaver, Bull Moose- Theodore Roosevelt, Socialist- Eugene V. Debs, Progressive- Robert M. La Follette, State’s Rights (Dixiecrat)- Strom Thurmond (now 100), Progressive (2)- Henry A. Wallace, American Independent- George C. Wallace, National Unity- John Anderson, United We Stand, America (yes, that is the real name)- Ross Perot, Reform- Ross Perot trying a new title, Reform again- Pat Buchanan, and Green- Ralph Nadar.?Regulate interstate commerce: Congress holds this power. Commerce includes production, buying, renting, selling, and transporting of goods, services, and properties. The commerce clause packs a tremendous constitutional punch; it gives Congress the power “to regulate Commerce with foreign nations, and among the states, and with the Indian tribes.” ?Mapp vs. Ohio (1961) Supreme Ct. adopted a rule excluding from a criminal trial evidence that was illegally obtained. (A.K.A. the exclusionary rule) (Book Ref. Page 393)?Line item veto: unconstitutional. This constitutes only vetoing specific parts of a bill and handing it back - now it’s all or nothing baby.?Iron triangle: the relationship between congress, interest groups, and the bureaucracy. ?Plurality: A candidate or party wins the most of the votes cast, not necessarily more than half. ?Cabinet members influence?Fundamental source of power for the federal bureaucracy:?Establishment clause in the first Amendment: Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion. (This including any governmental support of religion as interpreted today.)?Griswold vs. Connecticut: personal privacy is recognized as a right. ?Roe vs. Wade (1973): the Court divided pregnancy into three stages. In the first trimester, a woman's right to privacy included an absolute right to an abortion free from state interference. (A state cannot forbid abortions during the first trimester of pregnancy). In the second and third trimesters, the state's interest in the health of the mother gave it the right to regulate abortions in certain cases. (Opinion written by Supreme Court Justice Harry Blackmun)?Legislative Oversight by Congress?Importance of the 14th Amendment: extended rights of equal protection and essentially applied the bill of rights to the states.Legislative BranchMake sure you know all of the vocabulary words and can identify them. You should be able to define: Congress, Senate, House of Representatives, apportionment, gerrymandering, session, expressed powers, implied powers, inherent powers, nonlegislative powers, standing committee, select committee, joint committee, and conference committee. Additional words to know: cloture rule, filibuster, interest group, lobbyist, propaganda, quorum, oversightWhy do we need a bicameral legislature?- Historical reasons: that’s what they were used to. Great Britain had been bicameral and most colonies already had bicameral legislatures.Theoretical reasons: they didn’t want the legislative branch to become too powerful. This would split the power within the branch to keep it from taking overPractical reasons: large and small states were fighting over whether to have representative equal for all states or based on population. If we had a bicameral legislature both could get their way.Qualifications for the Senate and the HouseHouse of RepresentativesSenate25 years old30 years old7 years a citizen9 years a citizen2 year term6 year termBased on population2 senators per state <equal>435 total100 total Led by the Speaker of the HouseLed by the President of the Senate <VP of the Country> or the President pro tempore Has the sole power to call for an impeachmentTries an impeachment <has the final say>Has the power to make laws dealing with taxesApproves presidential appointments and treatiesOur Reps- David Scott and Lynn WestmorelandOur Senators- Saxby Chambliss and Johnny IsaksonTerms and Sessions- Term- 2 year meeting of Congress; we are on the 110thSession- the time each year that the Congress meets; President has the power to prorogue a session <end it> if house and senate can’t agree on when to do itSpecial Session- called for by the President if an emergency situation arises and Congress is not in session; total Congress- 26 times; just Senate-46 timesApportionment and GerrymanderingApportionment- when the number of seats in the house of representatives is distributed to the states; this number changes every ten years with the census, but the total number stays the same <435>Gerrymandering- when the party in charge draws district lines in the state in to help out their party <add one for their district or take away a district of the other>Senate is a Continuous Body- because 1/3 of its members are elected every 2 years <you never have the risk of having a senate full of new people>Ways Members of Congress Can Vote-Trustee- votes according to what they think is best (“the people trust me”)Delegate- votes how the people back home want (“I’m representing them”)Partisan- votes however the party wantsPoliticos- take everyone’s desires into account when making a decisionPowers of CongressExpressed Powers- clearly stated in the Constitution; power to tax, borrow money; regulate commerce; establish currency and coin money; bankruptcy; post offices; weights and measures; copyrights and patentsImplied powers- not stated, but necessary if Congress is going to do its job; necessary and proper clause says Congress can make any law necessary to do its job as long as the law is properNonlegislative powers- constitutional amendments, elect the president of vice president if necessary, impeach