CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE USA 1945 - 1968



CIVIL RIGHTS IN THE USA 1945 - 1968The position of African Americans at the start of the periodThe impact of WWII on the circumstances of African AmericansEarly 1941: President Roosevelt banned racial discrimination in defence industries to ensure production needed for WWII.Wartime production based in the North = better employment options and social conditions = massive migration of black people into the North.African-Americans gained more jobs, more access to education, and witnessed how minorities were treated in Europe = better pay, literacy, economic independence, higher expectationsServing in the armed forces, many blacks noticed a huge gap in pay and working conditions.WWII = inspiration for black people to fight for equality and justice = groups such as CORE and NAACP.V Harding: ‘By the time the war ended... The momentum that had been building [in the Civil Rights Movement] ... could not be denied.’After WWII, President Truman aimed to expand civil rights—formed first Civil Rights Commission, outlawed bus segregation, desegregated armed forces.The extent of racial segregation and discriminationDiscrimination and prejudice were normalised, and black people were seen as inferior (scientific racism—Nordic races were superior, while blacks were inferior and polluted the white race)Black people faced violence (lynchings, beatings), limited employment and educational opportunities/legal protection, social exclusion.Military service, transport systems and public places/facilities were segregated. Blacks had to use separate and inferior services. There was one hospital bed for every 139 whites, and one for every 1941 blacks.Jim Crow laws—discriminatory and segregational laws between 1896 and 1965.1910 voting laws—introduced qualifications for voting for black people = black disenfranchisement = vote fell (no. of registered blacks in Louisiana fell from 130,000 to 1300 after 1904)Southern state government resisted federal government pressing for change. (e.g. Southern Democratic Party prevented anti-lynching bill from being passed).Struggles for Civil RightsFormation and role of civil rights groups and their ideasFundamental ideas: end Jim Crow laws (enforced segregation), end white violence, end deprivation of rights (e.g. vote).No Coloured Saints Sell Sausage BunsNational Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP): Founded in 1909 in response to lynchings and race riots in Illinois. Aimed to achieve equality through legal approach. Gained publicity after protesting against KKK film ‘the Birth of a Nation’.Congress of Racial Equality (CORE): Established in Chicago in 1942. Non-violent, initially targeted segregated restaurants and businesses, instigated sit-ins. However murder of CORE workers in Mississippi Freedom Summer and assassination of MLK led to militant approach.Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC): Formed in Atlanta, 1957 from Montgomery Bus Boycott. Focused on local, community level activism (grassroots activism). Led by MLK. Always emphasised non-violence and aimed to elevate black economic status, focusing on jobs, literacy, voting and community programs.Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC): Emerged from Greensboro sit-ins in 1960, largely due to Ella Baker—an activist who played key roles in the NAACP, SCLC and SNCC. Valued non-violence and challenged politicians and public. E.g. SNCC press release: ‘Local law in the deep South... is contrary to the Constitution of the United States... thus, null and void.’ Gained support after Freedom Rides and played key role in Mississippi Freedom Summer. However eventually became more militant and ineffective by the 1970s.Septima Clark’s Citizen Schools: Grassroots organisation. Set up in South Carolina to teach literacy and life skills, and to gain citizenship and vote. By 1961 there were 37 and black vote had increased.Black Panthers and Black Power: Emerged in 1960s-70s due to increasing violence against blacks, had more militant and violent ideologies. Efforts of MLK to achieve changeBeliefs and aims Wanted to empower African-Americans through non-violent, peaceful methods. MLK: ‘Love is the only force capable of transforming an enemy into a friend.’MLK: ‘We must love our white brothers no matter what they do to us.’Triple evils (racism, poverty, militarism) could only be beaten by the principles of non-violence (e.g. non-violence is courageous, chooses lover over hate, etc.) and the steps of non-violent social change.Towards the late 60s, he wanted to expand the civil rights movement to broader social and economic issues, and other marginalised groups such as Hispanics (this caused controversy).Methods: Non-violent protest and mass actionSpeeches— ‘I have a dream’, 1963 = spread ideology of non-violence and inspired peopleBoycotts—Role in Montgomery Bus BoycottMarches = huge publicity = changeBirmingham marches—1963Detroit Walk to Freedom—1963, 130,000 people March from Selma to Montgomery for voting rights—1965, state troopers attacked marchers in ‘bloody Sunday’. Sympathy marches followed, spurred passing of 1965 Voting Rights Act.CriticismsNon-violence brought change too slowly (divided cause as they disagreed on strategy)Claimed prominence where he was unimportantIntolerant of views of others (e.g. Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael), an ineffective ‘Uncle Tom’ (subservient to whites).V Sanders: ‘[MLK] always gained national attention... his ability to inspire was peerless... made a massive contribution to the black cause...’Methods employed by Civil Rights Movement K Janken: ‘the Civil Rights Movement... was not concerned exclusively with... segregation and discrimination... the prize was a redefinition of American society and a redistribution of social and economic power...’Legal processes and courtsNAACP’s Charles Houston—ran legal suits in 1930s-40s against school segregationBrown v. Board of Education (1954)—See Key EventsBoycottsGreensboro sit-ins (see Key Events)Montgomery Bus Boycott (see Key Events)Militarism, self-determinationMalcolm X’s attacks on white supremacyBlack Power—1960s: African-American named Stokely Carmichael of the SNCC called for ‘black power’—pride in being black, self-determination, self-defence.S Carmichael: ‘integration is a subterfuge... It allows the nation to focus on a handful of Southern children who get into school... and to ignore the 94% who are left behind in impoverished all-black schools.’Black Panthers—demanded full employment, freeing of black prisoners, all black juries, exemption from military service. Also set up community services. Faded by the 1970s.Mass demonstration1957 Prayer March of 250,0001963 March on WashingtonSilent march of 1000 in Orangeburg to support the Greensboro sit-ins (met with high pressure hoses and tear gas)Musice.g. ‘Oh freedom’, ‘We shall overcome’Bob Dylan, Ella Fitzgerald (‘Strange Fruit’), Peter SegerB Reagon: ‘In jail the songs kept us together... There was a sense of power...’Lobbying influential whitesLBJ, JFKMLK and Malcolm X: beliefs, aims, methodsMLKMalcolm XLifeGrew up in the North in a religious family. A pastor, well-educated, faced little discriminationGrew up in the South, father was killed by white supremacists, mother institutionalised. Sent to foster homes, dropped out of school (teacher told him his dreams were ‘no realistic goal for a nigger’) fell into drugs and crime.BeliefsGod is on the side of civil rights.Non-violence shows dignity and pride.Blacks should love each other and whites.MLK: ‘We must love our white brothers no matter what they do to us.’Nation of Islam—whites are devils, segregation is natural, blacks are superior.Advocated black nationalism, self-determination.Non-violence was ridiculous, March on Washington is a ‘circus’(Beliefs became less radical after pilgrimage to Mecca and conversion to Sunni Islam in 1960s, resulting in his assassination)AimsEnd discrimination and segregation.Achieve a world of love, equality, peace.Address wider social issues and other marginalised groups.Empower blacks to defend themselves and control their own fate.Malcolm X: ‘Be peaceful, be courteous... but if someone puts his hand on you, send him to the cemetery.’Reconnect blacks with their heritage.Return blacks to African homeland.MethodsNon-violent, direct action (speeches, boycotts, marches)—examples under ‘Efforts of MLK’Speeches and rallies (e.g. ‘Any Means Necessary’ speech)Violent self-defence.Pursuing freedom through action, violent revolution and self-defence.Malcolm X: ‘Nobody can give you freedom... If you’re a man, you take it.’Empowering black people (raised self-esteem and confidence) CriticismsBrought change too slowlyClaimed too much prominenceIntolerant to views of others (Stokely Carmichael, Malcolm X)An ineffective ‘Uncle Tom’ (Malcolm X)Part of a sexist and anti-Semitic organisation.Too militarist, violent, hated white people.Become ‘soft’ after conversion.Opposition to civil rights (KKK, White Citizen’s Council)Why did opposition exist?Racism’s deep roots (300 years of slavery, notion of black inferiority, pseudo-science)Desire to maintain white, southern way of lifeLower class whites didn’t want to be at the very bottomEconomic notions—feared blacks would depress wages/be an economic threatPower and politics—politicians feared opposition and risk to their careerKlu Klux KlanReformed after the Brown v. Board of Education decision, quickly grew in influence (1925 membership = 5 million)Opposed: racial equality, integration, black voting, black people, Catholics, communists, foreigners, etc.They were powerful as they were spread all around the country and often had the police and courts on their side.R. Coughan: ‘...the Klan was able to dominate local politics... it packed the police and firemen with its own people...’Methods: beatings (of blacks and black supporters), torture, lynchings, threats (e.g. crosses on doors/burning crosses in yards).White Citizen’s CouncilSet