Module III: Sentences and Truth



Semantics, Syntax, and Sentences

A. SEMANTICS & SYNTAX

1. Semantics

se⋅man⋅tics

Use semantics in a Sentence

–noun (used with a singular verb[pic])

|1. |Linguistics. |

| |a. |

| |the study of meaning. |

| | |

| | |

| |b. |

| |the study of linguistic development by classifying and examining changes in meaning and form. |

| | |

|2. |Also called significs. the branch of semiotics dealing with the relations between signs and what they denote. |

|3. |the meaning, or an interpretation of the meaning, of a word, sign, sentence, etc.: Let's not argue about semantics. |

English words are divided into eight different parts of speech according to their function in a sentence. The parts of speech are adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, pronouns, prepositions, and verbs. Different languages have different variations of these and that include the order in which they are used. In the English language, the SVO pattern is employed: Subject – Verb – Object. In English, other typical patterns are: adjective-noun, verb-adverb, and preposition-noun. There is nothing magical or “correct about this pattern. It is simply how things have shaken out over the centuries. Other languages employ other patterns. None is right and none is wrong. They just “are”. The rules or patterning/ordering of the parts of speech is known as the syntax of the language.

Syntax Δ= the study of the rules for the formation of grammatical sentences in a language. Knowledge of syntax is vital to understanding a sentence. Let me illustrate. Consider the following four words:

Bear The

Bob Ate

We can get a pretty clear idea of what each of these terms might mean…the range of possible meanings, but as they sit…without any context, that is all that that have – Semantic Range. The ranges are as follows:

Bear:

Unabridged (v 1.1) - Cite This Source

bear1    /bɛər/ Pronunciation Key - Show Spelled Pronunciation[bair] Pronunciation Key - Show IPA Pronunciation verb, bore or (Archaic[pic]) bare; borne or born; bear·ing.

–verb (used with object)

|1. |to hold up; support: to bear the weight of the roof. |

|2. |to hold or remain firm under (a load): The roof will not bear the strain of his weight. |

|3. |to bring forth (young); give birth to: to bear a child. |

|4. |to produce by natural growth: a tree that bears fruit. |

|5. |to hold up under; be capable of: His claim doesn't bear close examination. |

|6. |to press or push against: The crowd was borne back by the police. |

|7. |to hold or carry (oneself, one's body, one's head, etc.): to bear oneself erectly. |

|8. |to conduct (oneself): to bear oneself bravely. |

|9. |to suffer; endure; undergo: to bear the blame. |

|10. |to sustain without yielding or suffering injury; tolerate (usually used in negative constructions, unless qualified): I |

| |can't bear your nagging. I can hardly bear to see her suffering so. |

|11. |to be fit for or worthy of: It doesn't bear repeating. |

|12. |to carry; bring: to bear gifts. |

|13. |to carry in the mind or heart: to bear love; to bear malice. |

|14. |to transmit or spread (gossip, tales, etc.). |

|15. |to render; afford; give: to bear witness; to bear testimony. |

|16. |to lead; guide; take: They bore him home. |

|17. |to have and be entitled to: to bear title. |

|18. |to exhibit; show: to bear a resemblance. |

|19. |to accept or have, as an obligation: to bear responsibility; to bear the cost. |

|20. |to stand in (a relation or ratio); have or show correlatively: the relation that price bears to profit. |

|21. |to possess, as a quality or characteristic; have in or on: to bear traces; to bear an inscription. |

|22. |to have and use; exercise: to bear authority; to bear sway. |

–verb (used without object)

|23. |to tend in a course or direction; move; go: to bear west; to bear left at the fork in the road. |

|24. |to be located or situated: The lighthouse bears due north. |

|25. |to bring forth young or fruit: Next year the tree will bear. |

The:

–definite article

|1. |(used, esp. before a noun, with a specifying or particularizing effect, as opposed to the indefinite or generalizing force |

| |of the indefinite article a or an): the book you gave me; Come into the house. |

|2. |(used to mark a proper noun, natural phenomenon, ship, building, time, point of the compass, branch of endeavor, or field of|

| |study as something well-known or unique): the sun; the Alps; the Queen Elizabeth; the past; the West. |

|3. |(used with or as part of a title): the Duke of Wellington; the Reverend John Smith. |

|4. |(used to mark a noun as indicating the best-known, most approved, most important, most satisfying, etc.): the skiing center |

| |of the U.S.; If you're going to work hard, now is the time. |

|5. |(used to mark a noun as being used generically): The dog is a quadruped. |

|6. |(used in place of a possessive pronoun, to note a part of the body or a personal belonging): He won't be able to play |

| |football until the leg mends. |

|7. |(used before adjectives that are used substantively, to note an individual, a class or number of individuals, or an abstract|

| |idea): to visit the sick; from the sublime to the ridiculous. |

|8. |(used before a modifying adjective to specify or limit its modifying effect): He took the wrong road and drove miles out of |

| |his way. |

|9. |(used to indicate one particular decade of a lifetime or of a century): the sixties; the gay nineties. |

|10. |(one of many of a class or type, as of a manufactured item, as opposed to an individual one): Did you listen to the radio |

| |last night? |

|11. |enough: He saved until he had the money for a new car. She didn't have the courage to leave. |

|12. |(used distributively, to note any one separately) for, to, or in each; a or an: at one dollar the pound. |

Bob:

- proper noun : a man’s name (nickname for Robert)

–noun

|1. |a style of short haircut for women and children. |

|2. |a docked horse's tail. |

|3. |a dangling or terminal object, as the weight on a pendulum or a plumb line. |

|4. |a short, simple line in a verse or song, esp. a short refrain or coda. |

|5. |Angling. |

| |a. |

| |a knot of worms, rags, etc., on a string. |

| | |

| | |

| |b. |

| |a float for a fishing line. |

| | |

|6. |a bobsled or bob skate. |

|7. |Scot. a bunch, cluster, or wad, esp. a small bouquet of flowers. |

|8. |Obsolete. walking beam. |

–verb (used with object)

|9. |to cut short; dock: They bobbed their hair to be in style. |

–verb (used without object)

|10. |to try to snatch floating or dangling objects with the teeth: to bob for apples. |

|11. |Angling. to fish with a bob. |

Ate: past tense form of to eat

–verb (used with object)

|1. |to take into the mouth and swallow for nourishment; chew and swallow (food). |

|2. |to consume by or as if by devouring gradually; wear away; corrode: The patient was eaten by disease and pain. |

|3. |to make (a hole, passage, etc.), as by gnawing or corrosion. |

|4. |to ravage or devastate: a forest eaten by fire. |

|5. |to use up, esp. wastefully; consume (often fol. by up): Unexpected expenses have been eating up their savings. |

|6. |to absorb or pay for: The builder had to eat the cost of the repairs. |

|7. |Slang: Vulgar. to perform cunnilingus or fellatio on. |

–verb (used without object)

|8. |to consume food; take a meal: We'll eat at six o'clock. |

|9. |to make a way, as by gnawing or corrosion: Acid ate through the linoleum. |

–noun

|10. |eats, Informal. food. |

2. Syntax, Context, and Meaning

syn⋅tax

  Use syntax in a Sentence

–noun

|1. |Linguistics. |

| |a. |

| |the study of the rules for the formation of grammatical sentences in a language. |

| | |

| | |

| |b. |

| |the study of the patterns of formation of sentences and phrases from words. |

| | |

| | |

| |c. |

| |the rules or patterns so studied: English syntax. |

| | |

| | |

| |d. |

| |a presentation of these: a syntax of English. |

| | |

| | |

| |e. |

| |an instance of these: the syntax of a sentence. |

| | |

|2. |Logic. |

| |a. |

| |that branch of modern logic that studies the various kinds of signs that occur in a system and the possible arrangements |

| |of those signs, complete abstraction being made of the meaning of the signs. |

| | |

| | |

| |b. |

| |the outcome of such a study when directed upon a specified language. |

| | |

|3. |a system or orderly arrangement. |

|4. |Computers. the grammatical rules and structural patterns governing the ordered use of appropriate words and symbols for |

| |issuing commands, writing code, etc., in a particular software application or programming language. |

One may know the meaning of each of the terms – “Bear”, “The”, “Bob”, and “Ate” - or at least be aware of the semantic range of the terms, but without a certain arrangement, the words cannot communicate a complete thought. The arrangements, “bear the ate Bob,” “Bob bear the ate,” “the ate Bob bear,” and etc. have no meaning as they do not follow proper English syntax, despite the fact that you might have a clear understanding what each word means. Make sense?

