RGS History – The Newcastle RGS History blog



Key themes and contents coverageBuild up of tension in Palestine, 1919-47The Balfour Declaration and the British Mandate Jewish immigration(know some figures) the reaction of Palestinians;The Arab Revolt (1936)Clashes between Jews and Palestinians. The Peel Commission and the McDonald ReportThe Impact of the Second World WarJewish terrorist activities. The creation of Israel and the war of 1948-9The British announcement of their withdrawal and hand over to the UN; UN partition plan and UN resolution agreeing to the creation of a Jewish state; Arab opposition and the outbreak of fighting between Jews and ArabsThe British Withdrawal and the proclamation of the state of IsraelFirst Arab-Israeli War: why Israel appeared weak; the first phase and the truce;the Second phase and the truce of 1949Reasons for the Israeli victory Results of the 1948-49 war for Israel, the Palestinians and the Arab statesJewish immigration and Palestinian RefugeesSupport for Israel.The Suez CrisisThe Arab states and Israel after 1948 (attitude and actions, 1948-56). Nasser’s motives for the nationalization of Suez Canal. Joint British, French, Israeli attack. UN action and the attitudes of the Superpowers. Anglo-French withdrawal. Israeli gains.Effects of Suez on the Middle EastIncreased superpower involvement after SuezThe Arab-Israeli conflicts of 1967 and 1973Nasser and Arab aims v Israel. Israeli attack in 1967. Events of Six Day War. Israeli gains. Reasons for Israeli successThe impact of the Six Day War and the Occupied Territories on Israel’s relations with Arab CountriesArab attack on Israel on Yom Kippur (1973). Arab motives and other causesReasons for early Arab success and eventual Israeli recoverySuperpower involvement in the Middle EastReasons for US support for Israel: support after World War Two; US government aid for IsraelUS interests in the wider Middle EastReasons for and nature of Soviet support for the ArabsSuperpower involvement in SuezThe Six Day War and the passing of UN Resolution 242The impact of the PLO and Palestinian terrorism on the WestSuperpower involvement in the Yom Kippur war, on bringing about the cease fire and moves towards peaceThe Impact of the Oil Shock on the westThe Middle East, 1919-1995The attempts to find a lasting peace, 1979-95The role of the PLO and Palestinian terrorism The reasons for Camp DavidThe motives of Sadat, Carter and BeginThe terms of the Camp David agreement of 1979The impact of PLO and Palestinian terrorism on Israel, Israel’s response and its relations with Arab countries.Intafada of 1987Attempts to achieve peace between Israel and the PLOWhy did Israel, PLO and US enter the Oslo Acords?The terms and result of the Oslo Peace Accords of 1993 and 1995.Build up of tension in Palestine, 1919-47The Balfour Declaration and the British Mandate Jewish immigration(know some figures) and the reaction of Palestinians, including the Arab Revolt (1936)Clashes between Jews and Palestinians. The Peel Commission and the McDonald ReportThe Impact of the Second World WarArab and Jewish terrorist activities. The Balfour Declaration and the British MandateBritish made contradictory promises to Arabs and Jews during the WW1 (e.g. MacMahon Letter + Balfour Declaration). Arabs desired to free themselves from Ottoman (Turkish) rule, hence were prepared to fight with the British against the Turks in the Middle East. In return the British were prepared to promise to support the creation of an independent Arabia. But the desire by the British government to also win over Jewish support for the war effort resulted in a promise (Balfour Declaration) to support the idea of a ‘homeland’ for Jews in Palestine. Such seemingly conflicting promises created a foundation for future problems. Three key developments show this conflict:1915, MacMahon Letter – promised support to the Arabs to create an independent Arabia1916, Sykes-Picot Agreement – Anglo-French agreement to divide the ex-Turkish territories of the Middle East between them1917, Balfour Declaration – seemed to be a promise to the British Zionist movement to support the idea of a Jewish ‘homeland’ in Palestine after the war. Under the post-war treaties (Treaty of Sevres, 1920) the former Turkish territories were sub-divided amongst the British and French to be governed as League of Nations ‘Mandates’: Syria and Lebanon to France; Palestine, Trans-Jordan, Iraq to Britain. The British now had the difficult task of trying to govern Palestine which became seen by ‘Zionists’ as the natural homeland for Jews, but also by the Palestinian Arabs as their home.Jewish immigration (know some figures) and the reaction of Palestinians, Causes – Jewish immigration was built on movements from before 1914. Persecution of Jews in parts of Europe (especially Russia) in the period 1880-1914 and the Zionist movement had led to Jewish immigration and the formation of settlements (e.g. Tel Aviv) by 1914. After 1918 Jewish migrants were tempted by the stability which the British mandate over Palestine seemed to offer. This was coupled with the impact of the Balfour Declaration which seemed to support moves towards an independent Jewish homeland. Economic forces also persuaded many Jews to migrate – the idea of a better life in Palestine was attractive to some. Restrictions on immigration into the USA between the wars meant that Palestine was one of the few options for Jews who wished to migrate from Eastern Europe and Russia. Later the impact of Nazi persecution had an effect between 1933 and 1939.The effects of Jewish immigration… Produced Jewish settlements in Palestine, these ranged from large towns (e.g. Tel Aviv) to communal farms (called ‘Kibbutz’). Widespread economic development occurred as Jews invested in, and worked on, the land. Jews bought up significant areas of land to farm (Jews invested $250million in Palestine between 1919-39). Jewish organisations developed to help the Jewish people, e.g. the Jewish Agency was the most significant Jewish body which existed to act as a sort of government for the Jews; a militia force, the Haganah, was formed to protect Jewish settlements.Between 1919 and 1939, 360,000 Jews migrated to Palestine; by 1939 Jews made up one-third of the population of Palestine. But this also produced tensions between the Jewish settlers and the Palestinian Arab population and this led to clashes. Furthermore, the growing presence of Jews made the task of the British in trying to govern Palestine so much more difficult. In the long-term Jewish immigration provided the foundation to push for the creation of an independent Israel in the 1940s.The reaction of Palestinians. Clashes were numerous, e.g. Jaffa, 1921; Wailing Wall Incident and Hebron Massacre, 1929. Dozens of deaths occurred each year, and sometimes many more when larger scale clashes happened. Clashes intensified during the period of the Arab Revolt, 1936-39 (see below).British policies and actions in controlling Palestine, 1920-1939. Britain had a tough task of trying to police Palestine. However, it could be argued that British policies did not help the situation by often being contradictory. Arab Revolt, 1936-39 This was a response to the growing concern and sense of injustice over the increasing Jewish influence in Palestine. The British were seen by the Arabs as favouring the Jews and doing little to prevent immigration or growing Jewish settlement. The British were also regarded as acting in a harsh manner towards