the president, approve appointments and treaties, investigate issuesInherent powers- natural to have; foreign relations <national security>, immigration laws, naturalizationLeaders-Presiding Leaders- Speaker of the House ((Nancy Pelosi)); President of the Senate ((Joe Biden)) <VP> or President pro temp ((Robert Byrd))Party Leaders- Majority and Minority Leaders; Majority and Minority WhipsCommittees-Standing Committees- permanent committees that oversee bills that pertain to their specific topic. The House has 19 standing committees and the Senate has 17. The standing committees are the ones that oversee all bills that go through Congress. Chairman is chosen by seniority rule and members are elected.Select Committees- aka special committees; temporary, usually formed to investigate an issue; members are chosen by the Speaker of the House or President of the SenateConference Committees- created when a problem over a bill arises between the two houses; remember that both houses have to agree to identical versions of the bill before it is sent to the PresidentTypes of Bills/Resolutions-Bill- a proposed lawPublic bill- applies to the whole public <no driving while on the phone>Private bill- applies only to a certain place or certain people <you can’t change the color of the fountain in Centennial Olympic park>Joint Resolution- proposal for action on a temporary issue <ex: Hurricane Katrina>; has the force of law; requires President’s signatureConcurrent Resolution- states the position of Congress <ex: We don’t agree with the presidential action>; does not have the force of law; no pres. SignatureResolution- deals with matters within the house <ex: the house will only meet Monday through Thursday> no force of law; no presidential signatureBills are read three times- Why? Because they want to make sure everyone knows what they are voting for and fully understands the billBill to a Law- Idea- the bill is just an idea in the minds of citizens, members of Congress or President; they write it up and call it a billIntroduction- bill is introduced to house or senate; given a name, a number and assigned to a committeeCommittee Action- committee assigns it to a subcommittee; they discuss and investigate; report back to the whole committee, they debate make any changes needed and vote. No- it dies; Yes- it goes on to the…Floor- first the bill is placed on the calendar; if it is in the House it must first be approved by the House Rules committee; once on the floor it is discussed and debated, read two more times and finally voted on. No- it dies; Yes- it goes on to the….Other House- the WHOLE process starts over again. If no- it dies, If yes- it goes back to the…Original House- They must agree to the bill; If they like it- straight to the President; If it has been changed and they don’t like it, then it goes to the…Conference Committee- creates a compromise bill that both houses can agree to, both houses have to vote to accept the compromise then it goes to the…President- President can veto, sign it, or not do anything for 10 days and it becomes a law anyway!Filibuster- an attempt in the Senate to talk a bill to death; if they don’t agree with the others and they want to stall the vote they will take the floor and talk as much as possible to wear everyone out until they don’t care about the bill anymoreCloture Rule- the only real way to end a filibuster in SenateFloor Vote- there are four methods of taking a floor vote:Voice voteStanding voteTeller VoteRoll Call VoteInterest Groups- groups with common interests that attempt to shape laws that are madepropaganda- a technique of persuasion used to influence the way people think/feel about an issueLobbyists- the people that do the work of the interest groups with Congress; they are around members of Congress, talk to them, help with research, make sure they understand the legislative process and the people they are representing and try to convince the members of congress to vote the way they want them to; do it through friendly persuasiongrass roots- interest groups that represent the people- average American citizens1946 Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act- the first law limiting lobbyists; said they had to register with the clerk of the house or secretary of the senatelobbying disclosure act of 1995- everyone must register and give name, address, business name, actions they are taking and congress members they are working withThe Executive Branch and the Election ProcessRoles of the President- Chief of Party- leader of the party, helps people within the party get elected or appointed, campaigns for some party members, gives speeches for the partyEx: gives a speech at a party rally, campaigns for a party member running for officeCommander-in-Chief- leader of the armed forces, all military leaders meet with and take orders from the President, president is in charge of troops and weaponsEx: Inspects a military base, decides whether to use nuclear weaponsChief Executive- carries the laws and affairs of the nation, has all of the executive powers given to the executive branch by the ConstitutionEx: appoints the head of CIA, appoints a judge, holds a Cabinet meetingChief of State- represents the country at public events, ceremonies and receptionsEx: awards medals to students, lights the White House Christmas tree, greets visitors to the White HouseChief Diplomat- interacts with the leaders of other countries, involved in developing agreements and treatiesEx: meets with the leader of another