St. Charles Parish Public Schools



U.S. HISTORY EOC STUDY GUIDEMrs. Clements – Spring 2017Hahnville High School D80Every time before you start studying, take a few deep breaths & say to yourself, “I have great test taking skills. I believe I will remember this information and do great on the EOC test and Mrs. Clements believes in me too!”When you start feeling overwhelmed, just remember you’re smart & you got this!TABLE OF CONTENTSI. EOC Test Structure………………………………………………………….pg. 2II. Percentage of Points by Topic……………………………………………...pg. 2III. EOC Score Breakdown……………………………………………………pg. 2IV. EOC Test Schedule………………………………………………………..pg. 3V. Test Day Procedures……………………………………………………….pg. 4VI. Study Tips ………………………………………………………………...pg. 4VII. Studying with Others….…………………………………………………pg. 4VIII. Unit 1 – Westward Expansion…………………………………………..pgs. 5-10IX. Unit 2 – Immigration, Urbanization, Progressivism……………………...pgs. 11-18X. Unit 3 – Imperialism…………………………………………………….…pgs. 19-23XI. Unit 4 – World War I ……………………………………………………..pgs. 24-27XII. Unit 5 – Roaring 20’s…………………………………………………….pgs. 28-32XIII. Unit 6 – Great Depression/New Deal…………………………………...pgs. 33-38XIV. Unit 7 – World War II …………………………………………………..pgs. 39-48XV. Unit 8 – Cold War Era/Vietnam War ……………………………………pgs. 49-58XVI. Unit 9 – Civil Rights…………………………………………………….pgs. 59-62XVII. Unit 10 – Nixon, Carter, Reagan & Bush……………………………...pgs. 63-66XVIII. Unit 11 – Modern Era…………………………………………………pgs. 67-69XIX. Extended Response Rubric & Scoring………………………………….pgs. 70-71XX. Extended Response Sample……………………………………………...pgs. 72-77 “Believe you can and you’re halfway there” – Theodore RooseveltI. EOC TEST STRUCTURETest SessionsNumber of QuestionsSuggested Time*Session 1 – Multiple Choice2855 minutesSession 2 – Task2 multiple choice1 extended response50 minutesSession 3 – Multiple Choice2855 minutes*Time is just suggested – this test is untimed which means you have as much time as you needII. PERCENTAGE OF POINTS BY TOPICTopicsPercentage of Points*Western Expansion to Progressivism25Isolationism through World War I13Becoming a World Power through World War II29Cold War Era19The Modern Age13*Percentages do not add up to 100 due to roundingIII. EOC SCORE BREAKDOWNAchievement LevelApproximate Number of Questions to Get RightScorePowerSchool GradeExcellent38-52748-80093-100Good25-37700-74785-92Fair17-24655-66975-84Needs Improvement0-16647-66467-74600-6460-66*Students who get an “Excellent” on the EOC will be exempt from the final exam*Your EOC score counts for 20% of your grade; passing is fair & aboveEOC Achievement Levels Student scores for the U.S. History EOC test are reported at four achievement levels: Excellent: A student at this achievement level has demonstrated mastery of course content beyond Good. Good: A student at this achievement level has demonstrated mastery of course content and is well prepared for the next level of coursework in the subject area.Fair: A student at this achievement level has demonstrated only the fundamental knowledge and skills needed for the next level of coursework in the subject area. Needs Improvement: A student at this achievement level has not demonstrated the fundamental knowledge and skills needed for the next level of coursework in the subject area.“If you can dream it, you can do it” – Walt DisneyIV. EOC TEST SCHEDULE – SPRING 20171ASession 1Monday, May 1, 20177:20-8:55Lab 2Mr. LuciaSessions 2 & 3Wednesday, May 3, 20177:20-8:55Lab 2Mr. Lucia2ASession 1Monday, May 1, 20179:00-10:35Lab 2Mr. LuciaSessions 2 & 3Wednesday, May 3, 20179:00-10:35Lab 2Mr. Lucia3A*YOU WILL HAVE 1st LUNCH BOTH DAYS*Session 1Monday, May 1, 201711:05-12:40Lab 2Mr. LuciaSessions 2 & 3Wednesday, May 3, 201711:05-12:40Lab 2Mr. Lucia1BSession 1Tuesday, May 2, 20177:20-8:55Lab 2Mr. LuciaSessions 2 & 3Thursday, May 4, 20177:20-8:55Lab 2Mr. Lucia3B*YOU WILL HAVE 1st LUNCH BOTH DAYS*Session 1Tuesday, May 2, 201711:05-12:40Lab 2Mrs. OrrSessions 2 & 3Thursday, May 4, 201711:05-12:40Lab 2Mrs. Orr4BSession 1Tuesday, May 2, 201712:45-2:20Lab 2Mr. LuciaSessions 2 & 3Thursday, May 4, 201712:45-2:20Lab 2Mr. Lucia“Success is the sum of small efforts, repeated day in and day out” Robert CollierV. TEST DAY(S) PROCEDURESReport to the classroom D80 (as usual) both days of the test (3A & 3B – 1st lunch both days)Cellphones, fit bits, smart watches, and other electronic devices must be powered off. Your personal electronics will be placed in a Ziploc bag with your name on it. You will get your devices back when everyone is completed the test session.I will take role, then line the class up alphabetically to walk to Lab 2Once we get to Lab 2, an administrator will seat you at your assigned computerTake your time and answer all questions to the best of your ability; remember to use the tools!There is no way to reopen the test when you submit your results at the end of each session, so make sure you are completely done when you click end test.Do not move on to another session without permission from the test administrator. If you finish early, then put your head down and take a well-deserved nap.Watch your feet- don’t accidentally kick any cords under the desksRead all answer choices carefully. If you are really unsure, look for choices you can eliminate and go from thereUSE the pictures, charts, graphs, and texts – those are there to help you answer the questions!VI. STUDY TIPSBegin briefly reading over the material a few days before the test Try connecting the overall information as a: Timeline in your head from Westward Expansion to the Modern EraBook that tells a story of how the United States got to how it is todayA series of causes and effects (that happened, so then this happened)If you feel overwhelmed (try not to), then break the material down by either:Focusing on the units that make up the most percentage on the testFocusing on the units that you remember the least amount of information onDon’t forget your test-taking skills: process of elimination, deductive reasoning, context clues, etc.Get a good night’s sleep and eat a decent breakfast the days of the test sessionsVII. Studying with OthersMrs. Clements’ favorite way to study when she was in school was reading things out-loud and being quizzed on it by others in the class. Here are some things you can do to help if you’re interested in this method:Get a study group together and meet for an hour or more. All U.S. History classes are taking the EOC, so connect with people in your class, in other classes, or even people at other schools (such as Destrehan). Make sure that when you get together there is actual studying going on!Ask your parent/guardian to quiz you on information. They can go through this packet and ask you questionsAnother idea you can do is go online to Kahoot and search U.S. History EOC Review games to play. You can do this by yourself or with a group of people.“When everything seems to be going against you, remember that the airplane takes off against the wind, not with it” – Henry FordBefore you begin studying and get all overwhelmed, remember that the overall test is less than 60 questions altogether. Try not to focus on memorizing specific dates and facts, but read and reread over the material to obtain a general understanding of the topics. It may help to read over these notes as if it is one long story – every event leads to another eventVIII. UNIT 1 – WESTWARD EXPANSION*Essential question to think about as you study: How did the social, political, and economic climate of the U.S. change during westward expansion?MAIN OVERALL CONCEPT:Manifest Destiny was the idea that drove Westward Expansion. Even though it was America’s “destiny” to expand, the land was not technically there’s for the taking. The Native Americans struggled very hard to keep their land, culture and traditions, but were eventually assimilated into American society and/or put on Indian Reservations. The massive popularity of moving out West led to many farmers trying to succeed in the West. However, high railroad prices for shipping, droughts, expensive new equipment and farmers debt all caused farmers to band together for a change. The farmers created the Populist Party, and although it was unsuccessful, it rooted the idea for years to come that people can demand change and reform. NOTES/TERMS:Manifest Destiny – the idea that drove westward expansion and that it was the United States’ destiny and duty to expand and possess all territory West to the Pacific Ocean Obtaining territories in the West in order to expand:Texas territoryBy the 1830s Texas was under the control of Mexico who was led by Santa AnnaStephen F. Austin (leader of the Texas colony) petitioned the Mexican government for more independence from Mexico and was arrested by Santa Anna for inciting revolution. Austin returned to Texas in 1835 convinced that the only answer was warLt. Col. William Travis led rebels at the Alamo against the Mexican government’s advances; they fought valiantly for 13 days before losing the Battle of the Alamo (“Remember the Alamo”)Texas RevolutionSam Houston led 900 men against Santa Anna and his forces. They attacked and killed 630 troops and captured Santa Anna. Houston forced Santa Anna to sign the Treaty of Velasco granting independence to Texas. Houston was then elected president of the Republic of Texas.Texas did not get admitted into the U.S. as a state until 1845 by President PolkThis annexation of Texas soon led to war with Mexico againOregon territoryIn the Northwest U.S.The Oregon Trail created in 1836 stretched from Independence, MO to Oregon City, ORThis was originally a joint territory of the United States and Great Britain, but in 1846 (with Polk as President) Oregon became a U.S. territory when Great Britain and the U.S. agreed on the 49th parallel as the border between the U.S. and present day CanadaSouthwest territoryU.S. defeated Mexico in the Mexican-American War in 1848U.S. and Mexico sign the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In this treaty:They agreed to the Rio Grande River as the border between Texas and MexicoRequired Mexico surrender New Mexico and California territories in exchange for 15 million dollarsGadsden Purchase President Pierce sent James Gadsden to settle a dispute with Mexico over additional territoryGadsden purchased parts of New Mexico and Arizona in exchange for an additional 10 million dollarsCalifornia Gold Rush of 1849Gold was discovered in California in 1848 and by 1849 gold seekers came from all over the U,S, and the world to get richThe Gold Rush was over by 1853Most people never got rich, but all in all 2 billion dollars’ worth of gold was harvested out of the Sierra Nevada MountainsThis huge expansion of population to California helped Congress admit California as a U.S. stateSettlers push Westward into Native American LandsReasons:Lure of gold and silver in places like Colorado and California. This led to the creation of mining towns all over the west on Native American landDesire to own land – mostly taken