Arabs.A general strike by Arabs was added to by violence against both the British forces and Jews. Fighting between the Arabs and the British, and between Jews and Arabs took Hundreds of Arabs and Jews died in the course of this conflict and dozens of British soldiers and police. Long term effect - the British began to seriously consider their place as the governors of Palestine. Plans were developed to prepare for a form of self-government for both Jews and Arabs in Palestine.The Peel Commission1937 Peel Commission was appointed to investigate the cause of unrest in the Mandate and its Report admitted for the first time that the Mandate had become unworkable. It’s solution was to partition the territory to create two separate states.The Jewish people accepted the Report with mixed feelings as an opportunity for sovereignty.The Arabs opposed the partition plan and condemned it unanimously, as it would give the Jews the "best land in all of Palestine... including 82% of all citrus production in the country, Arab and Jewish". Citrus was Palestine's most valuable crop and principal export. Policies to support the Arabs – immigration controls on Jews were imposed from 1936 which reduced the number from 60,000 in 1935 to 11,000 in 1938; 1939 MacDonald Report removed the proposals of the Peel Commission and proposed a mixed state following a British withdrawal (this was supposed to give equal rights to Jews and Arabs, who would be the majority), The report also recommended further controls to limit Jewish immigration to a maximum of 10,000 per year for five years; restrictions on the amount and location of land Jews could buy were also imposed from 1939.Meanwhile, British troops such as Orde Wingate, trained Jewish militia to defend themselves (Secret Night Squads).By 1939 the British troops numbered over 20,000 in an attempt to maintain order.The Impact of the Second World WarThe war brought about significant developments in Palestine: A reduction in British strength on the international scene; development of influence of USA and USSR; In addition, the Holocaust created three key outcomes: A large wave of Jewish migrants to Palestine, A surge in sympathy in the West (particularly the USA) for the creation of a Jewish homeland; Growth in Jewish terrorist activity against British control of Palestine.Jewish terrorist activities. After 1940 there was a growth in extremist Zionist circles of the belief that Britain was the principle barrier to the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The policies of the late-1930s were interpreted as shutting off the prospect of Britain pushing for a separate Jewish state. British restrictions on Jewish immigration were tightly imposed from 1940, with some migrants being forcibly turned away and even forced to return to areas influenced by the Nazi regime (in 1947 a ship, the ‘Exodus’, carrying Holocaust survivors, was turned back to Germany). Tough British reprisals against Jews led to more moderate groups to turn against the British from 1946, with even David Ben Gurion (Head of the Jewish Agency and de facto leader of the Yishuv) approving Haganah action against British troops.Radical terrorist groups were formed (e.g. Irgun and the Stern Gang) which conducted operations against British soldiers and police. Irgun was led by later Israeli Prime Minister in the 1970s, Menachem Begin.The most dramatic was the 1946 King David Hotel bombing in Jerusalem. British soldiers were killed. The British Minster of State in Egypt, Lord Moyne, was assassinated in 1944.There were two principal consequences of this terrorist activity:Terrorism was a factor in persuading the British government to seek to withdraw from Palestine after the war;Jewish fighters gained more experience in military-style operations, which was to be helpful in the Arab-Israeli War of 1948-9.The creation of Israel and the War of 1948-9The British announcement of their withdrawal and handoverUN partition plan and UN resolution agreeing to the creation of a Jewish state\Arab opposition and the outbreak of fighting between Arabs and JewsThe British Withdrawal and the proclamation of a the state of IsraelFirst Arab-Israeli war: why Israel appeared weak; The First phase and the truce;The Second phase and the truce of 1949Reasons for Israeli victoryResults of the 1948-9 war for Israel, the Palestinians and the Arab states.Jewish immigration and the Palestinian refugeesThe British announcement of their withdrawal and hand over to the UNIn 1947 the British asked the UN to take back the Mandate for Palestine – Britain was preparing to withdraw. British Motives Britain was finding it very difficult to police Palestine (100,000 police and troops were being used by 1947); the impact of the Jewish terrorist activities (there was public concern in the UK that British troops were being killed without a decent political reason) – 388 British troops killed in Palestine between 1945-48; the economic and military strain of fighting the Second World War meant Britain had to cut back somewhere; the British Labour government was committed to reducing the scale of Britain’s overseas commitments and to increasing its spending on welfare in the UK.UN Partition Plan, 1947 The United Nations drew up proposals for a divided Palestine. But this was rejected by the Arabs who claimed that the Jews would have every advantage from the proposals (e.g. the Jews would have the best farm land). The General Assembly of the UN voted to approve the partition plan. The date for British withdrawal was set for 14th May 1948.Arab Opposition and the outbreak of violence between Jews and Arabs, 1947-48. It was clear that once the British had decided to pull out of Palestine that the situation was suddenly much more open. Jewish and Arab groups realised that without British soldiers and police any future struggle for the region would be between themselves. Both sides now began to increase their actions to try to gain the advantage. Best placed to do this were the Jews with their militia groups (Irgun, Haganah) already established and armed. Both sides expanded their military strength – Arabs importing 10,000 rifles from neighbouring Arab states; Jews introduced conscription to the Haganah and ordered weapons from Czechoslovakia. From mid-1947 the scale of clashes between Arabs and Jews increased greatly – most notable was the ‘Battle for the Jerusalem Roads’ in which the Jews hoped to secure the route from Jaffa to Jerusalem which would also cut the Arab-held territory in two. Atrocities were committed by both sides in this struggle, most notably at Deir Yassin (April 1948), a village which was devastated in an Irgun raid in which most of the inhabitants were massacred. By May 1948 300,000 Arabs had fled from Palestine into neighboring Arab states (Was this one aim of the Jewish actions in 1947-48?).The British withdrawal and the proclamation of the State of Israel, May 14th 1948The withdrawal of Britain from Palestine produced the Jewish declaration of independence. David Ben Gurion became the first Prime Minister of the newly declared Israel. Ben Gurion had been chairman of the Jewish Agency previously. The Arabs rejected the notion of a separate state of Israel.First Arab-Israeli War, 1948 – The War of Israeli IndependenceWhy Israel appeared weakImmediately the state of Israel was declared the neighbouring Arab states (members of the Arab League) invaded to support the Palestinian Arabs in their attempt to overthrow the Jewish state. Arabs