In addition, even when arranged correctly, the way in which the words are lined up greatly affect the meaning. The sentence “Bob ate the bear,” communicates quite a different meaning than “The bear ate Bob.” Just ask Bob. The first communicates a picture of Bob sitting down to juicy black bear steak with wild rice on the side. The second sentence communicates a picture of a bear gnawing on Bob’s lifeless body in the woods. Makes a difference to Bob. Makes a difference to you, if you want to have the hearer/reader have the same picture in her head as is in yours, you need to use the syntax that she follows. You must submit to the rules of the hearer if you want to communicate clear meaning.

As mentioned above, every language has its own specific rules of sentence formation.

There are no right or wrong rules…just rules that are.

(A note on the difference between syntax and grammar: Grammar is a broader term, covering all the rules governing the use of language. Thus, grammar can include the subtopics of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Syntax is the subtopic dealing with the ordering/arranging of the words to form sentences.)

In addition, it is in the weaving together of these words in a certain pattern that words move from having merely Semantic Range to having specific meaning. Apart from a sentence context, words have only semantic range. Once placed within a sentence, the range is severely limited to one or just a few possible meanings. The word context, is made of two Latin terms that taken together, literally mean: woven together (we get our English word textile from the root word). When words are woven together with other words…and done so using the rules of sentence formation, then the word moves from having semantic range and possible meaning, to taking on actual communicative meaning.

B. SENTENCES

1. Sentence Structure

Sentences are complete thoughts, whether formed in your head and remaining invisible and silent or communicated to the outside world through speech or writing. A complete thought is a thought that involves not just bringing to mind something, but saying something about that thing. “Bob” is not a complete thought. It is simply a proper noun. The verb “ran” is not a complete thought; it is simply a word describing an action, but without reference to any particular actor doing the running. When the two are combined into “Bob ran,” then the thought is completed. The two parts of a sentence are the Subject and the Predicate. The subject phrase (word or group of words that comprise the subject) is what the sentence is about. The predicate phrase (word of group of words that comprise the predicate) gives information about the activity or state of being of the subject.

2. Types of Sentences

Remember - Sentence Δ – a complete thought, typically requiring a subject and a predicate (verb)

1. Descriptive Δ– describes reality (or the speaker’s perception of it); often equated with a “statement” or declarative sentence, tells how things are; the only type of sentence that can be true (e.g. “Fido is a dog.”)

2. Prescriptive Δ – tells how things should be or ought to be (e.g. “Men should put down the toilet seat after use.”

3. Predictive Δ– tells how things will be (e.g. It will rain tomorrow.”)

4. Categorical Δ – asserts a common quality of every individual in an

entire set (e.g. Pigs are intelligent mammals.”)

5. Hypothetical Δ – give an if / then condition (e.g. If it snows much, we will cancel the recital.) (the ‘If” portion is known as the antecedent, the “then” portion is known and the consequent

6. Disjunctive Δ – gives an either / or situation (e.g. “Either Mr. Anderson chooses to make it to work on time or he chooses to find himself another job.”)

7. Analytic Δ – gives a definition (e.g. A triangle is geometric figure with three angles.)

8. Self Defeating Δ – logically collapses on itself (e.g. Language cannot convey meaning.)

9. Subjunctive Δ – gives a possibility (e.g. John might come over for dinner.)

10. Imperative Δ – give a command (e.g. Go get me beer.)

11. Interrogative Δ – asks a question (e.g. Would you please shut up?)

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