up in Mississippi after Brown v. Board of Education.WCC pamphlet: ‘We will not be integrated! We are proud of our white blood and our white heritage...’Membership peaked at 250,000 in 1957.Portrayed black people as sexual predators, savages, and unintelligent through propaganda and statistics.Membership was of educated, professional, religious, middle-class people.Held demonstrations outside de-segregating schools, changed entry criteria, closed schools down.Targeted the NAACP, sacking/endangering members. NAACP was banned in Alabama in 1955, and NAACP branches in the South went from 65 (1955) -> 7 (1956).Other oppositionHumiliation of blacks—verbally and physically (e.g. throwing food in sit-ins)Preventing blacks from accessing schools (e.g. in Little Rock High)Political opposition by Southern politicians (e.g. Southern Manifesto against integration)Alabama Governor, George Wallace: ‘I say segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever.’Violence, beatings, murders (e.g. Bull Connor attacking protesters with dogs and water hoses in Montgomery, Emmett Till) Key Events of the Civil Rights MovementPretty Bitches Might Marry Dirty Guys For Jokes But Miss Merriness And OpennessPlessy v. Ferguson Case (1896)Plessy (black shoemaker) was arrested for boarding a ‘whites only’ train carriage. He argued that segregation was unconstitutional, but Supreme Court ruled that segregation was not discriminatory because blacks were racially inferior. Segregation was made official and the ‘separate but equal’ doctrine became popular.Brown v. Board of Education (1954)Charles Brown wanted to send his daughter to a whites-only school (far closer to their home) but she was denied. The NAACP and Chief Justice Warren argued that segregation was unconstitutional and that separation psychologically harmed black kids. The Supreme Court agreed, destroying the constitutionality for segregation (no more separate but equal) and proving effectiveness of gradual legal approach.Schools were ordered to desegregate.Murder of Emmett Till (1955)14 year-old Emmett Till from the North was visiting his uncle in Mississippi.He was claimed to have catcalled a female shop clerk (who admitted in 2017 that he didn’t) was later kidnapped by the clerk’s husband Bryant, and his half-brother Milam. They beat him with a pistol (he was disfigured beyond recognition), shot him, and threw his body in a river with a 32kg fan tied around his neck. The following trial (in front of an all-white jury) found Milam and Bryant not guilty, and they even sold their confession story to Look Magazine.Till’s mother had an open casket funeral to show the world what happened = international and national attention.Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955)In Dec 1955, Rosa Parks (highly respected church member and activist) was arrested for refusing to give her seat to a white person.Civil rights activists called for a boycott of the bus system The Montgomery bus system was boycotted by about 40,000 African-Americans (about three quarters of the city’s bus riders).Black people walked, rode taxis, carpooled, etc.R Lewis, carpool director: ‘The success of the car pool is at the heart of the movement.’The Montgomery Improvement Association was formed to support the boycott, with MLK as its leader.MLK: ‘[the boycotters] gave new meaning and dignity to civilisation.’Parks was fired from her job, boycotters were arrested for conspiracy/speeding, black churches and activist leader’s houses were bombed (such as MLK’s, shattering his windows)Boycott was extremely effective and lasted 381 days—bus fares were raised 50%.Ended when bus segregation was banned in the Supreme Court in June 1956.Violence (shooting/bombing buses) followed.Significance: Gained national/international attention, moral boost, justified NAACP courts strategy, justified non-violence and organisation, brought MLK to prominence, boosted northern support (e.g. financial support from A. Phillip Randolph)Desegregation of Little Rock High School (1957)Resistance to integration after Brown v. Education:Orval Faubus, governor of Arkansas—‘Arkansas is not ready for a complete mixing of the races.’ Southern Manifesto Daisy Bates (journalist and activist) has 9 students undergo counselling to prepare them to enrol in LRHS.When the 9 arrived in Sep 1957, they were blocked by the National Guard and harassed by crowds, e.g. Melba Pattillo was grabbed at, a tree limb was swung at her, a brick was thrown at her car.On Sep 20, the 9 entered the school, and the mob went wild. Reporters were attacked, a 100 car convoy full of weapons was found, blacks were pulled out of their cars and beaten.President Eisenhower removed the National Guard and sent 1000 soldiers from the 101st Airborne Division who protected and escorted the students.The 9 faced violence, prejudice and exclusion, with one having had acid thrown into her face, and another being pushed down the stairs. They found strength in the fact that ‘...what we were doing was not for ourselves.’ (Elizabeth Eckford)Ernst Green, the senior of the 9, graduated in 1958.Faubus closed all of Little Rock’s highschools for a year to prevent black attendance, but the rest of the 9 completed their education elsewhere, and Little Rock High was eventually integrated.Significance: Publicised extent of racism and violence in the South, gained the civil rights cause international and federal support.Greensboro Sit-ins (1960)African Americans were not allowed to sit at the lunch counter to eat at the Greensboro Woolworth store. 4 black university students sat at the counter and were denied service. The protest grew to other stores, and each day more students joined until 64 of the 65 seats were occupied. Protesters faced violence and taunting, but didn’t retaliate. The event received international attention and other protest events followed in solidarity. Finally, in July 1960, the Woolworth manager agreed to serve African Americans.An example of grassroots activism, led to formation of SNCC.Freedom Rides (1961)About 1000 student activists underwent bus trips through the Deep South to protest and highlight segregation, especially in transport.Riders faced violence, discrimination and persecution14th May: In Alabama, mob attacked the bus with crowbars. Later the bus was followed by a convoy, and surrounded by a screaming mob and firebombed when it pulled over.Parchman Prison (Mississippi)—Rider W Mahoney: ‘[we] were locked in small, dirty, blood-splattered, roast-infested cells.’Kennedy sent federal marshals to protect the Riders but later agreed the Riders could be arrested if they were not abused.Significance: Drew international attention and hundreds of new supporters, forced government to act -> anti-segregation regulations issued in 1961.James Meredith at Ole Miss (1962)After a NAACP legal battle, Mississippi University’s segregation laws were overturned and Meredith was escorted into ‘Ole Miss’ in September.Demonstrators arrived and a riot ensued—federal marshals were belted w/ bottles and rocks, tear gas was fired into the crowd, two people were killed and 300 were injured.Kennedy sent 5000 troops to restore order and guard Meredith.Significance: Forced Kennedy to intervene and be hands-on in approach to civil rights.Birmingham Protests (April, 1963)Birmingham was most violent and segregated city in the South.C for Confrontation: secret plan to desegregate Birmingham.Began w/ sit-ins, a march on city hall, boycott of white businesses.King marched with 50 others and was arrested by Commissioner Bull Connor -> ‘Letter from Birmingham Jail’Children’s Marches: SNCC trained thousands of black children to march. They were arrested on TV and attacked by police dogs and high-pressure fire-hoses—1300 children were arrested over 2 days.This violence forced Kennedy to act and negotiate a deal between Birmingham and the SCLC as protests continued -> in May business leaders agreed to desegregate stores and hire blacks.Significance: Forced government to act, brought attention, anti-segregation laws introduced, growing divide between NAACP/SCLC (non-violent) and more radical, impatient groups.March on Washington (Aug, 1963)Philip Randolph (elder civil rights statesman) and the SCLC merged their protest ideas into one mass protest to highlight the need for legislation banning segregation.Alabama’s context: Montgomery Bus Boycott, Freedom Rides, Birmingham ProtestsJFK warned them about the risk of violence but reluctantly endorsed it and ensured security precautions.On 28 August (Emmett Till’s death), about 250,000 people gathered at the Lincoln Memorial, covered by over 3000 members of the press.There were musical performances by Bob Dylan, Mahalia Jackson, etc.Speeches were given by Philip Randolph, Daisy Bates, MLK, NAACP and SNCC leaders, etc.MLK spoke last and departed from his prepared notes and gave his famous ‘I Have a Dream’ speech, which went for 16 minutes instead of the planned 4.MLK: ‘I have a dream.... even the state of Mississippi... will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice... that little children... will not be judged by the color of their skin... With this faith we will be able to transform... our nation into a beautiful symphony of brotherhood.’Separatist groups e.g. the Nation of Islam were critical of the march. Malcolm X called it ‘the Farce on Washington’Significance: United civil rights groups, brought huge publicity and attention, gained respect through organisation/unity, arguably helped pass 1964 Civil Rights Bill. However, a black church was bombed only a week later, and KKK membership and violence increased.Mississippi Freedom Summer (1964)Aimed to increase black voter registration (7% of blacks at start of 1964) and set up freedom schools.Run by COFO (Council of Federated Organisations) under Bob Moses, who wanted to include white students to increase attention and reduce violenceD Dennis (CORE organiser): ‘The death of a white college student would bring on more attention... than a black student