outnumbered Jews, and Israel was surrounded by hostile Arab states who immediately mounted invasion on all sides. The key states to invade Israel were Egypt, Syria and Jordan. The First phase and the truceMay-June 1948: Arabs pushed deep into Israel. Clashes took place between the two sides. The Israelis fought desperately, seemingly against the odds and managed to hold off many Arabs attacks. A ceasefire was negotiated by the UN in late-June. The Second phase and the truce of 1949July-Sept 1948: The Jews were able to bring in more equipment previously ordered from Czechoslovakia. This enabled the Israelis to push back the Arabs in many places. A second ceasefire was brokered in late-July. Proposals put forward for a partitioned Palestine guaranteeing Arab rights and the return of the Palestinians who had fled. Israelis rejected this;Oct 1948-Jan 1949: Israelis had the upper hand pushing back the exhausted Arabs. The only Arab force which fought with distinction was Jordan’s Arab Legion which held onto the ‘old city’ of Jerusalem. The Egyptians pushed back to Gaza and the Sinai, the Syrians pushed back to the Golan Heights. Reasons for Israeli victoryPalestinian and Arab forces were not as effective as might be thought (lack of united action, exhaustion of ; the Arabs also tended to act in their own self-interest and signed separate truces when it suited them (e.g. Jordan once it held the West Bank); in contrast the Israelis grew in effectiveness as the war unfolded (experience of the Haganah helped, as did that of Jews who had fought in the British army during the Second World War, Jewish forces were also well-disciplined and well-led); the Israelis became better armed as the war unfolded (especially after the June 1948 ceasefire), they could import weapons from abroad partly paid for by contributions of money from Jews abroad, especially in the USA; the Jews were fighting for their homeland and their existence, whereas the Arabs lacked resolution once the going became tough.Results of the 1948-9 war for Israel, the Palestinians and the Arab states.The survival of the new state of Israel which could begin to build itself after 1948; The state of Israel was now over 80% of the territory from the previous area of Palestine (more than would have been allocated to the Jews under the UN Partition Plan; Egypt still held Gaza, Jordan held the West Bank and East Jerusalem, Syria held the Golan Heights); Arab states signed a series of separate truces with Israel in 1949; Arab states refused to recognise the state of Israel, instead they vowed to destroy it; The mass migration of Palestinian refugees into neighbouring Arab states (800,000 Palestinians, mostly living in refugee camps); Israel emerged as a nation on high alert for another Arab attack (Israel was born out of a war and this shaped the nature of the state) or simply from the Palestinian refugees who desired to attack Israel (‘Fedayeen’ fighters); Jewish immigration and the Palestinian refugeesIsraeli grew swiftly after 1948 – in six years the population of Israel more than doubled from 770,000 to 1.7million by 1954 (largely through immigration encouraged by the ‘Law of Return’).Flood of Palestinian refugees out of Palestine – in 1947-48 the significant majority (about 700,000) of Palestinian Arabs fled from Palestine into neighboring Arab states. The fighting between Arabs and Jews from mid-1947 through to early 1949 produced the circumstance for a mass movement of Arab refugees who feared the consequences of being caught either by Jewish forces as they expanded their control, or simply feared the effect of the war.International Support for IsraelFrom 1945 the US government was a major voice in calling for the creation of the state of Israel. In 1946 President Truman demanded the immediate entry of 100,000 Jews as migrants into Israel. In 1947 the USA and the USSR had both agreed to the creation of the state of Israel, and in 1948 were among the first states to recognise the newly formed Israel. This political support was supplemented by financial support, both official and unofficial. The US government gave the new state of Israel $65million of aid in the period 1948-51, but millions more was donated by private companies, individuals, and Jewish organisations with the United States. The US government turned a blind-eye to military equipment sold from the USA to Israel after 1948, although it did not yet support direct military assistance to Israel (this was to come later in the 1960s). Some countries did agree to sell Israel weapons, especially the French, who sold large numbers of military aircraft for the new Israeli Air Force in the 1950s.The Suez CrisisThe Arab states and Israel after 1948 (attitude and actions, 1948-56). Nasser’s motives for the nationalization of the Suez Canal.Joint British, French and Israeli attack.UN action and the attitudes of the Superpowers.Anglo-French withdrawal.Israeli gains.Effects of Suez on the Middle East.Increased superpower involvement after Suez.The Arab states and Israel after 1948 (attitude and actions, 1948-56). The Arab states refused to recognize the existence of the state of Israel, instead seeing it as a state which had to be ‘wiped off the map’. The Arabs argued that the Palestinian refugee problem had been created by Israel’s aggressive actions in 1947-48 which was deliberately designed to ‘ethnically cleanse’ Israel of as many Arabs as possible. Some Palestinians tried to hit back at Israel from their refugee camps in the West Bank and Gaza – these were known as ‘Fedayeen’. The humiliating defeat for the Arabs in the war of 1948-49 produced a crisis in the Arab world. New movements developed which were to come to power in the 1950s, most notably in Syria and Egypt. There were two military coups in Syria – one in 1949; the other in 1951. The Shah was deposed by Mossadeq in 1951, only to be returned to power by the US in 1953. King Abdullah of Jordan is assassinated and replaced by his grandson, King Hussein.In Egypt, The Free Officers’ Committee depose King Farouk and bring Colonel Gamal Nasser led a military takeover throwing out the corrupt King Farouk. Nasser’s government was now determined to act to make Egypt stronger and to avenge the 1948 war. A deep suspicion of the West developed in the Arab states; the West was seen as being supportive of Israel – this allowed closer ties to be made with the Soviet Union (USSR) in the 1950s. Nasser’s motives for the nationalization of the Suez Canal.To show Egypt’s strength, especially after the humiliation of 1948, to remove western influence from Egypt. Nasser was drawing closer to the USSR in 1955 and was purchasing Soviet made weapons and even had Soviet advisors in Egypt to assist in military training. The West was extremely worried by this and withdrew a previous offer of financial support for the Aswan Dam – in retaliation Nasser seized the Suez Canal in July 1956. He declared the tolls for its use would pay for the Aswan Dam project and other industrial and social developments which were being introduced to make Egypt a more modern, progressive state.Joint British, French and Israeli attack.Why did Israel, Britain and France attack Egypt? - Negotiations to find a solution to the crisis were unsuccessful as Egypt and the USSR rejected any compromise deals over shared ownership of the canal. The British and French were deeply worried by the possible wider impact of Nasser’s actions (Britain was concerned about restrictions on trade, oil