from the Native AmericansTo spread religious beliefs (missions) by taking away the beliefs of Native AmericansU.S. government begins to restrict Native Americans to protect the settlers1834 – Great Plains designated as one big reservationBy 1850s – tribes restricted to particular areas The development of railroads influenced government decisions because the main goal was to create a transcontinental railroadNative American response: angered and ignored restrictions. As a result, they often clashed with the settlers and minersThe Great Plains Indians before expansionThe importance of the horse and buffalo Buffalo provided basic needs for them (food, shelter, clothing); the buffalo were the center of Native American’s livesIn 1800 there were 65 million buffalo and by 1890 they were less than 1,000 due to tourists and fur traders shooting buffalo for sport and profit (nearly killed of the Native American’s main source of living)Horses were introduced by the Europeans and allowed hunting, speed and mobilityNative American thoughts about the land: “Land is a sacred gift that could not be owned by anyone”RolesMen – hunters and warriorsWomen – butchered game, prepared hides and cookedEducation for children – learned through stories, myths, games and by exampleLeaders ruled by council not force – no one person dominatedBattles with Native AmericansSand Creek Massacre – in 1864, the U.S. attacked and killed 150 natives (mostly women and children)Bozeman Trail The trail ran through Native American hunting ground in the Big Horn MountainsNative Americans (Sioux Indians in particular) attacked settlers along the trail in defense of their hunting groundsThis led to the Treaty of Fort Laramie which closed the Bozeman Trail and in exchange, the Sioux agreed to live on a reservationSitting Bull (leader of the Sioux) refused to sign the treatyCuster’s Last Stand/Battle of Little BighornMiners discovered gold in Black Hills and Sioux leaders protested the mining of the landSitting Bull and Crazy Horse (both Sioux leaders) attacked and defeated Custer and his troops at Little Bighorn RiverOne of the few victories for Native AmericansBattle of Wounded KneeSioux leaders refused to surrender for years until the Battle of Wounded KneeSioux tribe practiced the Ghost Dance to restore their way of life, this alarmed the military December 1890, Custer’s old regiment rounded up 350 Sioux and took them to Wounded Knee, SDAn unknown shot led to a cannon being fired and the deaths of 300 unarmed Native Americans ensuedThis event officially marked the end of the “Indian Wars”Assimilation – a minority group’s adoption of the beliefs and way of life of the dominant culture; a plan under which Native American would give up their beliefs and way of life and become part of the white culture“Kill the Indian, save the man”The Native Americans had lived on these lands for thousands of years with the same lifestyle. Then, European-Americans came in and expected the natives to assimilate/adapt to their way of lifeDawes Act – a law, enacted in 1887, that was intended to “Americanize” Native Americans by breaking up the reservations and giving pieces of land to individuals. The government sold the remaining land and this inevitably tore apart the Native American traditions of community and sharingSettling the Great Plains – now that the Native American “problem” was taken care of, the land to the West had to be settled The Homestead Act – in 1862 Congress passed this act which allowed 160 free acres of land to any “head of household” The passage of this act led to record numbers of U.S. settlers claiming private property which previously had been reserved by treaty and by tradition for Native American nomadic dwelling and use; the same law strengthened in 1889 to encourage individuals to exercise their private property rights and develop homesteads out of the vast government landsThis law was abused by speculators (people who resold the land for profit)Only about 10% actually settled by familiesEarly participants in the land rushes which initially opened the Oklahoma Indian territory to non-native settlement ; 1889 land rush attracted thousandsIn less than a day, two million acres were claimedExodusters – more than 15,000 African Americans moved from the post-Reconstruction South to KansasFormer sharecroppers and farmers took advantage of the opportunity for landProblems in the WestDroughts, floods, blizzards, fires, locust plagues, banditsMost settlers had to build their homes from the land because there were very few treesDugouts – pioneers often dug their homes out of the sides of ravines or hillsSoddies – those in the flat plains made freestanding homes made of turfInventions that could help:In 1837 John Deere created the steel plow that could slice through heavy soilOther inventions include the grain drill to plant seeds, barbed wire, corn binder and reaperEnd of the frontierBy 1890 with developments in farming and the ease of transportation through railroads, the Department of the Interior announced that the country no longer had a frontier line (people were no longer learning how to settle the land in the West)Federal government financed agricultural education to help improve farming practices and technologyMorrill Acts – gave federal land to states to help finance agricultural colleges (ex: LSU and Texas A&M)Hatch Act – created agricultural experiment stations Transcontinental Railroad – 170 million acres of land was given to railroads by the federal government to build a cross-country railroadInterstate Commerce Act of 1887 – established the right of the federal government to supervise railroad activities (not very successful)Railroads and investors created Bonanza Farms – single crop farms that were very large in size, but droughts completely bankrupt the single-crop operationsProblems started to arise for farmers:Falling crop prices and rising costs of shipping (high railroad rates) pushed the farmers into debtFarms began being foreclosed (going under; couldn’t keep up with the payments)Railroads conspired to keep costs artificially high which caused resentment by farmersNew equipment for farming was very expensive, so farmers had to borrow money Greenbacks – during the Civil War the U.S. printed money with green ink that was not backed by silver or goldFarmers borrowed greenbacks to finance the purchase of equipment during and briefly after the Civil War, but now banks would not accept greenbacks as repayment. They only accepted “hard money” printed in yellow ink that could be exchanged for goldFree Silver – during the debate over currency, Silverites wanted the free coinage of silver by the federal governmentFarmer’s Populist MovementThe government began to take greenbacks out of circulation, thus upsetting farmersThe hard money left in circulation was worth more money than the farmers borrowed causing farmers having to repay more than they originally borrowedAdditionally, the price of wheat fell, so farmers could not sell their crops for as much moneyFarmers pushed for more money to be circulated because they believed that would solve their problemsThe GrangeMost popular and successful farmers alliance, or Agrarian Movement Started in 1867 by Oliver Hudson KelleyIt originally began being called the Patrons of HusbandryThis alliance helped isolated farms and farmers with education, techniques and equipmentSpent most of their time fighting the railroadsPopulist Party is bornFarm leaders (grangers) needed a base of a political power to cause real change and reformSo, the Populist (or People’s) Party was formed in 1892The Populist Party proposed economic, political and workforce reformsPopulist Reforms (goals of the party): increase money supply, increase crop prices, have a graduated income tax, federal loan program, direct election of senators, single terms for presidents, eight hour workday, reduced immigrationPanic of 1893Railroads went bankrupt because they expanded too fastGovernment’s gold supply extremely thin from having to purchase silverPeople trade money for goldStock market lost valueSilver prices fell causing mines to close15,000 businesses and 500 banks collapsed (not literally crumbled, but went out of business)3 million people out of work (20% unemployment rate)There are two sides: Gold Bugs vs. Silverites Silverites:Favored using both metals (bimetallism – gold and silver)William Jennings Bryan gave famous Cross of Gold Speech in supportSupported by DemocratsSupported by farmers and laborersPuts more money into circulationProducts would be sold at a higher priceWanted free silverEffects: prices rise, value of money decreases, more people have money, more money available to stimulate the economyGold Bugs:Republican President Cleveland supportsWilliam McKinley Republican presidential candidate supportsBankers and businesses supportLess money in circulationLoans would be repaid in stable money that is worth moreEffects: prices fall, value of money increases, fewer people have moneyPresidential Election of 1896William Jennings Bryan (Silverites/Democrat)Supported by Populists (farmers and laborers)Supported in South and MidwestWanted bimetallism and free silverWilliam McKinley (Gold Bug/Republican & winner of the election)Supported in North and EastSupported by businessesMcKinley’s election killed the rise of the Populist Party, but the idea that people can organize together to make changes and reform stoodNatural resources help transform U.S. and fuel Industrial RevolutionOil (Black Gold)1859 Edwin Drake used a steam engine to drill for oil; started an oil boom in the MidwestOil Kerosene; gasoline byproductsSteelHenry Bessemer developed the Bessemer process to remove carbon from iron to create a lighter, more flexible, compound (steel)New uses for steel included railroads, barbed wire, farm equipment, bridges, skyscrapersNew InventionsElectricity – in 1880 Thomas Edison created first incandescent light bulb. He later invented an entire system for producing and distributing electricity Typewriter – in 1867 Christopher Sholes invented the typewriter, thus changing office work and paperwork and opened up new job opportunities for womenTelephone – in 1876 Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson created the telephone and changes the way people communicateCorporations began to dominate the landscape of the U.S. by replacing small businesses and shops. With little government regulation, the corporations thrived and the U.S. economy grew.Henry Ford – created the Model T automobilePerfected the use of the assembly line to mass produceMonopoly – the exclusive possession or control of the supply or trade in a commodity or service; complete control over an industryTrusts – a large company that has or attempts to gain monopolistic control of a market; big businessesSherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 – a law, enacted in 1890, that was intended to prevent the creation of monopolies by making it illegal to establish trusts