country, words on a peace planChief Legislator- voices his opinions and ideas about which laws need to be passed, gives speeches to Congress about the laws they makeEx: Signs or vetoes a law, works to get a law passed by CongressChief Administrator- makes sure that the government and all of the people who work for it are doing their jobs and running smoothlyEx: meets with department leaders to make sure that all departments are running smoothlyChief Citizen- makes sure that the needs of the citizens are being met and that they have a voice in the government; regularly meets with citizens to hear their point of view on issues Ex: meets with citizens to hear their feelings about an issueQualifications and Benefits-Must be 35 Years OldMust be a natural born citizenMust be a resident of the US for at least 14 yearsInformal- Must be well educated, have past political experiencesBenefits: $400,000 a year, $50,000 a year expense account, live in the White House, have cars and planes, use Camp David as a vacation home, and many other perks!Presidential Succession-1947 Presidential Succession Act- the plan for filling the office of president if it is vacant; this gives us the order of who would become President25th Amendment- This amendment told us how to select a new vice president if the current one dies/resigns/is removed from office/becomes the President. It says that the President gets to choose the new VP and that Senate and Congress must approve; the 25th Amendment also says that the VP fills in as President if the President is disabled or otherwise unable to do the jobOrder of Succession- Vice President-Speaker of the House- President pro-temp- Secretary of State-Secretary of the Treasury- Secretary of Defense- Attorney General- Secretary of the Interior- Secretary of Agriculture- Secretary of CommerceRoles of the Vice President- The VP is the President of the Senate, he is the President in waiting, and he is responsible for determining <if necessary> whether the President is disabledPowers of the PresidentExecutive Powers- execute all federal lawsOrdinance Powers- power to give orders to employees of the federal governmentAppointment Powers- power to appoint ambassadors, cabinet members and aides, heads of independent agencies, judges, officers in the armed foces (Senate must approve these appointments>Removal Power- can remove people that he has appointed from office <fire them>Diplomatic Powers- make treaties/agreements with other countries, recognize the legal existence of other countriesMilitary Powers- these must be done in with Congress; make decisions about where to use troops and weapons, recommend the declaration of war to CongressLegislative Powers- recommends laws, vetoes or passes bills, calls a special session of CongressJudicial Powers- can grant reprieves, pardons, clemencyThe Federal Bureaucracy- The Executive Branch of the Federal government is divided into three parts:Executive Office of the President- helps the President; includes the White House Office staff, the national security council, the office of Homeland SecurityExecutive Departments- do much of the work of the federal government; 15 departments that each oversee a topic; these Chief Officers of each department are selected by the President and make up the President’s CabinetIndependent Agencies- groups of people that are not part of a particular department that do work on a specific topicThe President’s Cabinet-Made up of the 15 Department ChiefsThe members of the Cabinet <the leaders of the departments> are chosen by the President and approved by the SenateTheir job is to help the President make decisions and do his workAlmost always, they are chosen from the President’s political party and have past political experiencePolitical PartiesTwo Party System-Republicans <see notes in IN on Republican beliefs>Democrats <see notes in IN on Democratic beliefs>Minor Parties- Ideological- set of beliefs on social, economic and political matters <Green party today, Libertarian party>Single-Issue- only one public policy matter Economic Protest- upset about problems with the economy Splinter- broke off from one of the major partiesThe Different Political PartiesDemocratic Party- gov’t should help less fortunate w/ social programs (use tax money to do this); gov’t should stay out of personal decisions like abortion & gay marriageRepublican Party- gov’t should set boundaries on social issues like abortion & gay marriage; gov’t should not be involved in improving the economy (private business & free market system are better)Libertarian Party- 3rd largest party; believes in liberties, free enterprise, & personal responsibilities; person issues similar to Dem.—economic issues similar to Rep.Green Party- environmentalism, non-violence, social justice; want people involved in gov’t & gov’t should be accountable to peopleRoad to the White HouseThrowing your hat in the ringannouncing that your runningTeddy Roosevelt coined the phrase in 1912Primary Elections & caucuseshelps candidates to become known by the publicthese elections are held by political parties to determine the party’s pick for the general election (narrowing it down to one candidate in each party)a caucus is a meeting of members of a particular political partyNominating Conventionofficial meeting of a political party to officially select the political party’s presidential candidateheld in the summer before the general electiondevelops the party’s platformCampaigning and MORE Campaigningan effort to influence potential votersuse