supplies from the Arabian Gulf, its routes to its colonial territories in the Gulf and Far East; France was worried about encouragement being given to anti-French rebels in Algeria). Anthony Eden, the British Prime Minister, also regarded Nasser as a dangerous leader who had to be stopped, much like Hitler had had to be stopped. Israel wanted to remove the ‘fedayeen’ bases in Gaza and the Sinai Desert; to end Egypt’s blockade of the Gulf of Aqaba which was preventing ships getting through the Red Sea to Israel; and perhaps to secure a ‘buffer-zone’ against Egypt in the form of the Sinai. A secret deal was struck between the three states in Paris on 24th Oct 1956 to attack Egypt.The Israelis did well striking deep into the Sinai, this was followed by an Anglo-French bombardment of Egyptian bases by ships and aircraft. But when the British and French launched their ground operations the process became bogged down. Nasser ordered ships to be sunk in the Suez Canal to create a blockade to prevent the British moving their troops along the Canal. Troop landings by the British and French failed to press forward to seize the Canal. An international outcry against the invasion of Egypt then occurred – a UN resolution calling for ceasefire was overwhelmingly passed. Britain and France were isolated. The invasion had to be called off and came to an end on 7th November.UN action and the attitudes of the SuperpowersIt was clear that Britain and France were declining powers in the world – the USA and the USSR now exerted much more influence. Threats from both the USA and USSR removed any political strength held by Britain and France (the USSR threatened to intervene militarily to support Egypt; the USA threatened to withdraw financial loans (the value of the pound fell sharply); President Eisenhower also threatened to stop oil supplies to Britain and France. The USA swiftly proposed a UN resolution demanding a ceasefire.it was passed by 64-5 in the General Assembly, despite Britain and France vetoing it (they were Permanent Members of the Security Council of the UN). Such international condemnation of the Israeli, British and French action undermined the ability of those three states to continue their operations. Later, in 1957, the UN oversaw the Israeli withdrawal from Sinai and the establishment of a UN buffer zone between Israel and Egypt.Anglo-French WithdrawalThe international outcry against the invasion of Egypt, the UN resolution for a ceasefire, the reaction and threats of the superpowers, and the inability to press forward into the Canal zone with troops were all reasons why the British and French had to withdraw. The episode was a serious humiliation; Eden resigned as Prime Minister over the affair. Israeli gains.Israel emerged from the Suez-Sinai War in a stronger position. It had shown that it had a good military capability. Although it had to withdraw from Sinai in 1957, a UN controlled buffer-zone was put in place on the border of Israel and Egypt. This gave some added security to Israel as it prevented the ‘fedayeen’ operating from the Sinai. The Gulf of Aqaba had been re-opened and shipping could operate to the southern Israeli port of Eilat (this was important because Egypt now closed the Suez Canal to Israeli shipping).Effect of the Suez-Sinai War on the Arab states. Nasser was seen as a hero and became the natural champion of the Arab states; anti-Israeli tensions mounted in the Arab world and the desire to hit back at Israel intensified; Increased Superpower involvement: the Middle East increasingly became an arena for the Cold War to be played out between the superpowers - the Soviet Union drew closer to other Arab countries selling weapons, the Americans declared they would be prepared to help any state under threat from another (the ‘Eisenhower Doctrine’, 1957).The Arab-Israeli conflicts of 1967 and 1973Nasser and Arab aims v Israel. Israeli attack in 1967. Events of Six Day War. Israeli gains. Reasons for Israeli successThe impact of the Six Day War and the Occupied Territories on Israel’s relations with Arab CountriesArab attack on Israel on Yom Kippur (1973).Reasons for early Arab success and eventual Israeli recovery.Nasser and Arab aims against Israel. Persistent Arab desires to destroy Israel (attitude and actions, 1956-67). Although Israel had shown its toughness in both 1948 and 1956 the Arab states retained their desire to destroy it.Israel remained under threat and was constantly harassed by cross-border action (such as artillery shelling, or Palestinian terrorist actions). The successor bodies to the Fedayeen were the ‘Fatah’ (1958) and the ‘Palestine Liberation Organisation’ – PLO (1964). Desire for revenge for 1948 and 1956 wars; Worry about Israel’s acquisition of more weapons from France – particularly the Mystere 4 Jet fighters.Greater Arab confidence to increase the pressure on Israel (military supplies from USSR, Egypt-Syria Defence Pact of 1966); Ongoing Palestinian strikes (e.g. Fatah), backed by Arab states, against Israel. Israeli attack in 1967. In May 1967 Nasser ordered the UN forces to leave the buffer zone in the Sinai; Syria increased its anti-Israeli speeches and artillery bombardments from the Golan Heights; the USSR was providing the Arab states with intelligence information that Israel was building up its armed forces along the border with Syria; Nasser increased the aggressive tone of his speeches against Israel; late-May 1967 the Egyptians blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba (as they had in 1956) – this was taken as a declaration of war by Israel; a new Israeli government came to power, Moshe Dayan was made Defence Minister (as in 1956) – he argued strongly for a pre-emptive strike against the Arab forces. 3-4 June Arab forces mobilized along Israel’s border. Decision taken in Israel to launch pre-emptive strike.5th June 1967 Israel launched a pre-emptive strike against the Arabs. The first move was an all-out air assault on the air forces of the neighbouring Arab states. The most important strike was against Egypt which lost over 90% of its airforce within 6 hours. By the end of the day the Egyptian, Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi air forces had been almost completely destroyed. With this ‘air supremacy’ established the Israeli ground operations could now begin.Events of the Six Day War5th June – destruction of Arab air forces by Israeli air strikes; 6th-7th June - Jordanian forces were expelled from East Jerusalem and the West Bank (King Hussein of Jordan agreed a ceasefire); 7th -9th June Egyptian forces pushed back to the Suez Canal (heavily defeated in the Sinai Desert); 9th – 10th June Syrian forces pushed back off the Golan Heights, Israeli troops advancing on Damascus. All the Arab states accepted a UN resolution for a ceasefire by 10th June 1967.Israeli GainsSecure success which had inflicted a devastating blow on the military prowess of the Arabs; once again Israel had shown that it was more than match for its Arab neighbours; Significant territorial gains were made (Gaza, Sinai, West Bank (including East Jerusalem), Golan Heights) –Israel was twice the size it was before, this gave the Israelis some negotiating power; Israelis borders were now much more defendable, even having physical features (e.g. River Jordan, Suez Canal, Golan Heights; Gulf of Aqaba reopened. But Israel now also had 1 million Palestinian Arabs inside its borders (in Gaza and the West Bank), this was to provide a major