getting it.’State laws banned leafleting/picketing, KKK and police numbers were increasedWhen 3 activists went missing, the police, FBI and Justice Department didn’t initially take action. FBI eventually investigated and found the activists beaten and killed.50 Freedom Schools were established for community organising but only 1600 African-Americans were registered.Violence: Over 1000 arrested, six murdered, dozens of black churches and homes destroyed.White Citizen’s Councils foreclosed mortgages, fired blacks, stepped up segregationThe Democratic National Convention refused seats to representatives elected through COFOSignificance: Raised awareness/national attention, pushed many towards radical/Black Power movementsAssassination of MLK (1968)Context: MLK was in Memphis to support 1300 striking black sanitation workers following the death of 2 garbage workers. He joined a protest march, but it became violent and he despaired. MLK and his associates checked into the Lorraine motel, and MLK later gave his prophetic ‘Mountain Top’ speech.‘I just want to do God’s will... I’ve seen the Promised Land. I may not get here with you... we, as a people, will get to the Promised Land!’On 4 April, 6pm, MLK stepped onto his balcony to get some air and was shot by James Earl Ray (sentenced to 99 years)—jaw was shattered and spinal cord severed. He died an hour later.Significance/aftermath:Shocked the world, riots/vandalism/fire-bombing broke out in over 100 cities and over 35 were killed. Morale in the movement took a hard blow.Rosa Parks: ‘We kill our conscience, we cut open our soul. I can’t say what is in my heart—anger, fear, love for him, and sorrow...’James Meredith: ‘This is America’s answer to the peaceful, non-violent way...’Rioting led to a ‘white flight’ from inner cities -> reduced tax base and quality of life. Criticism of MLK—communist, pushing too hard and fast, not his place to talk about Vietnam War (called America the ‘greatest purveyor of violence’, 72% of whites and 55% of blacks disagreed.’Appraisal of MLK of a saint/martyr.Olympics Black Power Salute (1968)African-American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos raised black-gloved fists during their medal ceremony.Symbolism: gloves = black power, bead necklace = lynchings, no shoes = povertyAustralian Peter Norman stood with them in solidarity.Showed the movement continued after MLK.Achievements of the Civil Rights MovementNature of social and political changeSocial changeThe US was a conservative, conformist, racist (Jim Crow laws, miscegenation) society, but many movements/cultural changes developed, particularly in the 60s.Brown v. Education and grassroots supportCreated social change‘Busing’: students travel by bus = greater racial mix and inter-racial friendships.Civil rights and black power -> black pride.Soul music: mix of gospel and R and B, combined protest and hope. Became an anthem to civil rights, e.g. James Brown ‘Say it Loud’ (“I’m black and I’m proud.’), Aretha Franklin, Curtis Mayfield.Slogan ‘black is beautiful’Less imitating white styles, women wore their hair naturally.Black fashion linked to heritage as African-style clothes (e.g. the buba and the dashiki) were worn.By 1968, courses in Black History/African American studies began to appear.Other movements: Women’s movement, environmental, gay rights, anti-Vietnam War, counterculture (alternative dress, music, hair, drugs, hippie life, pre-marital sex, listening to black music, rock ‘n’ roll)T Gitlin (critic): ‘...that decade’s movement forced upon us central issues for Western civilisation... questions of value... divides of culture... debates about the nature of the good life.’R Dallek (professor): ‘The sixties decade... was a huge jumping off point for the country.’Political changeJFK, Robert Kennedy, Freedom Democratic Party -> changed political landscape.Freedom Democratic Party (formed after Freedom Summer) challenged Mississippi Democratic Party’s right to sit at the Democratic National Convention because they excluded blacks -> drew attention to segregationist policies of Democrats.Divides in America and its politics were deepened.Since 1964, more Southerners voted Republican.Significance of legislative change, Civil Rights Act (1964), attitudes of US presidentsAmerican governmentLegislature (congress)Executive (president)Judiciary (Supreme Court)Roughly equal in power and can block each other’s laws.PresidentsHarry S Truman (1945-53)Truman, 1948: ‘[the aim of the country should be] to secure fully the essential human rights of our citizens.’Ended discrimination in armed forces, put a black judge on the federal court, set up a Committee on Government Contract Compliance (government contracts weren’t to go to discriminatory companies)Somewhat far-sighted and liberal. Measures took a long time to appear, due to heavy opposition and the fact that he needed congress support in the Korean War. Somewhat significant, progressive for the time.Dwight D Eisenhower (1953-60)Little interest in civil