of propaganda to sway votersget the message out of what the candidate believes in or wants to doGeneral Electionthe people vote—the popular votein November every 4 yearsElectoral Collegeframers of the Constitution established the Electoral Collegein the General Election, people are really voting for electors who will cast the official vote for president in December following the General Electionthe number of electors for each state is determined by the number of senators and representative (EC = S + R)winner takes all—if a candidate wins the popular vote in a particular state, the candidate receives all of the electoral college votes (except in Maine & Nebraska)270 or more Electoral College votes = winner!a candidate can win the popular vote but still lose the electionInauguration-The day every four years on which the President of the United States is sworn in and takes office. The next one is January 20, 2009The Judicial BranchThe Judicial Branch is outlined in Article 3 of the Constitution.The main job of the Judicial Branch is to interpret the laws.One of the problems with the Articles of Confederation was that it did not set up a national judiciary. There was no body that could settle disputes between states. So, when they were creating the new system with our constitution, they created a dual system with state and federal courts.The US has a dual system of courts:Federal Court system- consists of approximately 120 courts; Supreme Court at the top, then two types of lower courts- Constitutional Courts and Special Courts.Constitutional Courts- judges have lifetime appointments; 94 District Courts, 12 US Court of Appeals, S Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, US Court of International TradeSpecial Courts- judges do not have lifetime appointments; US Court of Federal Claims, Territorial Courts, Courts of the District of Columbia, US Tax Court, US Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, US Court of Appeals for Veterans ClaimsState Court System- consists of thousands of courts; all 50 states have their own system of courts; cases from these courts, though, can be heard by the Supreme Court on appeal.Types of Jurisdiction- Jurisdiction tells us which court is going to hear a case. There are four types of jurisdiction:Original jurisdiction- the first court to hear a caseAppellate jurisdiction- a court that hears a case on appealExclusive jurisdiction- cases heard only by the federal courtsConcurrent jurisdiction- cases heard by both the federal and state courtsDistrict Courts- there are 94 district courts (each state has at least one- GA has 3); they have original jurisdiction over most cases heard in federal courtsSupreme Court Jurisdiction- the Supreme Court has both original and appellate jurisdiction-Original- it hears cases that involve foreign diplomats and cases in which a state is a party (citizen v state, state v state, state v foreign country)Appellate- it hears other cases that have worked their way through the appeals processHow can you tell if it is going to be heard in a federal court?- The crime- there are some crimes that are automatically heard in federal courts. (Ex: counterfeiting, mail theft); any crime that takes place on the seas is heard in a federal courtThe people- there are some instances where the people involved in a case move it to federal court:A federal officer or agentAn ambassador, diplomat or other foreign country representativeOne of the 50 state suing another state, a resident of another state, a foreign government or a citizen of a foreign countryA citizen of one state suing a citizen of another stateA US citizen suing a foreign government or citizenFederal Judges-Chosen by the President and approved by the SenateNo formal qualifications (although most have prior legal background, have been judges or politicians, are part of the President’s political party and have the same beliefs as the President)They are called the lasting legacy of the President, because they are around much longer than the Pres and can carry on his/her beliefs and values through the decisions that they makeFederal Judges (Supreme Court and Constitutional Courts) serve for life <Wow!> This is stated in the Constitution!Supreme Court- Called the highest court in the land because it has the authority to review all decisions made in any lower court. It has the final say when considering the constitutionality of laws and executive acts.There are 9 US Supreme Court justices.The leader of the Supreme Court is called the Chief JusticeJudicial Restraint vs Judicial Activism these are the two philosophies of how judges make their decisions. Judicial Restraint- judges should not initiate change, they should follow the precedent set in earlier cases and should go with how laws were originally intended (this tends to be a more conservative standpoint); they believe that their personal feelings should not really impact how they decide casesJudicial Activism- judges should initiate change, they should decide cases based on the changes in society; their personal feelings weigh into how they decide casesUS Court of Appeals- They relieve the workload of the Supreme court and hear appeals Hears cases that have been appealed from the district courts, the US tax court, the territorial courts, the courts of the district of Columbia and from federal regulatory agencies“gatekeepers” – they are called the gatekeepers because they relieve the Supreme Court of the burden of hearing all of the cases that are appealed. Only the most controversial