that interfered with free tradeRobber Barons vs. Captains of IndustryRobber Barons – business moguls who used cut-throat and unethical tacticsCaptains of Industry – business moguls who helped and gave back to their community (philanthropists)Some business moguls were considered both Robber Barons and Captains of IndustryJohn D. RockefellerFounder of Standard Oil CompanyTrust agreements: join with other companies competing against you, running all of them as one big corporation so that all would be entitled to profitsThis was not legal, but Rockefeller used them to gain complete control over the oil industryAndrew CarnegieOne of the first industrial moguls and revolutionized the steel industry in 1873Founded Carnegie Steel and sold his vast company to J.P. Morgan in 1901 for $480 millionCarnegie was a big philanthropistCarnegie’s “New” Business Practices:Search for ways to make better products more cheaplyAccounting systems to track expensesAttracting quality people by offering them stock and benefitsVertical and Horizontal IntegrationCarnegie’s Vertical Integration: Buying out his suppliers (the suppliers in the steel industry: coal fields, iron mines, ore freighters, and rail lines) in order to control materials and transportationCarnegie’s Horizontal Integration: Buying companies through friendly and hostile takeovers that produce similar productsVertical and Horizontal Integration allows control of supplier and limits competitionJ.P. Morgan – an American banker who dominated corporate finance and industrial consolidation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; he arranged many mergers of companies“Whether you think you can, or you think you can’t – you’re right” – Henry FordIX. UNIT 2 – IMMIGRATION, URBANIZATION, PROGRESSIVISM*Essential question to think about as you study: What were the goals of the Progressives and how did the muckrakers, political leaders, and intellectuals impact the movement’s successes and failures?MAIN OVERALL CONCEPT:This era was a time of massive expansion in the United States. Push and pull factors were bringing mass amount of immigrants to the U.S. and cities were rapidly expanding. This massive growth of cities (urbanization) led to problems such as overcrowded housing, transportation, sanitation issues, clean water supply, the need for a fire department and the need for more effect police departments. Immigrants mainly settled in big cities and farmers began moving to the cities as well when they were being replaced by new inventions (the steel plow, for example). Many people working these cities worked in unsafe and unfair conditions. Labor groups and labor unions began to form to advocate for better hours, better working conditions, and an end to child labor. NOTES/TERMS:By 1920, the U.S. was the leading industrial power in the world. This growth was due to: natural resources, government support, urbanization and new inventionsImmigration – coming to and settling in a country of which one is not nativePush Factors – conditions that drive people to leave their home/countryExamples: political/religious persecution, revolutions, poverty, not enough jobs famine, droughtPull Factors – conditions that attraction people to a new areaExamples: promise of freedom, hope for a new life, jobs, land, industry, religious freedom, political freedom American Dream – the idea that every U.S. citizen should have an equal opportunity to achieve success and prosperity through hard work, determination and initiativeMelting Pot – a mixture of people from different cultures and races who blend together by abandoning their native languages and culturesStereotype – a simplified and standardized conception or imageTolerance – a fair and objective attitude toward opinions and practices that differ from one’s ownDiversity – variety, several different backgrounds or viewpoints“Old” ImmigrantsCame to the U.S. between 1870 and 1890 from Western and Northern EuropeExamples: Great Britain, Ireland, GermanyThese people were willing to adapt to American Culture“New” Immigrants Came from 1880-1920 from Eastern Europe, Asia, and MexicoExamples: Russia, China, MexicoBrought strong and different beliefs, cultures and languagesWere less willing to adaptThe New Immigrants came in mass amounts in the late 19th and early 20th centuriesThey came seeking refuge from famine and shortagesSeeking quick profits before returning home (Birds of Passage)European Immigrants20 million between 1870 and 1920 Arrived on the shores of the East Coast U.S.Came from all parts of Europe (remember guys, Europe is a continent that has many countries in it such as Great Britain, France, Spain, Italy, Germany, etc.)Possible reasons for leaving Europe:Escaping religious persecutionRising populations in Europe meant there were not a lot of jobs or resources availableSeeking independent livesChinese and Japanese ImmigrantsArrived on the shores of the West Coast U.S.They came in smaller numbers than the EuropeansHelped build railroads as well as be employed in jobs in farming, mining and domestic serviceWhen the U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898 (large Japanese population), many Japanese immigrants moved into the continental U.S.West Indies and Mexican ImmigrantsWest IndiesFrom Jamaica, Cuba and Puerto RicoIn search of jobs promised from the U.S. industrial boomMexicanIn search of workFleeing political unrest in MexicoImmigration Stations – areas where immigrants were inspected before they were allowed to enter the United StatesAngel Island – on the West Coast in California; Asian immigrants went through this immigration stationEllis Island – on the East Coast in New York City; European immigrants went through this immigration stationMost immigrations settled in the big cities usually near the ports of entryUrban opportunities for immigrants Most immigrants settled in cities because they were the cheapest and most convenient places to liveCities gave unskilled immigrants places to work (factories and mills)1910: Immigrant families made up more than half of the population in 18 major citiesAmericanization Movement:Designed to assimilate people of wide-ranging cultures into the dominant culture – not always embracedSponsored by the government and concerned citizensTaught immigrants skills for citizenship such as literacy, history, and governmentSocial Gospel Movement – an early reform program that preached salvation through service to the poorInspired many reformers to help the urban poor and people living in ghettosSettlement Houses (Hull Houses) – a community center providing assistance to residents – particularly immigrants – in a slum neighborhoodHelped people living in poor, urban areas, hoping to alleviate the poverty of the low-income neighborhoodsSettlement Houses provided services such as daycare, education, and healthcare to improve the lives of the poor in these areasChicago’s Hull House – started by Jane Addams, opened its doors to newly arriving European immigrants Migration from Country to CityMany rural people moved to the cities as the need for farmers decreased (technology replacing their jobs )Technological Boom Industrial Strength Immigration to find the American Dream UrbanizationUrbanization = becoming more like a city; the growth of citiesMajor problems with rapid urbanizationHousingTypically cramped rooms in boarding housesTenement homes – two or more families (usually immigrants) living in one family homesOvercrowded and unsanitaryTransportationThere was a big need for a mass transit system for large groups of people to get from one point to anotherStreetcars were introduced in San FranciscoSubways were introduced in BostonThe bigger the population of a city, the bigger the demand was for public transportationWaterNeeded to provide safe drinking water to prevent diseasePublic Waterworks were builtMany problems with pipes and plumbing in the beginningSanitationThe bigger the city was, the harder it was to keep cleanSewage in open guttersHorse manure piled in the streetsFoul smoke in the air from factoriesLed to the development of sewage lines and sanitation departments FireBig problem because of limited water supplyMost houses were backed with wood and many people used candles and kerosene = houses getting burned downWas not until 1900 that most cities had full time paid fire departmentsCrimeAs populations grew, so did the amount of theftMost of the law enforcement of the times were too small to have an impact on crimeSocial DarwinismDarwin’s theory of biological evolution: the best-adapted survive; “survival of the fittest” or in the business aspect: the strongest and smartest members of society would be the most successfulEconomists use Social Darwinism to justify doctrine of Laissez-faire (letting things take their own course without interfering)Working conditions such as child labor, over-packed factories, low pay, long hours, and dangerous conditions led to the formation of labor unionsAn example of the need for change in the workplace was the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire where 146 women died in the fireLabor OrganizersEugene V. DebsWanted organization by industryAmerican Railway Union, uniting railway workersWon a strike for higher wagesLed the Socialist Party of AmericaHelped found the Industrial Workers of the WorldSamuel GompersAmerican Federation of LaborShifted from social issues to the real workers’ problemsCollective bargaining Negotiation of wages and other conditions of employment by an organized body of employees Terrence PowderlyBegan railroad work at a young ageLed the Knights of LaborWanted an end to wage laborLabor UnionsIndustrial Workers of the World (Wobblies)Included unskilled workersRevolutionary organization dedicated to controlling the means of productionOpposed involvement in World War I, leading to arrests of the membersAmerican Federation of LaborStarted by Samuel GompersOnly skilled workers (hat-makers, cigar-makers, etc.)Maintained support of the governmentKnights of LaborSought 8 hour workday, end of child labor, equal pay, etc.Participated in strikes against Gould’s railroad and in the Haymarket Square RiotLost membership by the end of the 1800’sStrikes By Laborers Great Railroad Strike of 1877First major rail strike and first general strike in AmericaCutbacks in salaries prompted strikes and violence in all areas of the country, including many deaths, fires, and destruction of trains/railroadsHomestead StrikeCarnegie Steel vs. Amalgamated AssociationWorkers refused to accept new conditions, so plant manager locked them in the buildingAbout 10,000 strikers were in Homestead, PA and they were winning until the governor called the militia Within months, the strike lost head and ended unsuccessfully Pullman StrikeA widespread railroad strike and boycott that severely disrupted rail traffic in the Midwest in summer 1894The federal government’s response to unrest marked the first time that an injunction was used to break up a strikeHaymarket Square