rights, a typical Southerner, didn’t want to lose Congress support or get the government involved.Remained silent on Emmett Till murder and Montgomery Bus Boycott, didn’t support Brown v. Education, sent troops to Little Rock to assert federal power, passed 1957 and 1960 Civil Rights Acts.He lacked interest, motivation and empathy, and his Civil Rights Acts did little to nothing. Not very significant.John F Kennedy (1961-63)Had little interest in civil rights, opposed direct and violent tactics and preferring a quiet, legal approach. Didn’t want to lose Congress support, only pushed to action by black activists.Appointed blacks to federal posts, made symbolic gestures for equality, created Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity, send federal forces into Ole Miss Riots and Birmingham protests, stated civil rights was a ‘moral issue’, introduced a Civil Rights bill.He was sympathetic, but Kennedy Administration only acted in response to actions of activists and racists who were disappointed by the lack of progress. He was greatly slowed down by Southern politicians. Somewhat significant, made some change.Lyndon B Johnson (1963-68)Fought for civil rights out of sense of duty to Kennedy, genuine commitment and southern economic need. More serious and committed to civil rights than Kennedy.Supported Brown v. Education, chaired Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity, signed Kennedy’s Civil Rights Act into law in 1964, passed the Higher Education Act, introduced health insurance for black minorities, passed Voting Rights Act, passed Fair Housing Act.Slowed down by black rioting, deep-seated racism, white opposition and the Vietnam War. However, passed many helpful acts and was very significant.1964 Civil Rights Act: Outlawed segregation (schools, theatres, etc.) and discrimination in employment. Laid the groundwork for social change, gave legislative support to social/political changes, supplemented by LBJ’s Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968.Influence of US civil rights movement beyond the USAustraliaHistory: Aboriginal Australians faced limited rights—segregation (reserves/missions, banned from public facilities), assimilation, violence, Stolen Generations.Freedom Ride: In 1964, Sydney Uni students, led by Charles Perkins, organised a Freedom Ride (inspired from the US) to drive through rural NSW (Walgett, Moree, etc.) and highlight discrimination and poor living conditions -> raised public awareness and debate.C Perkins: ‘...the Freedom Ride is a copy of really what happened in America, where people wanted to... expose discrimination and prejudice... And that’s what we wanted to do, all of us students.’A Curthoys (Aboriginal activist): ‘[We] had a lot to learn from the US, most of all from the ideas of Martin Luther King.’Black Power After visit of Black Power Leader Roosevelt Brown in 1969, people in the Victorian Aborigines Advancement League (AAL) advocated for Aboriginal control/leadership of Aboriginal organisations.Those in Black Power did a protest campaign against the tour of the all-white South African rugby team in 1971.The AAL attended the first black nationalist Congress of African People meeting -> Australian Black Panthers group formed in 1971, adopting US style—afro hair, leather jackets, Black Power salute.In 1972, the government rejected Aboriginal land rights -> Aboriginal Tent Embassy formed on grounds of Parliament House in protest, gaining 2000 supporters in the next few months. Police violence against protesters was publicised and embassy was re-established.Northern IrelandHistory: Northern Ireland was a part of the UK, and Protestants (British majority) were favoured over Catholics (Irish minority) in employment, education and housing.Black civil rights inspired Irish people -> in 1967, Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) was formed, demanding an end to discrimination.In Aug 1968, first peaceful civil rights march occurred from Coalisland to Dungannon, inspired from MLK’s marches -> government reforms.The People’s Democracy (PD) was created by uni students for civil rights, they marched from Belfast to Londonberry in 1969, this ended in violence.J Lee (historian): ‘...Some of the participants imagined they were engaged on an Ulster [Northern Ireland region] version of the Selma to Montgomery March...’Various marches ended in violence, and by 1970, there was violent conflict (‘the troubles’) that continued until the 1998 Good Friday Agreement.South AfricaHistory: Apartheid was a system of segregation between blacks, whites, mixed people and Indians. Segregation and violence was enforced by the government, e.g. in 1960, security forced killed 69 protestors in the Sharpeville Massacre.Malcolm X and Stokely Carmichael saw US civil rights as linked with the struggle in Africa. MLK called South Africa’s rulers ‘barbarians’.Anti-apartheid leaders later stated they were inspired by the US. ................
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