and important cases get past the gate to the Supreme CourtJudicial Review- this is a power held by most state and federal courts. It is the power to decide whether acts of the government (or laws) are constitutional. In the case of the Supreme Court, it is the power to decide constitutionality AND to review decisions made by the lower courts.Marbury v Madison- This was the 1803 decision of the Supreme Court that gave us judicial review. The opinion was written by Chief Justice John MarhallSupreme Court Opinions- Majority Opinion- the decision of the court in a case, this is a written document that states the decision and explains the reason behind itConcurring Opinion- this is a written document by a justice who agrees with the majority opinion but has a different reason/point that he/she wants to highlightDissenting Opinion- this is a written document by a justice (or justices) who does not agree with the majority decision, they explain why they disagreeCourt OfficersMagistrates- chosen by the district judges, 8 year terms, issue warrants, set bail, try minor casesBankruptcy judge- chosen by court of appeals judges, 14 year terms, handle bankruptcy casesUS Attorneys- nominated by Pres approved by Senate, 4 year terms, government’s prosecutors, work with FBI, bring fed. Criminals to trial, represent the US in civil casesUS Marshals- nominated by Pres approved by Senate, 4 year terms, make arrests, hold people in custody, secure jurors, serve legal papers, keep order, respond to emergency situations, provide security for judgesPOLICYMAKINGOne of government’s primary roles is to make policy that will solve society’s problems. In the United States allthree branches of government and the bureaucracy make policy. Many other organizations try to influencegovernment decisions and programs, including special interest groups, research institutes, corporations, stateand local governments, as well as individual citizens.THE POLICYMAKING PROCESSThe policymaking process regularly makes news headlines, but it is not easy to understand how the overallprocess works. Every policy has a unique history, but each one generally goes through five basic stages:1. Recognizing the problem/agenda setting - Almost no policy is made unless and until a need isrecognized. Many different groups and people may bring a problem or issue to the government’sattention through interest group activities or court cases. People within the government itself havetheir own agendas that they push, including the president, bureaucratic agencies, and members ofCongress. Of course, these sources do not agree on which issues are most important, so getting thegovernment to set an agenda that prioritizes problems is quite a challenge.2. Formulating the policy - If enough people agree that government needs to act, then a plan of actionmust be formulated. At this stage, generally several alternative plans from various political groups areformed. For example, if the issue is gun control, interest groups from both sides will push for differentsolutions, and reaching a solution almost always involves compromise all around.3. Adopting the policy - In this third stage, the policy becomes an official action by the government. Itmay take the form of legislation, an executive or bureaucratic order, or a court decision. Policy is oftenbuilt in a series of small steps passed over time, so this stage may be quite complex.4. Implementing the policy - For an adopted policy to be effective, government must see that it isapplied to real situations. For example, if new gun control laws are set in place, government officialsmust make sure that the general public knows about them. They must also put enforcement in placeand see that violators are punished appropriately.5. Evaluating the policy - Evaluation of the good or the harm created by a policy usually takes placeover an extended period of time. Policies that may seem sound at the start may have unforeseennegative consequences or unexpected costs. Inevitably, some will call for changes and/or corrections,and others will disagree. The whole process occurs again, starting with recognition - or re-recognition -of the problem. As a result, policymaking is a continuous process, and government at any given time isat various stages with numerous issues.ECONOMIC POLICYHow much responsibility should the government have for keeping the United States economy healthy? Thatquestion has been answered in many different ways throughout our history. Until the twentieth century thecountry followed the laissez-faire (literally, “to leave alone”) policy, which required a free market without anyintervention from government. With President Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal era of the 1930s came Keynesianeconomics, or the opposite belief that the government should manage the economy. Today the U.S. economicpolicy lies somewhere in between - government should regulate and sometimes manage, but should allow afree market whenever possible. Political and business leaders disagree on how much control is enough.The budgeting of public funds is one of the most important decision making processes of government. Nothingreflects the growth in public policy and the rise of big government more clearly than the increased spending bythe federal government. For example, in 1933, the annual federal budget was about $4 billion. Today thenational budget is more than $2.5 trillion, or about 20 percent of the gross domestic product. The national debtis about $4 trillion, and in 