Riot During the strike, one person was killed and several injured as police intervened to protect strikebreakers and intimidate strikers during a union action at the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company that was part of a national campaign to secure an eight-hour workdayTo protest police brutality, the strikers called a mass meeting the next say in Haymarket Square. Although intended to be peaceful, someone threw a bomb to which police responded with random gunfirePolitical Machines – an organized group that controls a political party in a city and offers services to voters and businesses in exchange for political and financial supportWilliam M. Tweed (Boss Tweed) - “Tweed Ring” political machineHead of Tammany Hall, NYC Democratic PartyConstruction project cost taxpayers $13 million while the actual cost was only $3 millionElection Fraud and GraftUsed fake names for voting so people could vote multiple timesGraft – illegal use of political influence for personal gain Kickbacks for receiving jobsBribes to allow illegal activitySpoils System (Patronage) – rewarding political supporters; giving of government jobs to people who helped a candidate get electedPendleton Act – established the Merit System where civil service jobs went to the most qualified people and not by bribes and kickbacks Foreign Policy vs. Domestic PolicyForeign Policy – American dealings with countries outside of the U.S.; countries that are foreignDomestic Policy – American dealings with problems and situations within the U.S.; at homeProgressivism – a reform movement seeking to return control of the government to the people, to restore economic opportunities, and to correct injustices in American lifeTo move toward change, making progress toward better conditionsFour Goals of ProgressivismProtect Social WelfareIndustrialization in the late 19th century was largely unregulatedEmployers felt little responsibility toward their workersAs a result, settlement homes and churches served the communityAlso, the YMCA and Salvation Army took on service rolesPromote Moral ImprovementSome reformers felt that the answer to societies problems was personal behavior (especially due to people drinking too much)They proposed reforms such as prohibitionGroups wishing to ban alcohol included the Women’s Christian Temperance UnionCreate Economic ReformThe Panic of 1893 prompted some Americans to question the capitalist economic systemAs a result, some workers embraced socialismSocialism is a political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a wholeEugene Debs organized the American Socialist Party in 1901 Foster EfficiencyMany progressive leaders put their faith in scientific principles to make society betterIn industry, Frederick Taylor began using time and motion studies to improve factory efficiencyTaylorism became an industry fad as factories sought to complete each task quickly Progressive Amendments16th Amendment: Collection of income tax (to support the growing number of social programs)17th Amendment: Direct election of senators18th Amendment: Prohibition; made the manufacturing, sale and consumption of alcohol illegalStarted because of the Women’s Christian Temperance MovementAimed at ending the immoral and drunken behavior of many men19th Amendment: Women’s suffrage; the right to voteBefore, women held jobs as domestic workers by cleaning, cooking or providing childcare. At the turn of the century, women began to fight for their rightsSuffragettes – women who fought for the right to voteSusan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton: National American Women Suffrage Association (NAWSA)Faced opposition because:Liquor industry feared they would vote in favor of prohibitionTextile industry feared they would restrict child laborMen feared the changing role of women in societyWomen Social ReformersMother Jones: dressmaker who lost her entire family to yellow fever and had her workshop in a fireCofounded Industrial Workers of the World (Wobblies)Organized strikesFlorence Kelley: advocate for improving the lives of women and childrenHelped win the passage of the Illinois Factory Act in 1893, prohibiting child labor and limiting women’s working hoursAlice PaulOrganizer of the 1913 parade in D.C. for women’s suffrageParade was on the day of President Wilson’s inauguration Carrie Chapman Catt: NAWSA presidentInvited president Wilson to the suffrage convention in 1916Within four years, the amendment for suffrage was passedMuckrakers – people who spread real or alleged scandals; exposed corruptionIda Tarbell – exposed the Standard Oil CompanyTeacher and reporter who was persistent about racial injustices; 3 of her friends were lynched and executed without trialShe also fought for women’s rights and women’s suffragesWrote the History of the Standard Oil Company which exposed John D. Rockefeller as a ruthless, monopoly-owning business manHer father was part of a smaller oil company that was forced to shut down when Rockefeller came to powerHer efforts helped lead to the trust-busting laws of the Progressive eraUpton Sinclair – exposed the meat-packing industryWrote The Jungle that exposed the conditions in the meat packing industryWhen President Theodore Roosevelt read it, he decided to make changes in the meat packing and food industries Election of 1912/Bull Moose Party – When Theodore Roosevelt lost the Republican nomination to Taft in 1912, he ran as a third party candidate of the Progressive Party; thus splitting the Republican party. During his acceptance speech, he said he felt “as strong as a bull moose”Progressive PresidentsTheodore RooseveltBull Moose Party – a name given to the Progressive Party, formed to support Theodore Roosevelt’s candidacy for the presidency in 1912Became president when William McKinley was assassinatedRough Rider – leader of last U.S. CalvaryProgressive – he worked to end corruption in big businesses and politicsTrustbuster – validated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act Public welfare officer – pushed for the Meat Inspection ActMeat Inspection Act – a law, enacted in 1906, that established strict cleanliness requirements for meatpackers and created a federal meat-inspection program Pure Food and Drug Act – a law enacted in 1906 to halt the sale of contaminated foods and drugs and to ensure truth in labeling Conservationist – set aside millions of acres of land never to be developed or messed with (National Parks)Considered a civil rights activist Square Deal – term used to describe Roosevelt’s progressive reformsThought that the common people had been victimized by big business should receive a “square deal”Included the domestic policies of his administration, particularly with regard to economic policies, such as antitrust enforcement AccomplishmentsTrust-busting – filed suits under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act against the big businesses that were hurting public interestMeat Inspection Act/Pure Food and Drug Act – after Sinclair’s novel, he responded to the need for action through legislationConservation – set aside 45 million acres to be conserved for future generationsWilliam TaftPresident Taft was handpicked by Roosevelt to be his successor Had a “cautiously progressive agenda”Payne Aldrich Tariff – raised the rates of imported manufactured goods, which his Progressive party did not likeHis Secretary of the Interior removed land from the conservation listWoodrow WilsonPlanned “The New Freedom”Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 – kept a company from buying stock in another company if it would create a monopolyAdded to what the Sherman Antitrust Act already said, but included information on labor unions Federal Trade Commission – given the power to investigate people and companies violations and regulations and attempted to end unfair business practicesFederal Reserve System – established twelve banking districts as the basis of the nation’s banking systemWagner Act/Nation Labor Relations Act – protected workers’ rights and said employers could not get involved with unions and could not stop their employees from joining themRace Relations at the Turn of the CenturyFrom the 1870s and the 1960s, a majority of American states enforced segregation through “Jim Crow” lawsMany states and cities could impose legal punishments on people for consorting with members of another raceThe most common types of laws forbade intermarriage, ordered business owners/public institutions to keep their black and white clientele separated, and kept black people from votingVoting Restrictions:Grandfather Clause: if your grandfather couldn’t vote, neither could you (slavery ancestry prevented African Americans from voting)Poll Tax: tax put on voting, keeping the poor from being able to vote (took voting rights away from many African AmericansLiteracy Tests: made people take tests to determine level of literacy in order to have voting rightsPlessy v. FergusonSupreme court ruling that made the separation of the races in public places legalFormally legalized segregation“Separate but equal”W.E.B. Dubois Published The Souls of Black FolkEstablished and became the first president of the NAACP in 1909NAACP – National Association for the Advancement of Colored People: founded to improve living conditions for inner city Blacks, evolved into a national organization dedicated to establishing equal rights for BlacksMunicipal Reforms – changes in city governments made to encourage greater efficiency, honesty and responsiveness to residents, particularly middle-class businessmen, organized against the corruption and inefficiency that they thought plagued their cities.This movement was particularly strong in cities controlled by political machines, the undemocratic and corrupt arrangements through which bosses could profit by controlling city governmentsVoting ReformsDirect primary – a preliminary election in which a party’s candidates for public office are nominated by direct vote of the peopleInitiative, Referendum, Recall – a system of direct legislation by the peopleThree powers reserved to enable the voters, but petition, to propose or repeal legislation or to remove an elected official from office“The best preparation for tomorrow is doing your best today” – H. Jackson Brown, Jr.X. UNIT 3 – IMPERIALISM*Essential question to think about as you study: What were the causes and long term effects of U.S. imperialism?MAIN OVERALL CONCEPTS:Imperialism is the policy where one stronger nation extends their economic, political and/or military power over weaker countries. The three main factors causing imperialism were money, power, and respect. Strong countries wanted to take over smaller territories to spread their influence and gain control. Basically, strong countries were trying to build their own empires. U.S. gained the territories of Alaska, Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines during imperialism. Alaska was bought from Russia, Hawaii was