In 1953, the United States and North Korea signed a cease ...
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[?]US and North Korea
Key Security Developments
The Korean War
In July 1904 Japanese Prime Minister Katsura Taro and US Secretary of War William Taft had a meeting, captured in the "Taft-Katsura Memorandum," at which Japan tacitly accepted the U.S. sphere of influence in the Philippines and the United States tacitly accepted Japan's interest in Korea. Japan subsequently occupied Korea. At the close of World War II in 1945, in what was supposed to be a temporary measure, the Korean Peninsula was divided into two halves, under the Soviet sphere of influence in the north and under the U.S. sphere of influence in the south. In August 1948, the government in the southern half declared the establishment of the Republic of Korea. Subsequently, in September 1948, the government in the north declared the establishment of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. Both halves desired to unify the peninsula under their own government. In June 25, 1950, the Korean War began. UN forces, lead by the United States, and Chinese soldiers intervened in the war on behalf of the ROK and DPRK respectively. In 1951, lengthy peace negotiations began while active combat continued. In 1953, the United States and North Korea signed a cease-fire agreement that ended the active combat of the Korean War. Although the cease-fire remains in place today, a peace treaty has not been signed and military tensions along the fortified border, known as the DMZ or De-militarized Zone, remain high.
The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
In December 1985, North Korea agreed to join the Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) but did not complete a safeguards agreement[?] with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). North Korea later linked fulfillment of IAEA provisions to US withdrawal of nuclear weapons from South Korea. September 27, 1991, President George H.W. Bush announced the withdrawal of all tactical nuclear weapons abroad, including approximately 100 based in South Korea. On December 31, 1991, the two Koreas signed the South-North Joint Declaration on Denuclearization. In April 1992, North Korea ratified the safeguards agreement with the IAEA.
On May 4, 1992, North Korea submitted a declaration of seven sites and about 90 grams of plutonium. Upon discovery of discrepancies in North Korean reports, on February 9, 1993, the IAEA demanded special inspections, which North Korea refused. On March 12, 1993, North Korea gave notice of its intention to withdraw from the NPT within three months, claiming national security concerns under Article X, but suspended its withdrawal one day short of the deadline on June 11, 1993. On February 19, 1994, after months of negotiations with the US, North Korea made an agreement to allow IAEA inspectors to visit all seven declared nuclear sites. However, North Korea refused access to the plutonium processing plant at Yongbyon and subsequently declared its withdrawal from the IAEA in June 13, 1994.
Since the programs’ conception, North Korea is believed to have reprocessed a total of 28-50kg of plutonium,[?] enough to build 4 to 13 nuclear weapons.
The Agreed Framework
On June 15, 1994, former President Jimmy Carter visited Pyongyang and negotiated a resumption of bilateral talks. In October 21, 1994, the United States and North Korea signed the Agreed Framework, under which North Korea agreed to freeze its plutonium reprocessing program, allow special inspections, and remove 8000 spent nuclear fuel in exchange for energy assistance from the United States and light water nuclear reactors or LWRs, (believed by some to be more resistant to proliferation than the DPRK's existing reactors), to be funded primarily by Japan and Korea. North Korea maintained the 1994 freeze of its plutonium facilities. However, in the 1990s U.S. intelligence indicated North Korean possible pursuit of a uranium enrichment program, which was indirectly prohibited by the Agreed Framework.
Missile Talks and the Missile Test Moratorium
In April 1996, the US and North Korea met in Berlin for the first round of bilateral missile talks. At its conclusion, the US pressed the North to end its sales of missile components and technology; in return, North Korea demanded that it be compensated for lost revenue. After detecting North Korean preparations for missile tests, in October 16, 1996, the US deployed reconnaissance ship and aircraft to Japan. In June 1997, the countries met for a second round of missile talks, in which the US pressed North Korea to stop its missile tests and to end its exporting of missile parts and technology.
In August 1998, North Korea launched a three stage Taepo-dong 1 rocket that flew over Japan. The United States and the DPRK met in October 1, 1998, and March 29-31, 1999, for the third round and fourth round of missile talks, respectively, with inconclusive results.
The US, South Korea, and Japan established the Trilateral Coordination and Oversight Group In April 1999, in order to consult and coordinate policy on security issues of mutual concern.
In November 1998, as required by Congress, President Clinton appointed former Secretary of Defense William Perry as the US North Korean Policy Coordinator. He was tasked to consult and coordinate North Korean policy with South Korea, Japan, and China, conduct a review of current US foreign policy towards North Korea and make a detailed report to the administration on US policy towards North Korea.[?] Perry visited Pyongyong in May 1999. On September 12, 1999 North Korea and the US agreed to a missile moratorium in exchange for a partial lifting of economic sanctions.
US Suspicions of a DPRK Uranium Enrichment Program
After an October 2002 bilateral meeting, the U.S. government announced that North Korea admitted to having a covert uranium enrichment program. North Korea later denied it had admitted to a program. However, the United States suspended energy shipments to North Korea and in turn North Korea declared the 1994 agreement nullified, withdrew from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in January 2003, and began to reprocess plutonium.