problem in the years to come and also increased terrorist actions against Israel. Some Arabs states began to seek better relations with Israel, largely on the grounds that they saw Israel as a strong military power which could not be removed by force, e.g. Jordan.UN Resolution 242 – after the Six Day War the UN laid down a resolution for the Arab states to recognise the state of Israel and not act aggressively towards it, in return the Israelis should return the territories seized in 1967 and treat fairly all Palestinians within its borders. This resolution was accepted by the superpowers.Reasons for Israeli successsuperior military forces of the Israelis (they had more technically advanced equipment, particularly air power); very effective leadership and command of the Israeli forces – they had been trained very well and planning for the conflict was excellent; impact and results of the pre-emptive air strike on 5th June; the Israelis were able to deal with their enemies in turn as the conflict unfolded; lack of preparation among Arab states – they had no co-ordinated plan of campaign, they were also probably over-confident; lack of unity among Arab states (e.g. King Hussein of Jordan signed a separate truce on 6th June).The impact of the Six Day War and the Occupied Territories on Israel’s relations with Arab CountriesAfter the failure of the Arab cause in the Six Day War, there was a surge in Palestinian terrorist activity. The PLO was convinced that the Arabs states could not defeat Israel, therefore only Palestinian terrorism could threaten Israel. The terrorist activities became more bold and were now designed to attract world attention (e.g. hi-jack and destruction of western airliners; 1972 Munich Olympics – kidnap and murder of Israeli athletes).Arab attack on Israel during Yom Kippur (1973) – 4th Arab-Israeli war Arab motivesPersistent Arab desires to destroy Israel Avenge previous defeats in 1948-9; 1956; 1967Recover lost territory from the 1967 war; Declaration from some Arab states in August 1967 – “threes no’s” – “no peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, no negotiation with Israel”; Other causes:Massive military support for both Israel (USA) and its Arab opponents (USSR) provided the context for another conflict.the Egyptians and Israelis carried out a ‘War of Attrition’ across the Suez Canal, this involved artillery shelling and aircraft;1968-70 – but new Soviet surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) put an end to Israeli aircraft operating in the area, a ceasefire was signed in 1970; The failure of any negotiations from 1970-72 (Sadat had been prepared to give some form of political recognition to Israel in return for the Sinai). Nasser died in 1970 and his successor Anwar Sadat initially tried to improve relations with the USA and to negotiate with Israel, but received no positive response. Reasons for early Arab success and eventual Israeli recovery.Military agreement with Syria to strike at Israel led to great co-ordination than in the past; Arab decision to launch a pre-emptive strike on 6th October 1973 (the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur) caught Israel off-guard.Syrians entered the Golan heights whilst at the same time the Egyptians crossed the Suez Canal and entered into the Sinai: Israeli aircraft tried to fight back, but many were shot down by SAMs; Furthermore, the Egyptians effectively used portable anti-tank missiles against Israeli counter-attacks from land. It looked as though the Israelis might be defeatedIsraeli recovery – the situation changed for two reasons:- 1. – the Israelis were able to fight back when the Egyptians over-extended themselves into the Sinai; 2. the USA transported large amounts of military equipment to the Israelis. This allowed the Israelis to fight back pushing the Egyptians out of the Sinai and across the Suez Canal. Syrian attacks were repulsed back off the Golan Heights and into Syria.Ceasefire was agreed on 24th October 1973.(For the impact of Yom Kippur on the US and USSR, see next section.)Superpower involvement in the Middle EastReasons for US support for Israel: support after WWII; US government aid for IsraelUS interests in the wider Middle EastReasons for and the nature of Soviet support for the ArabsSuperpower involvement in SuezThe Six Day War and the passing of UN Resolution 242The impact of the PLO and Palestinian terrorism on the WestSuperpower involvement in the Yom Kippur War on bringing about the ceasefire and moves towards peaceThe impact of the Oil Shock on the West.Reasons for US support for Israel: The USA was a major voice in calls for the creation of a separate homeland for the Jews in Israel (sympathy for the Jewish cause after the Holocaust;Influence of the powerful Jewish lobby in the USA; Influence of the pro-Israel Christian right; At the beginning there was competition between the USSR and US for Israel’s allegiance;Russian support for Arab regimes following the revolutions 1949-52 brought Israel and USA closer together.Israel became a supporter of US policy in the UN, particularly as the USSR became increasingly involved in supporting Israel’s Arab enemies. Support after WWII; The USA was the first country to formally recognise the existence of the state of Israel in 1948 (at this point the USSR also supported the creation of the state of Israel). US government aid for IsraelFinancial aid was given to Israel by the USA in large amounts – between 1948-51 the US gave $65million of direct financial aid to the new state of Israel. The Cold War added to the US support for Israel, especially after the Suez Crisis when the Soviet Union was seen as trying to increase its influence in the Arab world. In the 1960s (particularly after the Six Day War) the USA increased its direct military support for Israel. This was especially seen in 1973 when the USA transferred $2.2bn of assistance to Israel.US interests in the wider Middle EastUS always had a balancing act to conduct in the Middle East –US needs Arab oil;Wanted contain the spread of communism (domino theory);Eisenhower Doctrine from 1947 applied Truman’s principle to the Middle East.US joined the Baghdad pact in 1958.Baghdad Pact became CENTO following Iraq’s withdrawal in 1959.Reasons for and nature of Soviet Support for the ArabsDeath of Stalin in 1953 and replacement by Khrushchev;Anti-western revolutions in Syria (1949 and 1951), Jordan (1949), and Egypt (1952) provide opportunities for Soviet influence.Strategic opportunities offered by Egyptian ports and airports for protecting Russian shipping in the Mediterranean.Growing US-Israel friendship – including intelligence about Khrushchev’s ‘secret speech’ of 1956;Opportunity offered by growing US-Israeli friendship for USSR to present itself as the anti-imperialist, anti-western superpower.Suspicion of Jews within Soviet Union leads to official repudiation of Zionism as a tool of America and its allies for ‘racist imperialism’. In addition, the USSR soughtTo seek to gain an advantage over the USA in the context of the Cold War, the Russians began to increase their military support for the Arab states hostile to Israel. There was also an ideological edge to soviet involvement – Communism could be spread if open doors could be found in various parts of the world. Potential allies at UN;Possible satellites (this proved to be forlorn hope);Contain spread of American influence close to Russian borders;Protect Soviet shipping in the Mediterranean by use of