annexed, and Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines were obtained from the Spanish-American War. NOTES/TERMS:Imperialism – the policy where one stronger nation extends their economic, political or military power over a weaker countryEuropean nations had colonies for centuriesAt this time, Africa and Asia were prime targets Factors for ImperialismEconomic competition among industrial nations and thirst for new markets (money)Problem: The U.S had problems of overproduction and unemployment, so they needed raw materials and new areas to sell finished goodsAnswer: ImperialismBasically, acquiring new land would give the U.S. additional ports for trade and commerce and would give us new (more diverse) goods to sell that we did not already have. (Example: pineapples from Hawaii)Political and military competition/Desire to build a military (power)The U.S. needed to expand their military to keep up with European nations – mainly the NavyThe U.S needed naval bases along trade routes to keep those routes safeU.S. built modern steel hulled battleships and became the 3rd largest navyAn example of U.S. militaristic imperialism was the Great White FleetGreat White Fleet - a U.S. brigade of navy ships painted white and gold that sailed around the world to display U.S. naval strength; Theodore Roosevelt’s ideaBelief in racial and cultural superiority (respect)Social Darwinism – the strongest and smartest survive/”survival of the fittest”Anglo-Saxons (people from British descent) believed they were the superior raceU.S. believed it was their responsibility to spread Christianity and civilization to inferior peoplesThis was inspired by jingoism – extreme patriotism in the form of an aggressive foreign policy, bias in judging one’s own country as superior to others and using threats or actual force to protect national interests New U.S. Territories and Protectorates (protectorate – a country whose affairs are partially controlled by a stronger country)Alaska – the United States bought Alaska from Russia in 1867Alaska proved to be a true asset that was rich in timber, minerals and oilBecame a state in 1959Hawaii – in 1898, the U.S. annexed it because it gave the U.S. a mid-Pacific port for trade and military pursuits Hawaii was originally ruled by a monarchy system (kings and queens) with their leader being Queen LiliuokalaniHawaii was important to the U.S. as a mid-Pacific port for trade and military pursuits and for travel as wellAmerican businessmen took control of the country and the Queen was forced to concede Hawaii was a sugar industry. 1885 – Duty (tax) free shipping of sugar to the U.S.By 1887 white planters got the constitution of Hawaii changed to give only white landowners governmental power – they then dominated the governmentIn 1887 the U.S. built a naval base at Pearl HarborMcKinley Tariff of 1890 – got rid of duty free shippingLandowners asked the U.S. to annex Hawaii to get rid of duties (taxes) on shipping sugarThe United States annexed (annexed just means added as a territory) Hawaii in 1898 and it became a state in 1959Philippines (Spanish-American War)Guam (Spanish-American War)Puerto Rico (Spanish-American War)Spanish-American War – fueled by ImperialismSteps that led to the warFirst: there was a revolt in Cuba. Cuban people revolted against Spain in order to gain independence – “Cuba Libre!”Second: De Lome Letter – a letter written by Enrigue Dupuy de Lome criticizing President McKinley. It was intercepted and printed in American pressThird: Yellow journalism – journalism that exaggerated actual events and grabbed the attention of buyers in order to sell papersFourth: U.S.S. Maine Explodes killing over 260 menSpain agreed to most U.S. demands before war even begins, but public opinion still favored warFebruary 15, 1898 USS Maine blown up in Havana HarborThis triggered yellow journalismThe U.S. declared was April 1898 and the war lasted 15 weeksThe first battle of the war was fought in the Philippines and ended in naval victory; U.S. men who volunteered to be a part of the U.S. Calvary (military) were called rough ridersBattle of San Juan Hill – most famous battle of the war where Teddy Roosevelt gained his fame and notoriety (this was before he was president)Spain and the U.S. signed an armistice (to end the war) in 1898 and met in Paris to make a treatyAfter the war:Spain freed CubaSpain handed Guam and Puerto Rico to the U.S.Spain sold the Philippines to the U.S.The Philippines were important because it gave the U.S. a gateway to AsiaPlatt AmendmentU.S. addition to the Cuban ConstitutionCuba must stay out of debtU.S. had the right to interveneU.S. also had the rights to buy/lease landAftermath of the WarCubaCubans were guaranteed independence in the Treaty of Paris, but the U.S. Army governed them anywayIt was exactly what the people wanted, but many improvements were made under this government and it was better than being ruled by the SpanishTroops withdrew in 1902, but American intervention continued for yearsIn 1901, the U.S. made Cuba add the Platt Amendment to their Constitution Cuba could not make treaties to limit its independence or permit a foreign power to control any part of their territoryThe United States reserved the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve independence and maintain orderCuba was not to go in debtThe U.S. could buy or lease land on the island for naval and coaling stationsCuba became a protectorate – a country whose affairs were partially controlled by a stronger powerPhilippinesFilipinos reacted with outrage to their annexation (becoming a territory of) AmericansThey rebelled and the Philippine Insurrections lasted for three yearsAmericans were successful in putting down the revoltAfter the Philippine-American war, the U.S. set up a government after the war that was similar to Puerto RicoThe Philippines moved gradually toward independence and became a republic in 1946Puerto Rico Puerto Rico was important for America because it allowed the U.S. to maintain their presence in the Caribbean Foraker Act denied U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans initially after the Spanish-American War; There was little power given to Puerto RicansCongress extended U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans in 1917 and gave them the right to elect both houses of legislaturesThe U.S. in Latin AmericaThe U.S. needed a foreign policy in Latin America because they feared the close locations of unstable banana republics to the U.S.Banana Republics were nations that were weak and inefficient with corrupt governmentsPanama CanalTheodore Roosevelt felt the U.S. needed a shortcut from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific OceanPanama was the shortest route, but had mountainsPanama declared its independence with the U.S.’ “help”Signed a treaty for U.S. to pay “rent” to own the canalU.S. controlled the canal until 1999Took 10 years to complete the canal and many people died during constructionDamaged U.S. relations with Latin AmericaPresidential Foreign Policies to deal with Latin America President Theodore RooseveltRoosevelt Corollary/Big Stick Policy – an extension of the Monroe Doctrine (Monroe Doctrine was a policy of U.S. opposition to any European nation colonizing in North or South America)Known as Big Stick Diplomacy because it said “speak softly and carry a big stick”Roosevelt feared European involvement in Latin America (they would take away U.S. profits and it would cost money to fight them off), so he reminded Europe of the Monroe Doctrine so that European countries would stay out of the affairs of Latin AmericaWarned that disorder in Latin America might force the U.S to exercise as an international police power by using force to protect economic interests in Latin AmericaModified the U.S. approach to imperialism because it led the U.S. to expand its military presence throughout the AmericasPresident William TaftDollar Diplomacy – the U.S. policy of using the nation’s economic power to exert influence over other countriesUsed to justify keeping European powers out of the CaribbeanPresident Woodrow WilsonMoral Diplomacy – U.S. had a moral responsibility to deny recognition to any Latin American government it viewed as oppressive, undemocratic or hostile to U.S. interestsPressured countries into forming democratic governmentsOpen Door Policy Made China one of the U.S. Spheres of Influence areas where other nations claimed special rights and economic privilegesNo single nation would have a monopoly on trade with any part of China (open to all countries)This improved trade relations between the United States and ChinaReflected three American beliefs about industrial capitalist economy:Growth of the U.S. economy depended on tradeU.S. had the right to intervene to protect markets (markets = other countries to trade with, not like Winn Dixie Super Market)Feared closing of markets would threaten U.S. survivalAnti-Imperialism – not all Americans were in agreement with this policyMoral objection: it is wrong to take over weaker countriesPolitical objection: some territories were never given constitutional protectionCost: maintaining a large military was extremely expensiveAnti-Imperialists LeagueIn the U.S. and was an organization established on June 15, 1898 to battle the American annexation of the Philippines as an insular areaOpposed expansion because they believed that imperialism violate the fundamental principle of American self-government and non-interventionPhilippines InsurrectionsThe Philippines began to rebel against its new American rulersPresident McKinley made it clear that the Philippines would not be granted independence, so fighting broke out. The subsequent war would cost the lives of American troops, Filipino soldiers and Filipino civiliansAfter the infamous “Balangiga Massacre,” the Philippines surrendered Boxer RebellionAt the end of the 1800’s, nationalism and xenophobia (hatred and fear of foreign people) was felt by most ChineseA Chinese secret organization called the Society of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists led an uprising against the imperialistic spread of Western and Japanese influenceThe rebels were referred to as Boxers because they performed physical exercises they believed would make them able to withstand bulletsBoxers killed foreigners and Chinese Christians and destroyed foreign propertyEventually an international force that included American troops stopped the uprisingRebellion aftermathSecond Open Door policy where the U.S. would safeguard for the world the principle of equal and impartial trade with all parts of the Chinese Empire; this paved the way for more American influence in AsiaMexican RevolutionCarranza became the president of Mexico and many Mexicans did not like him and wanted America to help them Pancho Villa led the Mexican revolutionary forcesKilled more than 30 Americans in a pair of attacks in 1916That drew the deployment of U.S. military troops and was eventually