In the spring of 2007 U.S. intelligence estimates regarding a DPRK uranium program were modified to reflect uncertainty about the extent of (though not the existence of) a program.[?]
Six-Party Talks
Since October 2002, the U.S. has pursued multilateral negotiations with North Korea. The first meeting, brokered by and including China, took place in April 2003. Japan, South Korea, and Russia have since joined the discussions to form the Six-Party Talks. Initial rounds were not productive; however, the fourth round of the Six-Party Talks in August/September 2005 produced the September 19 "Joint Statement," which outlined the parameters of future negotiations.
The momentum forged by the September 19 Statement disappeared almost immediately over the timing of a provision of a civilian nuclear program. The September 19 statement declared that the provision of LWRs to the DPRK will be discussed at "an appropriate time." Secretary Rice indicated that time would be after North Korea had dismantled its nuclear program; North Korea countered that that it would give up its nuclear deterrent only after a peaceful civilian nuclear power reactor had been provided.
Banco Delta Asia
While the September 2005 round of the Six-Party Talks were taking place, the U.S. Department of Treasury designated Banco Delta Asia (BDA), a bank in Macau at which North Korean entities maintained accounts, as a "primary money laundering concern." In response, Macau froze approximately $24 million in North Korean funds. North Korea made unfreezing these funds a pre-condition for further talks. (See the NCNK briefing paper on economic issues for more information on the BDA issue.)
North Korea’s Long-Rang Missile and Nuclear Tests
In July 2006, the DPRK test-launched an array of ballistic missiles, including a long-range Taepodong-2. The United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1695 in response.
In October 2006 the DPRK conducted an underground nuclear test, and the Council quickly adopted UN Resolution 1718, which invokes Chapter VII. The vote was unanimous, despite the fact that the statements accompanying the resolution reveal unsettled differences.
The six parties met in mid-December 2006, and there were two rounds of US-DPRK bilateral talks in January 2007.
The February 13th 2007 Joint Statement
A six party meeting in Beijing in February resulted in the February 13 Agreement or "Initial Actions for the Implementation of the Joint Statement", which called for the shutdown and seal of the Yongbyon facility, discussion of a list of all nuclear programs, process of removing North Korea as a state-sponsor of terrorism, termination of the application for Trading with the Enemy Act, start to bilateral talks with the US and Japan, provision of 50,000 tons of fuel oil within the next 60 days, and establishment of working groups to discuss the specifics of carrying out the agreement. The five working groups are as follows: Normalization of DPRK-US Relations, Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula, Normalization of North Korea-Japan Relations, Economy and Energy Cooperation and Northeast Asia Peace and Security Mechanism.
The six parties gathered on March 19, 2007, in order to evaluate the first thirty days. The talks were recessed on March 22 because the North Koreans refused to negotiate until they had received the BDA funds, which were delayed due to "technical difficulties." On May 28, North Korea test fired several short range missiles. Both South Korean and US Officials reported that the missile tests were routine and would not affect the Six-Party Talks. [?] However on June 7, North Korea fired an additional two short range missiles, which drew criticism from the White House.[?]
The BDA funds were finally transferred to North Korea on June 25, 2007. The next day, IAEA inspectors entered North Korea to monitor, inspect, and verify the shutdown of the 5 megawatt reactor, reprocessing facility, nuclear fuel fabrication plant and two uncompleted reactors at Yongbyon. As part of the shutdown pact, South Korea sent its first shipment of the 50,000 tons of heavy fuel oil to North Korea on July 12. In July 15 the IAEA confirmed the shutdown of the nuclear facility in Yongbyon, which completed the Initial Action phase of the February 13 Agreement.
In July, the first phase of the sixth round of the Six-Party Talks resumed from its recess in March. The six parties agreed to meet in September. The working groups met and concluded talks before the second phase of the sixth round of the Six-Party Talks. Under the framework of the six party working groups, the US and North Korea were able to negotiate bilaterally. The Normalization of DPRK-US Relations Working Group met in Geneva on September 3, 2007, to discuss and refine the Second Phase actions. They agreed that the “complete declaration of all nuclear programs” would be provided by December 31, 2007, and that the disablement of North Korea’s nuclear programs would also be accomplished by that date. [?]
Possible Syrian Nuclear Connection
On September 6, 2007 the Israeli Air Force destroyed a complex in Syria that was rumored to be the first stages of a nuclear facility constructed in collaboration with North Korea assistance.[?] North Korea’s involvement is based on several circumstantial events including the presence of the North Korean ship the Al Hamed in the Syrian port of Tartus and the fact that Syrian soldiers wore protective gear as they unloaded the cargo and trucks mobilized from the port to target site.[?] The reports remain unconfirmed. If the reports are confirmed, it could dramatically change both congressional and popular support for a North Korean nuclear accord, especially if any transfer of material or intelligence occurred after the February 13 2007Joint Statement.