Egyptian ports and airports.Protect oil supplies to Soviet satellites, Exert influence on OIL supply to the West.This was first shown with heavy financial loans and military supplies to Nasser’s Egypt.Following the Suez Crisis the Russians expanded their support of Egypt and other Arab states (e.g. Syria); large amounts of military equipment made the Arabs very confident of pressurizing the Israelis prior in 1966-67. The Russian-supplied military equipment (e.g. SAMs) gave the Egyptians confidence to strike in the Yom Kippur War of 1973.Increased Superpower involvement over SuezAmerica did not want its allies to make a military intervention into Egypt following the nationalization of the Suez.America did not want to be seen to support old-fashioned imperialism;USSR was able to present itself as the anti-imperialist superpower.After Suez the Middle East increasingly became an arena for the Cold War to be played out between the superpowers - The Americans declared they would be prepared to help any state under threat from communism (the ‘Eisenhower Doctrine’, 1957).In 1958, the US joined the Baghdad Pact (founded in 1955) which then became CENTO when Iraq dropped out (and its headquarters were no longer in Baghdad). The Treaty Organisation united Iran, Pakistan, Turkey and the United Kingdom in a collective security agreement (the Iranian revolution 1979 brought it to an end).$1 billion of US aid/year was sent to Israel after Suez, partly in response to Soviet support for Arab states and Israel continued to buy arms from US, UK, France and West Germany.Anti-Western feeling at all time high – the Soviet Union drew closer to other Arab countries selling weapons, Russia pumped $20 billion worth of military aid into various Arab interest groups, including those in Egypt, Syria, Yemen, Algeria and Iraq (which leaves the Baghdad Pact).For impact of PLO on the west, see the next sectionThe Six Day War and the passing of UN Resolution 242American and Russian support for arms in Israel and its neighbouring Arab states certainly provided the context for the 1967 war.Soviet military support for Arab states;Soviet intelligence given to Nasser on May 13th led to Nasser moving troops into Sinai and eventually declaring Straits of Tiran (Gulf of Aqaba) closed to Israeli shipping on 22nd.Following outbreak of Six Day War on the 5th June, Russia severed diplomatic relations with Israel and threatened sanctions. It informed the White House that unless Israel stopped military actions immediately it would get involved. A ceasefire followed, but only after Israel had made enormous territorial gains.Weaponry from American allies, NATO countries helped to ensure that Israel had air supremacy in 1967 and contributed to its rapid victory.UN Resolution 242 was unanimously adopted by the UN Security Council on November 22nd 1967. It proposed a land-for-peace deal based on the following principles:The withdrawal of Israel should from occupied territories;Mutual acknowledgement of sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence ‘of every state in the area’.Israel announced their acceptance of this.PLO rejected it in 1968, but despite the Khartoum declaration: ‘no peace, no negotiation and no recognition’, there was an implicit acknowledgement of Israeli sovereignty in the acceptance of resolution 242 by Egypt and Syria.The problem for Egypt and Syria, however, was getting Israel to the negotiating table, and this led to a new strategy under Anwar Sadat after the death of Nasser in 1970.Superpower involvement in the Yom Kippur War on bringing about the ceasefire and moves towards peaceBackground:1967-73 saw improvements in the US-Soviet relationship under Richard Nixon and Leonid Breshnev.SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) began in Finland in 1969. This period of détente was motivated by the sheer costs of maintaining the arms race and by the American experience in Vietnam.The Soviets were unwilling to support Sadat militarily in a war against Israel, which resulted in the expulsion of 15,000 Soviet advisers from Egypt in 1973.On October 12, 1973, US president Richard Nixon authorized Operation Nickel Grass, a strategic airlift to deliver weapons and supplies to Israel, after the Soviet Union began sending arms to Syria and Egypt.In response, the OPEC raised the price of oil by 70%17th October it begins an oil embargo against anyone helping Israel – i.e. the US.US and Soviet joint demand for a ceasefire during the Yom Kippur War, on 21st October 1973, partly reflects their nervousness about the potential escalation of the conflict beyond conventional weapons.This may have been because Israel was alleged to have built its first nuclear weapon in 1966 (although it has never officially admitted to possessing such weapons). Also, the US was nervous that an Israeli attack on Cairo might bring USSR directly into the conflict.Another factor that may have prompted US intervention was the rise of terrorism after 1967, including the 1972 Munich Olympic massacre.At the height of the Yom Kippur War, American and Russian leaders met and issued a joint demand for a ceasefire on the 21st October.The UN issued Security Council Resolution 338 calling for an immediate ceasefire and the immediate implementation of Security Council Resolution 242 (1967) in all of its parts.Called for the start of negotiations ‘under appropriate auspices’ aimed at establishing peace.Fighting ended on 24 October. A few days later, UN troops were sent to Egypt to preserve the ceasefire.Egypt began to receive US aid and support for a peace process that resulted in the 1978 Camp David Accords and the 1979 Israel-Egypt peace treaty.The impact of the Oil Shock on the West.US intervention in Yom Kippur and its decision to stop Israel occupying Cario was prompted in part by the decision by Arab nations to stop exports of oil to any nation helping Israel – Libya (19th) and then Saudi Arabia and other Arab oil producing states (20th October) es to any nation that supported Israel (especially the US) on 19-20th October.The impact upon the US was severe.The price of oil in the US quadrupled in 1974;Shortages led to rationing, to strikes and to violence in the US.Speed limits of 55 mph were imposed to conserve demand.Western Europe began switching from pro-Israel to more pro-Arab policies.This change strained the Western alliance. The US, which imported only 12% of its oil from the Middle East (compared with 80% for the Europeans and over 90% for Japan), remained staunchly committed to Israel. The percentage of U.S.?oil which comes from the nations bordering the Persian Gulf remained steady over the decades, with a figure of a little more than 10% in 2008Change over time - did Superpower involvement limit or increase hostility between Israel and its Arab neighbors? Answer – it was a bit of both! Superpower involvement increased hostility in the Middle East – anti-western feelings ran deep in the Arab world and this inflamed Arab desires to destroy Israel which was seen as a client state of the west (particularly the USA); Military equipment and financial support was available to both sides; The Arabs gained in confidence and thus increased their pressure on Israel; the Cold War rivalry ensured that both the USA and USSR were keen to act in a way which would out do their rivals.Superpower involvement limited the hostility in the Middle East – the USA expressed its concern at Britain, France and Israel’s military action against Egypt in 1956 – US