2004 the deficit (amount overspent in a given year) was about $412 billion.FISCAL POLICYFiscal policy affects the economy by making changes in government’s methods of raising money and spendingit.Where the Money Comes FromNot surprisingly, most government revenue comes from taxes, but some comes from interest, fees, andborrowing.??Federal Income Taxes - The income tax is the largest single source of federal revenue today,providing almost 40% of the national government’s total revenues. It is a progressive tax - the higherthe income and ability to pay, the higher the tax rate. Not only individuals pay income taxes,corporations do, too. About 10 percent of federal government revenues come from corporate incometaxes. Today tax codes are so complex that most ordinary citizens don’t understand them. As a result,many critics have called for tax codes to be simplified.??Social Insurance Taxes - The largest social insurance taxes are for Social Security and Medicare.Employers apply these taxes to their employees, who are then eligible to receive Social Security benefitswhen they get older. Social insurances taxes fund the Social Security and Medicare programs. Thesetaxes account for almost 1/3 of the total federal government revenues collected.??Borrowing - The government regularly borrows money - most of it from its own taxpayers - to fund itsexpenses. Deficit spending occurs when the government spends more money than it takes in withinany given fiscal year. Starting in the early 1990s Congress began considering required balanced budgetamendments/ legislation in order to cut the national debt. With increased tax revenues from theeconomic boom of the 1990s, deficit spending decreased and turned into a surplus, but governmentsgenerally borrow more money during wartime than during peace, so the war on terrorism and the warin Iraq put the country back into deficit spending during the early 2000s.??Other Taxes - A small percentage of revenue comes from other taxes, such as excise taxes, estatetaxes, customs, duties, and tariffs. Excise taxes are levied on goods and services, such as liquor,gasoline, cigarettes, air travel, and telephones. These are regressive taxes, meaning that they are thesame for everyone, and are not based on income. Estate taxes are levied on the money and propertythat are inherited when an individual dies, but are generally only levied on large estates. Customs,duties, and tariffs are levied on goods imported into the United States.Where the Money GoesThe government now spends more than $2.5 trillion a year, as provided in the federal budget. Each year thePresident submits a federal budget for approval by Congress for money to be spent starting in October of thatyear. Government spends its revenue on many different things, but three major categories are entitlements,national defense, and the national debt.??Entitlement Programs - These payments are required by law, and are given to people meetingparticular eligibility requirements. The largest programs are Social Security (pensions for olderAmericans), unemployment insurance, Medicare (medical benefits), and federal retirement pensions.Social Security and Medicare amount to about 41 percent of federal spending per year.??National Defense - The second largest amount goes for national defense. Today about 18 percent ofthe total budget goes for defense, in contrast to 28 percent in 1987, when the cold war was still goingon. However, the current war on terrorism and the war in Iraq have escalated defense expendituresagain, up from about 16% in 2001.??National Debt - The third largest amount - about 8 percent - pays interest on the national debt, afigure that has also decreased in recent years.Other expenditures are highway construction, education, housing, and foreign aid.MONETARY POLICYMonetary policy is the government’s control of the money supply. The government can control how much orhow little is in circulation by the amount of money that they print and coin. If too much money is out there, ittends to cause inflation, or the devaluation of the dollar. Too little money in circulation and the opposite –deflation - occurs. The powerful arm of government that controls the money supply is the Federal Reserve System, which is headed by the Federal Reserve Board. The board is designed to operate with a great deal of independencefrom government control. One important way that the “Fed” controls the money supply is by adjusting interestrates - high rates discourage borrowing money, and low ones encourage it. The Federal Reserve Board’s seven members are appointed by the president and are approved by the Senate for 14-year, nonrenewable terms, and the president may not remove them from office before their terms are up. The chair is elected by the board for four years, and may be reelected. The Board heads the Federal Reserve System, which was created by Congress in 1913 to regulate the lending practices of banks. It consists of 12 regional banks, which in turn supervise a total of about 5,000 banks across the United States.FOREIGN POLICYUntil the 20th century, the United States was generally guided by an isolationist foreign policy, or thephilosophy that we should avoid “entangling alliances” (the words of George Washington) whenever possible.Then, in the 20th century our involvement in World War I and World War II thrust us onto the world stage.In the years after World War II, the United States was guided generally by containment, the policy of keepingcommunism from spreading beyond the countries already under its influence by about 1950. The policy appliedto the United States’ role in the cold war, a struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union for worldpower. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, containment no longer made sense, so in the past tenyears, the U.S. has been redefining its foreign policy.We have been active participants in many international organizations, such as the United Nations, butAmericans disagree on just how much world involvement is appropriate. And then with the September 11attacks on the World Trade Towers and the Pentagon, the United States finds itself spearheading aninternational war on terrorism. These developments conjure up the old questions within a very different set ofcircumstances. How actively should we fight terror? What, if any, are the limits? President Bush’s decision toinvade Iraq in 2003 to remove Saddam Hussein from power was controversial, and remains so, especially as thecoast of the war has escalated.FOREIGN POLICY GOALSTo try to redefine foreign policy under the new set of circumstances brought about in 2001, we can begin withthe Department of State, whose primary duty has always been the security of the nation. State Departmentgoals include:??Protecting national security??Providing international leadership in developing world peace??Insuring a balance of power; keeping aggressive nations from overpowering weaker ones??Cooperating with other nations in solving international problems??Promoting human rights and democratic values??Fostering cooperative foreign trade and globalization of trade through international organizationThese goals are both national and international in nature, and the 2001 attacks on the World Trade Towers andthe Pentagon confirm the fact that national and international interests are not easily separated any more.President George W. Bush used a policy of preemption to justify the war in Iraq, or the principle of attackingbefore being attacked. A major reason for invading Iraq presented by the Bush administration was to locateand destroy weapons of mass destruction within the country’s borders. However, such weapons were neverfound during the U.S. occupation of the country.WHO MAKES FOREIGN POLICY?Many people and organizations within government have a hand in setting United States foreign policy. Themain objective of foreign policy is to use diplomacy - conferences, meetings, and agreements - to solveinternational problems. They try to keep problems from developing into conflicts that require militarysettlements.??The President - The leader in foreign policy is almost always the president. Presidents, or theirrepresentatives, meet with leaders of other nations to try to peacefully solve international problems.According to the Constitution, presidents sign treaties with other nations with the “advice and consent”of the Senate. So the Senate, and to a lesser extent, the House of Representatives, also participate inshaping foreign policy. Presidents may also make executive agreements with other heads of state thatdo not require Senate approval.??The Secretary of State - As the head of the State Department, the Secretary is the chief coordinatorof all governmental actions that affect relations with other countries. The State Department alsoincludes the Foreign Service, which consists of ambassadors and other official U.S. representatives tomore than 160 countries. Ambassadors and their staffs set up embassies in the countries and serve asthe major American presence in their respective assigned countries. They protect Americans abroadand are responsible for harmonious relationships with other countries.??The National Security Council - As part of the Executive Office of the President, the Council helpsthe president deal with foreign, military, and economic policies that affect national security. Itsmembers are the president, the vice president, the secretary of state, the secretary of defense, and anyothers that the president designates. The national security adviser coordinates the Council, and oftenhas as much influence as the secretary of state, depending on his or her relationship to the president.??The Central Intelligence Agency - One of the most famous of all government agencies, the CIAgathers, analyzes, and transmits information from other countries that might be important to thesecurity of the nation. Although the CIA is best-known for its participation in “spy” cases and “topsecret” investigations, much of its work is public and routine. The CIA director is appointed by thePresident and confirmed by the Senate. With the passage of a major intelligence bill in late 2004,intelligence gathering was altered significantly. The bill created a national intelligence director, whocertainly will play a major role in shaping foreign policy in the future.MILITARY POLICYUntil 1947 the Cabinet-level official most directly responsible for military policy was called the secretary of war.The name changed to “secretary of defense,” and the department that this official heads has more federalemployees than any other in the government. The department of defense is headquartered in the Pentagon,where about 25,000 military and civilian personnel work. The secretary of defense is always a civilian, and hesupervises three large military departments - Army, Navy, and Air Force.Under the Constitution, the president is commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and he has used thatauthority to order American military forces into combat on many