shut down “Our greatest weakness lies in giving up. The most certain way to succeed is always to try just one more time” – Thomas EdisonXI. UNIT 4 – WORLD WAR I*Essential question to think about as you study: How did the United States’ role as a world power influence WWI and its outcome?MAIN OVERALL CONCEPTS: Militarism, alliances, imperialism and nationalism all led to the beginning of World War I. The United States did not want to get directly involved in the war in the beginning (isolationism), but eventually did due to unrestricted submarine warfare, the sinking of the Lusitania and the Zimmerman telegram. There were major changes in the way the war was fought, such as trench warfare and the use of new technology and weapons as well as major changes emerging on the U.S. home-front with women and African Americans. Despite the fact that this was supposed to be the “war to end all wars,” it actually laid the foundation for WWII to begin. The harsh treatment of Germany practically ruined the government and economy of the country, thus making it super easy for Adolf Hitler to come to power. He promised Germany better things, and they listened to him because the country was in such disarray. Also, the Bolshevik Revolution led to Russia becoming Communist Soviet Union. Although the U.S. returned to isolationism after WWI, the country was recognized as a world power.NOTES/TERMS:M.A.I.N. causes of WWI – Militarism, Alliance system, Imperialism, NationalismAlliances – alliances give security, but also force nations into conflicts (for example if you have a friend that gets into a fight, you can get pulled into that fight too to defend/help your friend)During WWI there were two alliance systems:Allies were called the Triple Entente and consisted of the countries France, Britain, Russia, Serbia, Italy, and the U.S. joined laterCentral Powers were called the Triple Alliance and consisted of the countries Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman-EmpireAssassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand – Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was shot and killed by Serbian Nationalists in 1914. This was the spark that started the war because Serbia’s country friends started to back them up and Austria-Hungary’s friend countries got ready to fight as well. Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers) declares war on Serbia (Allies)Imperialism – the policy of extending a nation’s authority over other countries by economic, political or military means; spreading influenceNationalism – a devotion to the interests and culture of one’s nation and this led to competition; basically every country believed their country was the best countryMilitarism – the policy of building up armed forces in aggressive preparedness for war and their use as a tool of diplomacyAmerica declared neutrality at the beginning of the war. Democrat, Woodrow Wilson, won the presidential election of 1916 with the slogan “he kept us out of war.”Pacifists – against war; people who believe that war and violence are unjustifiableAlthough neutral and not directly involved in WWI, many people in the United States felt ties to the British (ancestry, language, democracy, legal system) and stronger economic ties with the Allies, not the Central PowersReasons for U.S. entrance into World War IUnrestricted Submarine Warfare – Germany began unrestricted U-boat (submarine) attacks because of a British blockade that stopped ships from reaching Germany and led to famine in GermanySinking of the Lusitania – a U-boat sunk the British ship, Lusitania where 128 Americans were killed on boardThis turned the U.S. public against GermanyPresident Wilson asked Germany to stop the U-boat attacks; Germany said they would stop if Britain ended the blockadeViolated the Sussex PledgeSussex Pledge – a promise made in 1916 during World War I by Germany to the United StatesPassenger ships would not be targetedMerchant ships would not be sunk until the presence of weapons had been establishedMerchant ships would not be sunk without provision for the safety of passengers and crewZimmermann Telegram – Germany proposed an alliance to Mexico against the United States. Germany promised Mexico that if the Central Powers won the war, then Mexico would regain their old territories of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if the United States entered the war. London intercepted this telegram and informed the U.mittee on Public Information – used propaganda to “sell” the war to the American public to gain supportPropaganda – use of biased information to promotes a particular point of viewSelective Services Act – a law, enacted in 1917, that required men to register for military serviceConscription – the process of “drafting” someone into military servicesEspionage and Sedition Acts – two laws, enacted in 1917 and 1918, that imposed harsh penalties on anyone interfering with or speaking against U.S. participation in World War I. People could be fined or imprisoned for interfering with the war effort or speaking against the government during time of war.Schenk v. United States – court case dealing with the Espionage and Sedition ActsThe Supreme Court ruled that distributing pamphlets encouraging people to avoid the military draft violated the Espionage Act and that the 1st amendment (freedom of speech) does not give one the right to hurt the military during times of war.War Industries Board – an agency established during World War I to coordinate the purchase of war supplies. The organization encouraged mass production techniques to increase efficiency Voluntary Policies of the Food Administration – encouraged public conservation and increase in farm production; victory gardens Victory Gardens – everyone planted their own fruit and veggies in their gardens to save farmed goods for the war effort; people also put American flags in their gardens as a source of prideLiberty Bonds – helped fund the war effort; purchase a bond from the government and could cash it in after a period of timeCall for social change:African AmericansMost supported war to strengthen call for racial justiceGreat Migration – African Americans moved from the South to Northern industrial cities because of racism in the South and job opportunities in the NorthWomenTook advantage of job opportunities war presented, volunteered and helped the suffrage (right to vote) effort. Women had to take over jobs because a lot of men left and went to warImmigrantsAnti-immigrant hysteria led to attacks on immigrants (especially immigrants in the U.S. from Germany and Austria-Hungary)New Weapons – led to horrific injuries and hazards; also led to PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) – soldiers returning home, still reliving the nightmareTanks cleared path for infantry (soldiers marching on foot)Airplanes carried machine guns and bombsObservation balloons offered a view from aboveMustard gas – poisonous gas that killed large numbers of troopsTrench Warfare – military operations in which the opposing forces attack and counterattack from systems of fortified ditches rather than on an open battlefield“No Man’s land” was the area in between the trenches where no man would go because if they did, then they were an open targetLed to many deaths and sicknesses that had nothing to do with the battles (unsanitary living conditions in the trenches)Bolshevik Revolution – in Russia October 1917Revolution led to rebels known as Bolsheviks and their leader LeninOverthrew the government in Russia and signed treaty of Brest-Ltovsk with Germany to get Russia out of WWISoon after, a civil war broke out between the Bolsheviks and the counter revolutionariesThis paved the way for the creation of the Communist Soviet UnionGeneral John Pershing – famous as the commander of the (AEF) American Expeditionary Force; U.S. forces on the Western Front in WWI1917-1918 he rejected British and French demands that American forces be integrated with their armies and insisted that the AEF would operate as a single unit under his commandThe American forces turn the tide of the war in favor of the AlliesU.S. Navy used convoy system to escort merchant shipsConvoy System – the protection of merchant ships from U-boat (German Submarine) attacks by having the ships travel in large groups escorted by warshipsAmerican troops brought numbers, freshness, and enthusiasm to Allied forces who were exhausted and demoralized after two and a half years of fightingEnd of the WarRussia pulls out of the war in 1917Germany shifts their focus to France, but Americans help stop German advancesNovember 3, 1918 Austria-Hungary surrenderedGerman Kaiser gave up his throne and Germany established a republic (Kaiser is just German for ruler/emperor)Germany signed armistice on November 11, 1918 Armistice is a truce or agreement to end a armed conflictBig Four – the four main leaders of the allied nations meet to discuss the end of the war; these meetings excluded leaders from the Central Powers and smaller allied nations United States – President Woodrow WilsonGreat Britain – Prime Minister David Lloyd GeorgeFrance – Premier Georges ClemenceauItaly – Premier Vittorio Orlando Fourteen Points – the principles making up President Woodrow Wilson’s plan for world peace following World War IPoints 1-5: Proposed measures to prevent another war Points 6-13: Addressed how ethnic groups can form own nations or join othersPoint 14: called for League of Nations to enable nations to discuss and settle problems without warLeague of Nations – an association of nations established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peaceWeak because ultimately the U.S. did not join the League of NationsSome thought that it threatened U.S. foreign policy of isolationismSenator Henry Cabot Lodge believed it would pull the United States into another alliance systemSelf-Determination – the process by which a country determines its own statehood and forms its own allegiances and governmentReparations – the compensation paid by a defeated nation for the damage or injury it inflicted during a warTreaty of Versailles – the 1919 peace treaty at the end of World War I which established new nations, borders and war reparationsPlaced various conditions on GermanyThey had to demilitarize (no army)Alsace-Lorraine returned France (territory of land between Germany and France)Pay $33 billion in war reparationsWeaknesses of the treatyWar guilt clause – Germany had to accept full responsibility for the warGermany could not pay the $33 billion in war debtRussia was completely ignoredColonized people claims for self-determination was completely ignoredOppositions of the treatySome say it was too harsh on GermanySome ethnic groups were not satisfied with bordersAftermath of World War I In the U.S.War strengthened military and increased power of the governmentAmerican public wanted a return to isolationismIsolationism is the opposition to political and economic involvement with