October 2007: Second Phase Actions
The six parties met again for the second phase of the sixth round on September 27 – 30 and issued the Second Phase Actions for Implementation of Joint Statement on October 3, 2007. Under the October 3 Agreement, the sites to be disabled by the December 31, 2007 deadline agreed to in the US-North Korea talks in Geneva in September were defined: the 5 megawatt Experimental Reactor, the Reprocessing plant (Radiochemical Laboratory) and the Nuclear Fuel Rod Fabrication Facility, all at Yongybyon. In addition, North Korea “reaffirmed its commitment not to transfer nuclear materials, technology, or know-how.” The other parties reaffirmed their commitments to make efforts at normalization with North Korea and provide 1 million tons of heavy fuel oil, inclusive of the 50,000 tons already delivered. The United States, with reference to the September bilateral talks, agreed to “begin the process of removing the designation of the DPRK as a State Sponsor of Terrorism and advance the process of terminating the application of the Trading with the Enemy Act with respect to the DPRK.”
In October 30, 2007, off the coast of Africa, a North Korean cargo ship heading to the Somali port of Aden was captured by Somali pirates. The USS James E Williams, responding to distress signals from the vessel, helped the North Koreans regain control.[?]
The December 31, 2007 deadline passed without a “correct and complete declaration” and without complete disablement.
Disablement Continues; Ongoing Negotiations on the Declaration
In early 2008, North Korea stated that they had in fact submitted the Declaration in November of 2007. The US replied that they considered the November Declaration to be incomplete. Assistant Secretary of State Christopher Hill visited North Korea in late November, and reviewed the draft declaration at that time. [?] He reportedly found three areas of the declaration to be inadequate: uranium enrichment program, actual quantity of plutonium in possession and the extent to which North Korea assisted Syria. The U.S. government emphasized the declaration of the suspected covert uranium enrichment program.[?]
In his testimony to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on February 6, 2008, Assistant Secretary Hill remarked that eight of eleven North Korean disablement steps have been completed. These eleven steps or tasks are centered on disabling the fuel fabrication plant, (which produces the fuel rods); the reactor, (which is powered by the fuel rods); and the reprocessing facility, (where the spent fuel from the reactor is reprocessed into weapons grade plutonium).
Currently, task 9, the discharge of the rods, is underway.[?] At the same hearing February 2008 hearing, Asst. Sec. Hill observed that because of health and safety concerns, it would not be possible to complete the task of removal of 8000 fuel rods within the deadline. In addition, North Korea has reduced the number of work shifts for removing the rods from 3 to 1. They attribute their delay to the delays in the delivery of fuel oil or its equivalent. [?]
The Republic of Korea, the People’s Republic of China, the United States, and Russia have delivered a total of 200,000 tons of heavy fuel oil. South Korea has also provided steel equivalent to 10,000 tons of fuel.[?]
Last Updated March 21, 2008
[1]
[i] “Chronology of US-North Korean Nuclear and Missile Diplomacy.” Arms Control Association. June 2003.
[ii] Albright, David and Brannan, Paul. “The North Korean Plutonium Stock, February 2007.” Institute for Science and International Security. February 20, 2007.
[iii] Dutra, Michael and Kampani, Gaurav. “The Forthcoming Perry Report.” Center for Nonproliferation Studies. 1999.
[iv] Kerr, Paul. News Analysis: Doubts Rise on North Korea’s Uranium Enrichment Program. Arms Control Association. April 2007.
[v] “US Downplays N. Korea’s Missile Tests.” AP , May 26, 2007.< >
[vi] Kim, Yeon-hee. “North Koera missile launch draws US criticism.” July 7, 2007.
[vii] Sanger, David. “Nuclear Pact Broadening, North Korea and US Say.” The New York Times, September 3, 2007., “N Korea, US Reach Deal in Geneva.” China Daily. September 3, 2007.
[viii] Hersh, Seymour M. “A Strike in the Dark.” The New Yorker, February 11, 2008.
[ix] Ibid
[x] “US Ship helps North Korea vessel crew overpower Somali pirates.” AFP. October 30, 2007
[xi] Gross, Donald and Oh, Hannah. “North Korea Disables Facilities, But Resists Declaration.” Comparative Connections January 2008.
[xii] “US, partners prod NKorea to make full nuclear declaration.” AFP. February 1, 2008.
[xiii] Romberg, Alan. “Anniversary of the Agreement to Denuclearize North Korea.” Heritage Foundation. February 11, 2008
[xiv] VOA. “Diplomats: North Korea Unlikely to Meet Year-End Deadline for Declaring Nuclear Programs.” Global Security. December 26, 2007. Yoon, Won-sup. “Six Party Nuclear Talks Slowing Down.” The Korea Times, January 28, 2008.
[xv] Yoon, Won-sup. “Six-Party Nuclear Talks Slowing Down.” The Korea Times. January 28, 2008.
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