occasions. During peacetime, his mostimportant military powers are those he exercises through the secretary of defense in managing the Departmentof Defense. The president and secretary of defense make important decisions regarding the military budgetand distribution of funds among the military services.The most important military advisory body to the secretary of defense is the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Its fivemembers are the chiefs of staff of the three military departments, the commandant of the Marines, and a chair.All of the service chiefs are appointed by the president and must be confirmed by the Senate. Only thesecretary of defense, however, sits on the president’s cabinet and on the National Security Council.SOCIAL POLICYThe preamble to the Constitution states that “We the People of the United States, in Order to create a moreperfect Union, establish Justice, promote the general Welfare, do ordain and establish this Constitution.” Socialpolicy is set with this important charge in mind.The interpretation of the government’s responsibility for the welfare of its citizens has changed over time andremains controversial today. The government currently assumes major responsibilities in three key social policyareas: health care, welfare, and education.HEALTH CAREHealth care is controversial today concerning the issue of a national health insurance program. In 1993Congress defeated President Bill Clinton’s proposed plan to provide all citizens with basic insurance coverage fordoctor fees, hospitalization, and prescription drugs. On the other hand, most people accept government’s rolein medical research and regulating food and drugs. The Public Health Service researches, gathers information,and monitors health care. The Food and Drug Administration regulates the labeling and processing of mostfoods, drugs, and cosmetics. The Center for Disease Control gained a new importance during the 2001 Anthraxscare following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Towers and the Pentagon.WELFARETo many Americans, the phrase “welfare” - right out of the preamble to the Constitution - often conjuresimages of irresponsible recipients who take welfare payments from the government instead of working. Intruth, most Americans during their lifetimes will be the recipients of government welfare. The most extensivesingle welfare program is Social Security, a social insurance plan for the elderly, poor, and disabled. Employeesand employers contribute to a fund through payroll taxes, and virtually everyone who contributes for at leastten years is eligible for payments. Most Americans support the program as long as it’s called “Social Security,”and not “welfare.” Other public assistance programs include Medicare, Medicaid, Aid to Families withDependent Children, and food stamps.EDUCATIONPublic education is generally regarded as the responsibility of states and local communities, so the federalgovernment’s role in this area is limited. Today most federal funds go to higher education, primarily in the formof student loans and grants. Since the 1950s the federal government has provided funds for public educationgrades 1-12, particularly for programs to upgrade science, language, and mathematics. Other programs, suchas Head Start for preschoolers, focus on helping underprivileged children. However, the federal governmenttoday funds less than 10 percent of the total amount spent on education in the United States. A recentinitiative by President George W. Bush is Leave No Child Behind, a comprehensive program that sets standardsand schedules for testing, curriculum, and teacher qualifications. The program has been controversial, partlybecause it has imposed unfunded mandates on the states.REGULATORY POLICYThe U.S. government first began regulating individuals, businesses, and its own agencies during the late 1800s.Since then, the government’s regulatory role has grown rapidly, so that today most activities are regulated insome way by the federal government. Important regulatory activities of the government include:??Regulating business - The national government began regulating business in the late 1800s in orderto eliminate monopolies, businesses that have exclusive control of an industry. Government nowregulates a wide array of business practices, including elimination of competition and fraudulent productofferings.??Regulating labor - Labor regulations became a major focus of the government during the 1930s.Then as now, most labor policies have been made to protect the American worker. The governmenthas promoted equal employment opportunities, safe and sanitary workplace standards, and fairbargaining practices between employer and workers.??Regulating energy and the environment - Energy policies are coordinated by the Department ofEnergy, created in the late 1970s in the wake of worldwide oil and gas shortages. A major concern ofenergy policy makers is maintaining a supply of cheap energy that the country depends on for most ofits activities. Many are alarmed by the country’s dependence on Middle-Eastern Oil, and others keep awatchful eye on depletion of U.S. natural resources and damage to the environment. Environmentalpolicy, on the other hand is the responsibility of many different government departments and agencies.Especially important is the Environmental Protection Agency, which enforces policies on water and airpollution, pesticides, radiation, and waste disposal. ................
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