threats prompted the action against Egypt over Suez to be called off; both superpowers approved UN Resolution 242 in 1967 – this was to show that Israel could perhaps not step too far; concerns over oil price and supply prompted the USA to rein in Israel in the 1973 War; also in 1973 both superpowers became concerned at the possibility that a regional conflict in the Middle East could spill over and risk a hot (possibly nuclear) war between themselves.The attempts to find a lasting peace, 1979-95The role of the PLO and Palestinian terrorism The reasons for Camp DavidThe motives of Sadat, Carter and BeginThe terms of the Camp David agreement of 1979The impact of PLO and Palestinian terrorism on Israel, Israel’s response and its relations with Arab countries.Intafada of 1987Attempts to achieve peace between Israel and the PLOWhy did Israel, PLO and US enter the Oslo Acords?The terms and result of the Oslo Peace Accords of 1993 and 1995.The role of the PLO and Palestinian terrorismPLO was founded in 1964 but only turned to violence in a sustained way and on a large scale after the Six Day War.After the Palestine Liberation Organization failed to bring about a popular uprising in the territories Israel occupied in the 1967 war had failed, it took to terrorism, and carried out numerous attacks against civilian targets in Israel and the occupied territories, and against Israeli and Jewish targets abroad.A wing of the PLO known as the The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PLFP) became a virtual state within a state in Jordan, and concentrated its efforts on overthrowing the Jordanian monarchy and created civil war in that country known as ‘Black September’In November 1971, members of the Palestinian Black September group, who took their name from the civil war, assassinated Jordanian Prime Minister Wasfi al-Tal in Cairo. In December the group made an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate the Jordanian ambassador in Britain.‘Black September’ launched a daring kidnapping at the Munich Olympics in 1972, in which eleven Israeli athletes were killed. In Ma'alot in 1974, Palestinian terrorists claimed the lives of twenty high school pupils. Palestinian terrorists also focused on air traffic, hijacking planes, attacking them with rockets, bombing of the skies, and massacring passengers at airports.Reasons for Camp David Agreements of 1979: General reasons:America hit by the oil shocks of 1973 at the height of Yom Kippur and again in 1979 thanks to the Iranian revolution of that year. It had to win friends in the Middle East.Yom Kippur had taught Israel that it was not invulnerable to Arab attack and therefore could not defeat its Arab enemies outright and decided to use its capital in terms of land to win a permanent peace;Egypt was facing bankruptcy and recognised it could not win a war with Israel.Egypt was receiving financial help from the US instead of from the USSR.Israeli hardline Zionist, Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords with Anwar El Sadat in 1978.As a result, Egypt became the first Arab nation to recognise Israel in the Egypt-Israeli Peace Treaty of 1979.Egypt was promptly expelled from the Arab League and Anwar Sadat was assassinated by an extremist in 1981.Camp David Agreements (1978)- Sadat, Begin and Carter motivesAnwar Sadat – his stock was high after the Yom Kippur War: he could afford to take the risk of peacemaking with Israel, though he was assassinated for it in 1981 by Islamic extremists. Four wars against Israel had yielded nothing in terms of territory and had been costly. Peace with Israel would allow economic recovery. Menachem Begin Politics: peace would be popular and entrench Begin’s newly created Likud Party in the political system Pragmatism: Israel was trading territory for security. The surrender of the Sinai was a major concession but the area was less strategically important than the Golan Heights and less historically significant than the West Bank and East Jerusalem. Jimmy Carter President Carter, a Democrat, was genuinely committed to achieving peace in the Middle East. Following the Yom Kippur War in 1973 the United States was more engaged in peacemaking. Yom Kippur had shown how easily the Middle East could become a flashpojnt for an East-West confrontation. The Arabs’ skilful use of the oil weapon in Yom Kippur War of 1973 had concentrated minds in Washington. Disengagement carried too high a price for Western economies. In January 1979, the overthrow of the Pro-American Shah brought a second Oil Shock in the same decade.Key Terms of Camp David Agreements – In March 1979 Sadat and Begin signed a peace treaty enshrining what they had agreed at Camp David.Withdrawal of Israeli forces from Sinai, Egypt to recover all of Sinai within three years, Free passage of Israeli shipping through the Suez canal and the Straits of Tiran, Both states agreed to recognise ‘each other’s right to live in peace within their secure and recognised boundaries.’ Egypt became the first Arab state to recognise Israel’s right to exist. N.B. Camp David was the first watershed in Arab-Israeli relations. However, it left the Palestinian question unresolved. The impact of the PLO and Palestinian terrorism on the west Yasser Arafat was a shrewd operator and his strategy was more sophisticated than a simple resort to violence. It was a two-track plan of violence coupled with diplomacy. The PLO set up offices in many countries in order to win international support.In 1974 Arafat addressed the United Nations and opened his speech with the famous words, ‘Today I come bearing an olive branch in one hand and a freedom fighter’s gun in the other.’Arafat was open in principle to recognizing Israel and to the creation of a Palestinian mini-state within Israel’s borders. In the 1970s his movement was still divided. Radicals within the PLO still wanted to destroy Israel and create a Palestinian state in its place. Ultimately, however, Arafat alone would have the authority to unite the PLO and reconcile its different factions to negotiating with Israel. The road to Oslo began in New York at the UN General Assembly in 1974.The impact of PLO and Palestinian terrorism on Israel, Israel’s response and its relations with Arab countries In the aftermath of Jordanian Civil War, many Palestinians arrived in Lebanon, among them Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO).In the early 1970s their presence exacerbated an already tense situation in Lebanon, and in 1975 the Lebanese Civil War broke out. Beginning with street fighting in Beirut between Christian Phalangists and Palestinian militiamen.The Lebanese War broke out began on 6 June 1982, when the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) invaded southern Lebanon, after repeated attacks and counter-attacks between the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) operating in southern Lebanon and the IDF which caused civilian casualties on both sides of the border.The PLO, under the chairmanship of Yasser Arafat, was expelled from Lebanon and its headquarters were relocated to Tripoli in Libya in June 1982.Between 16th and 18th September, Phalangists carried out a massacre at two Palestinian refugee camps – Shatila and Sabra - virtually under the eyes of their Israeli allies. The numbers of dead range from 762 to 3,500.On 16 December 1982, the United Nations General Assembly condemned the massacre and declared it to be an act of genocide.In 1983, a commission chaired by Seán MacBride, the assistant to the UN Secretary General and President of United Nations General Assembly at the time, concluded that Israel, as the camp's occupying power, bore responsibility for the violence. The commission also concluded that the massacre was a form of genocide. Ariel Sharon was forced to resign as Defence Minister.The Israeli invasion removed PLO presence from Southern Lebanon and the Syrian military was weakened by combat losses, especially in the air. However, the removal of the PLO also paved the way for the rise of other militant groups, particularly Hezbollah.But the larger Israeli objectives of resolving the conflict in Lebanon in its favour had failed. Postscript: Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden said in a videotape, released on the eve of the 2004 U.S. presidential elections, that he was inspired to attack the buildings of the United States by the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, in which towers and buildings in Beirut were destroyed in the siege of the capitalIntafada of 1987It is an Arabic word literally meaning, as a noun, "tremor", "shivering", "shuddering". It is derived from an Arabic term nafada meaning "to shake", "shake off", "get rid of", as a dog might shrug off water, or as one might shake off sleep, or dirt from one's sandalsThe Intifada was recognized as an occasion where the Palestinians acted cohesively and independently of their leadership or assistance of neighbouring Arab states.The Intifada broke the image of Jerusalem as a united Israeli city. There was unprecedented international coverage, and the Israeli response was criticized in media outlets and international fora.The success of the Intifada gave Arafat and his followers the confidence they needed to moderate their political programme:At the meeting of the Palestine National Council in Algiers in mid-November 1988, Arafat won a majority for the historic decision to recognise Israel's legitimacy; to accept all the relevant UN resolutions going back to 29 November 1947; and to adopt the principle of a two-state solution. Jordan severed its residual administrative and financial ties to the West Bank in the face of sweeping popular support for the PLO. The failure of the "Iron Fist" policy, Israel's deteriorating international image, Jordan cutting legal and administrative ties to the West Bank, and the U.S.'s recognition of the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people forced Rabin to seek an end to the violence though negotiation and dialogue with the PLO. In the diplomatic sphere, the PLO opposed the Gulf War in Iraq. Afterwards, the PLO was isolated diplomatically, with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia cutting off financial support, and 300-400,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled from Kuwait before and after the war. The diplomatic process led to the Madrid Conference and the Oslo Accords. Attempts to achieve peace between Israel and the PLO In 1991 face-to-face negotiations between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) took place in secret in Madrid (the Madrid Conference) but failed due to opposition from extremists on both sides. The meeting was nevertheless an important step towards peace. Breakthrough – September 1993 - Following extended talks between the PLO and Israel in neutral Norway, Yasser Arafat, leader of the PLO, and Yitzhak Rabin, Israel’s new Prime Minister, exchanged letters. Arafat reiterated his rejection of terrorism, called for an end to the Intifada and acknowledged ‘the right of Israel to exist in peace and security.’ For his part, Rabin recognised the PLO as the legitimate ‘representative of the Palestinian people.’ In September 1993 the two men met at the White House in Washington and engaged in a historic handshake. Key Terms – Withdrawal of Israeli troops from Gaza followed by phased withdrawal from parts of the West Bank, Limited autonomy for the Palestinians: elections would take place for a Palestinian Authority (PA) to govern the West Bank and Gaza for five years, Within those five years, negotiations would resume for a final settlement of the Palestinian question. Why did the United States oversee the Oslo Accords? Peace was a major prize in a profoundly unstable region of the world. Because it could. After the end of the Cold War in 1989 the old bipolar world order collapsed. There was only one superpower in the world, the United States. Only America had the power to bring the sides together and broker a peace deal. The Cold War had made Israel and the United States mutually dependent: Israel relied on US arms and money for security, America relied on Israel to serve as its main ally in a region where many of the Arab states were allied to the Soviet Union. Yet once the Cold War ended, Soviet influence in the region declined. Some Arab states (Egypt, Jordan) had also been friendly with America for some time. America needed Israel less and so had more leverage over its ally. It could now threaten to withhold arms and aid unless Israel was willing to negotiate with the Palestinians. The Palestinian Intifada (Arabic for uprising) between 1987 and 1993 was also important. Palestinians were engaged in a sustained rebellion against Israel’s military occupation of the Gaza and West Bank. The Intifada once again focussed world attention on the Palestinian cause. Israel’s sometimes uncompromising tactics also won sympathy in some quarters for the Palestinians. In the first year of the Intifada 346 Palestinians had been killed, many of whom were under sixteen. At the height of the Intifada in 1988 there were covert negotiations between the United States and the PLO. Crucially Yasser Arafat undertook to publicly renounce terrorism. Formal peacemaking could now begin. The Gulf War (1990) also exposed the United States to charges of operating a double standard. The US led an international coalition of forces under the aegis of the United Nations to liberate Kuwait from an Iraqi invasion in August 1990 yet had done nothing to force the withdrawal of Israel from the occupied territories gained in the Six Day War of 1967. America wanted to retain allies in the Arab world and capitalise on its success in the Gulf War when Egypt, Saudi Arabia and even Syria had supported the UN against Iraq. US dependence on Arab oil was also increasing. Why did the PLO agree to the Oslo Accords? Arafat had to seize the moment and exploit American willingness to sponsor a peace deal. PLO terrorism had achieved all it could. Other, more radical forces, such as Hamas, were gaining support within the Palestinian community.To regain the initiative, Arafat now had to engage in a political process to achieve his ultimate ambition of a Palestinian state.Why did Israel enter the Oslo Accords? Israel was facing an ongoing Palestinian rebellion within its own borders. The insurgency would only end if Israel dealt with the PLO. Israel could not ignore American pressure to negotiate. In June 1993 Israeli voters had elected a new government under Yitzhak Rabin on a peace platform.Oslo Accords 1995 In 1995 a second Israeli-Palestinian agreement was signed known as the Oslo II Accord. Its key terms were that elections to the Palestinian Authority would now finally take place and that Israeli troops would withdraw from major Palestinian towns. Postscript – Yitzak Rabin was assassinated by a Jewish extremist on November 4th, 1995. ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download