other countriesAccelerated social change for African Americans and womenFears provoked by propaganda still remainIn EuropeDestruction and loss of life damage political systemsCommunist, fascist governments formCommunist government – complete government control over everything in the country; country typically ran by a dictatorFascist government – a form of government which is a type of one-party dictatorshipCommunism and Fascism are very similar. The major difference is that fascism is rooted in nationalism and seeks to create a socialist utopia within the confines of a particular country’s bordersTreaty does not settle conflicts in EuropeU.S. returned to Isolationism “Every accomplishment starts with the decision to try” – Gail DeversXII. UNIT 5 – ROARING 20’S*Essential question to think about as you study: What were the political, cultural and social changes that occurred during the 1920’s?MAIN OVERALL CONCEPTS:The 1920s was a time of consumerism and people living beyond their means. The automobile, electric appliances in the home, motion pictures, and the radio all transformed the way Americans lived and spent their time. The standard of living was higher than ever before. There was also a widespread fear of communism during the 1920s; Americans feared that immigrants were communists and the Red Scare swept the nation. Minority groups such as African Americans and women further advocated for equal rights in the 1920s, prohibition led to organized crime and bootlegging, and many jazz musicians emerged. NOTES/TERMS:After World War I, the United States returned to being isolationist. The U.S. was an isolationist country before WWI and WWIIIsolationism is the policy of pulling away from involvement in world affairs (not getting involved)The U.S. public was exhausted/stressed after World War IThe country was still divided over the League of NationsPeople were still adjusting to the changes of the progressive eraReturning soldiers either faced unemployment or took their old jobs back from women and minoritiesCost of living had doubled Economy struggled because wartime demand was gone Immigration QuotasAn example of nativism (prejudice against foreign-born people)The attitude was “keep America for Americans”Limited the amount of immigrants allowed to enter the U.S.After WWI there was less unskilled labor jobs so nativist felt there should be less immigrants allowed in the U.S.Fear of outsiders swept the nation after WWIIdeas to limit immigration were fueled by racist ideas and fear that the immigrants were communistsFear of CommunismCommunism – economic and political system based on single party government control and ownership of everything. Communism was perceived as a threat by AmericansThe Red ScareThe U.S. public’s fear that communists were taking over the country Began in the U.S. in 1919 after revolutionaries in Russia overthrew their Czar, Vladimir I (Czar means ruler)Revolutionist, Lenin and his followers (Bolsheviks “majority) formed a communist state in Russia with a symbolic red flagCommunists called out to abolish capitalism everywhereCommunist Party formed in the U.S. (thousands joined)Basically the Red Scare was the fear that communism would spread and take over the United StatesThe Palmer RaidsMitchell Palmer – U.S. Attorney General who vowed to combat the Red ScarePalmer appointed J. Edgar Hoover as a special assistant and together they hunted down suspected communists, socialists and anarchistsThese raids trampled civil rights (home invasions, no warrants, arrests without lawyers or rights, deportation without trial)Despite many raids, they were never able to find any real evidence that people were communists, socialists or anarchists The public eventually found Palmer to be too over the top Sacco & VanzettiBoth were Italian immigrants and anarchists who evaded the draft during WWIThey were arrested and charged with robbery and murder, found guilty, and sentenced to deathWorldwide protests: many believed that their arrest and trial were unjust either because of their political beliefs or because they were immigrants The Warren Harding PresidencyRepublican who became president in 1921Sought for a “return to normalcy”From progressive changesFrom the issues during and after WWIThe world was dealing with arms (weapons) control, war debts and reconstruction issues and all Harding wanted was for everything to go back to the way it was beforeHarding was a good natured man and his biggest weakness was that he trusted his friendsHarding Administration ScandalOhio GangConsisted of Harding’s “Poker Buddies” and were also a part of Harding CabinetChoosing his friends to be in the presidential cabinet caused embarrassment and scandal because Harding’s “friends” were corruptThey used offices to get wealthy through graft (took bribes, sold government supplies, etc.)The Teapot Dome ScandalHuge example of corruption in Harding’s administration The Teapot Dome – one of several areas with oil rich land owned by the government and was set aside for use by the U.S. NavyAlbert B. Fall (Secretary of the Interior) got the oil reserves transferred from the Navy to the Interior DepartmentHe secretly leased the land to private oil companies Paid more than $400,000 in loans, bonds and cashFound guilty of bribery and became the first cabinet member ever convicted of a felony while in officeEnd of Harding’s PresidencyPresident Harding died shortly after the Teapot Dome ScandalBefore his death he stated that he had to worry more about his friends than his enemiesCalvin Coolidge (Harding’s vice president) took over as presidentThe “Business of America” – American industries flourished in the 1920sPresident Calvin Coolidge supported pro-business spirit in the 1920sHe said “the chief business of the American people is business…the man who build a factory builds a temple and the man who works there worships there”Used government laissez faire policies to:Keep taxes downKeep profits upGive businesses more credit to expandHenry FordAutomotive designer who introduced the first automobile in the 1920sThe first automobile was the Model T and it sold for about $290Ford used mass production and revolutionized the modern version of the assembly lineThe impacts of the automobile:Was a symbol of success and free enterpriseBy the late 1920s, 80% of registered automobiles were in the U.S.One out of every five Americans had oneAutomobiles were the backbone of the American economy in the 1920sLed to success changes in societyConstruction of paved roads for all weather driving (example: Route 66 from Chicago to California)Houses equipped with garages and drivewaysGas stations, repair shops, tourist camps, shopping centersTraffic signals (Detroit had them first)Underwater tunnels (Holland Tunnel from New York to New Jersey)Led to changes in everyday lifeVacations became more frequentRural areas were not isolated anymoreEconomic base for car producing cities (Detroit) and oil producing areas (Texas and California)Urban Sprawl – the spread of cities in all directions because cars allowed workers to live miles away from their jobs The Airplane IndustryAirplane industry began as a mail carrying serviceIn the 1920s it became established as a means of peacetime transportationBecame used for commercial flights (Charles Lindbergh and Amelia Earhart did transatlantic flights – across the ocean)Lockheed Company – produced the Vega (single engine plane)Pan American – first transatlantic passenger flightsAmerica’s Standard of Living SoarsElectrical convenienceElectricity transformed the nation in the 20sFactories used it for machinesThere were alternate electric currents to suburbsBy the end of the 1920s many houses had electric irons, electric refrigerators, cooking ranges, toasters, etc.Made life much easierMade leisure activities easier A Changing Way of LifeNew urban sceneThe 1920s saw even more rapid urbanization (growth of cities)Small farm town values were left behind for new ways of thinkingCities were the place to beGrowth of consumer economyIncrease in advertisingPeople began buying on credit, living beyond their means, and buying things they could not affordGrowth of national cultureMotion pictures and the radio became huge forms of entertainmentProhibition experiment18th Amendment made it illegal to make, sell or transport alcoholGovernment did not have the funds to enforce the lawSpeakeasies – underground hidden saloons/night clubs where liquor could be obtainedBootleggers – those who smuggled in liquor to the U.S. from foreign countriesOrganized Crime in the 20sA direct result of prohibitionMillions of dollars were made off the illegal sale of alcohol Al Capon had a 60 million dollar bootlegging empire in ChicagoLucky Luciano was a famous New York bootleggerScience and Religion ClashFundamentalism – belief in literal, non-symbolic version of the Bible; word for wordScopes TrialFight over evolution and the role of science and religion in public schoolsScopes was a Biology teacher in Tennessee who taught evolution as an ideaTennessee law prohibited teaching evolutionScopes was found guilty and fined $100 (Supreme Court later overturned the decision)Women in the 1920sWomen began to demand the same treatment as menFlappers:Emancipated young women who embraced the attitudes and fashions of the dayBobbed hair, skin colored stockings, dresses above the knee, pumps, strings of beadsCasual dating became the normThere was a big double standard; more freedom for menWomen began getting new work opportunities and family dynamics began to changeEqual Rights Amendment (ERA) – proposed amendment to the Constitution to give specified rights to womenEducation and Pop Culture in the 20sSchool enrollmentIncreased in the 20s Children of immigrants spoke EnglishTaxes increased funding for schoolsExpanding news coverage – large circulation of newspapers and magazinesRadio comes of age and became the most powerful means of communication in the 1920sNew heroes and big dreamsBabe Ruth – big sports hero of the 20sCharles Lindbergh – first non-stop solo flight across the Atlantic OceanEntertainment and the artsPeople had more spare money to amuse themselves“Talkies” – movies with sound that developed in the 1920sCharles Gershwin – famous concert composerSinclair Lewis – first American to win Nobel Prize in literatureF. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway – famous American authors of the 20s African Americans in the 20sJim Crow LawsLaws that allowed segregation to continue in the South: grandfather clause, literacy tests, and poll taxes to vote plus many other laws to prevent the equality of African AmericansKu Klux Klan – used intimidation and force to harass African AmericansAnti-Lynching campaign – designed to fight against racial violenceMarcus Garvey – African American leader of the back to Africa movementA big issue was the shortage of jobs in the 1920s, so many African Americans moved North where there were more jobsThe Great Migration – hundreds of thousands of African Americans moved North to citiesTwo reasons: to escape the racial prejudices in the South and job opportunity in the NorthNAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) – fought to protect African American rightsThe Harlem RenaissanceA literary and artistic movement that celebrated African American culture Langston Hughes – well known poet of the time who described the African American experience through his poetryJazz – developed in New Orleans in the 20s by blending instrumental ragtime with vocal blues to create a new soundLouis Armstrong – reached stardom as a great jazz musicianDuke Ellington – composer, pianist and bandleader of jazz orchestrasElla Fitzgerald – known as the “First Lady of Song,” “Queen of Jazz,” and “Lady Ella,” was an American jazz vocalist“The difference between ordinary and extraordinary is that little extra” – Jimmy JohnsonXIII. UNIT 6 – GREAT DEPRESSION & NEW DEAL*Essential question to think about as you study: What were the causes of the Great Depression and what was the impact on life in the United States? How did the U.S. government change in order to combat the Great Depression?MAIN OVERALL CONCEPTS:The relaxed, good-life feelings of the 1920s ended when the Great Depression occurred. Tariffs and war debt policies, the crisis in farming, the availability of easy credit and unequal distribution of income were all causes of the Great Depression. The stock market crash on October 29, 1929 marked the beginning of the Great Depression. Banks collapsed, people lost their life savings and even their homes, the unemployment rate skyrocketed and the overall economy plummeted. There were two presidents in office during the Great Depression: Herbert Hoover and Franklin D. Roosevelt; they had completely opposite philosophies on how to get the nation out of the depression. President Hoover believed in “rugged individualism,” that the government should not intervene and that everyone should care for themselves. Most Americans resented Hoover because of that. President Roosevelt provided direct aid and government assistance to get the country out of the depression. He created New Deal programs to stimulate the economy, regulate the banks, and increase the number of jobs.NOTES/TERMS:The Nation’s “Sick” EconomyIndications of trouble coming at the end of the 1920aKey industries barely made profits in the 1920sWar time industries were not in demand anymore (for example: mining)Many old industries were losing business to competition of new industries (for example: the railroad industry began losing business to the auto industry)Boom industries weakenedFarms in trouble (weaknesses in agricultural sector)Farms flourished during the war which made farmers take out loans to produce more (overproduction)After World War I: increase in unemployment and poverty led to decrease in demand for crops. This led to a fall in the price of food which led to profits dropping. Farmers could not sell excess cropsFarm profits and incomes fellFarmers could not pay off loans and many lost farms to foreclosureHawley Smoot TariffA protective tariff that was passed by Congress to protect American farms from foreign competitionProblem: it prevented other countries from getting money to buy American goodsConsumer DebtToo many people were buying on credit (installment paying with interest) in the 1920sPeople were living way beyond their means and bought things they could not affordConsumers had trouble paying off their debt so they started to cut back on spending, which hurt the economy Uneven/Unequal distribution of wealth (income)Clear sign of economic weakness in the 1920sIn the 20s the rich got richer and the poor became more poor – there was not much in-betweenThe wealthiest 1% saw a 75% rise in incomeMost people could not buy the new goods coming out of the factoriesProblems with investing in the 1920sDow Jones Industrial AverageUsed to measure the health of the stock market Reached an all-time high in the 1920s which encouraged Americans to invest millions in the stock marketLed to speculation – people were buying stocks and bonds on the chance of a quick profit and ignored the riskBuying on a marginHow most Americans bought stock in the 1920sPaid a small percentage of the stock’s price as a down payment and borrowing the restLed to unrestrained buying and selling of stocks with little government regulationAll the buying drove up the price of stocks but it did not represent the true worth of the companyIf price of stock drops, there is no way to pay off the loansStock Market CrashesBlack Tuesday – October 29, 1929 the stock market crashedWhen the Dow Jones Industrial Average began to drop, investors panicked and frantically tried to sell their stock before they became even lower Millions of shares were sold and millions could not be soldPeople who bought on a margin were stuck with large debts while others lost their savingsSignaled the beginning of the Great DepressionThe Great DepressionPeriod from 1929-1940 in which the economy plummeted and the unemployment skyrocketedBusiness failure: banks had people’s money invested in the market so people’s savings were lostBy 1933 11,000 banks collapsedUnderconsumption – people not buying what they normally doLed to business failures and layoffsGross National Product, the nation’s total output of goods and services, dropped about 40 billion between 1929 and 1932 and 90,000 businesses went bankruptBonus ArmyThe popular name for an assemblage of 43,000 members17,000 U.S. World War I veterans, their families, and affiliated groups gathered to demand cash payment redemption for their service certificatesCauses of the Great DepressionTariffs and war debt policies prevented the ability of foreign countries to buy U.S. goodsThe crisis in farmingThe availability of easy creditUnequal distribution of incomeElection of 1928Republican Herbert Hoover beat Democrat Alfred E. SmithHoover won on the strength of his previous Republican presidents (Harding & Coolidge)Hardships and Suffering During the Great DepressionDesperation in citiesUnemployment, evictions and homelessnessShantytowns (Hoovervilles)Little towns consisting of shacks sprung up; had a lot of crime and were very unsanitarySoup kitchens and bread lines – long lines to get charityMinority groupsAfrican Americans and Latinos had the highest unemployment rates during the depressionLed to racial violence; competing for jobs with white peopleLed to the creation of the Black CabinetAn informal group of African American public policy advisors to the United StatesThe depression in rural areasFarmers were losing their farms to foreclosureDroughts began in the 1930s and the farmers could not grow food anymoreThe Dust BowlTexas, Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado and New Mexico (The Great Plains region)Caused by drought, overproduction of crops and high windsDust storms (no top soil)Many people left, leaving on Route 66 to CaliforniaThe depression effect on familiesSome families broke over economic strainMen in the streets who were used to working were wandering in search of jobs (left their families)300,000 hobos wandered the country, hitching rides and riding in railcars from place to placePresident Herbert Hoover and the Great DepressionHoover’s philosophy for dealing with the crisis was rugged individualismHe opposed any sort of government aid to the needy (charities could help, but not the government)Hoover believed if the government helped, then it would hurt the United States’ moral fiber, so everybody should care for themselves insteadHis philosophy shocked and frustrated AmericansBoulder DamDam on the Colorado RiverOne of the few government projects that Hoover oversaw during the Great Depression and it did end up helping the economyPeople spoke out against HooverMany Americans blamed Hoover for their situations1930 Congressional Elections – the Democrats took advantage of the anti-Hoover sentiments and was able to take control of CongressFarmers burned corn and wheat and dumped it on the grounds of highways (Farm Holiday)Renamed shantytowns “Hoovervilles”Many Americans viewed Hoover as a heartless leaderSome actions taken by HooverHe backed cooperatives (government helping private businesses create jobs)Federal Home Loan Bank Act – lowered mortgage rates and allowed farmers to refinanceReconstruction Finance Corporation – 2 billion dollars in emergency funding for large businesses (example: banks)All of this ended up being considered too little too lateHoover’s legacyBy 1932 he was considered the cause of low public moralRight or wrong, he was blamed for the Great DepressionPublic was outrages by his “lack of action” towards the Great DepressionPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt Election of 1932FDR was a Democrat who beat Republican President HooverThis was a sign that Americans blamed Hoover for doing too little to get the country out of the depressionRoosevelt’s philosophy for dealing with the crisisIt is okay for the government to provide direct aid and assistance to the individuals in times of crisis such as the Great DepressionWanted to actively combat inflation and unemploymentComplete opposite of Hoover’s philosophyThe New DealFDR’s program to alleviate problems of the Great Depression that he want to enact in his first one-hundred days of office (The Hundred Days)Congress passed 15 pieces of New Deal legislationThe New Deal expanded the government’s role in the economyBank HolidayFirst day in office when FDR closed all the banks to inspect the financial security and overall health of the banksBanks that were sound could reopen and those that were in bad debt had to either close down or completely restructureFireside Chats – FDR’s radio addresses to the country; people would sit by their fires at home and listen to what he said on the radioIn these chats, FDR would explain in simple language the problems the country was facing and the New Deal programs that he was putting in place to deal with themNew Deal ProgramsAgricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)Government paid farmers to NOT grow cropsA lower supply = raise in price of cropsCivilian Conservation Corps (CCC)Put young men ages 18-25 to work on roads, parks, flood control projects, etc.National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)Gave money to states to create jobs constructing schools and community buildingsTennessee Valley Authority (TVA)A federally owned corporation in the United States created by a congressional charter on May 18, 1933 to provide navigation, flood control, electricity generation, fertilizer manufacturing, and economic development to the Tennessee valley, a region particularly affected by the Great Depression The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (also known as the Wagner Act)Guaranteed basic rights of private sector employees to organize into trade unions, engage in collective bargaining for better terms and conditions at work, and take collective action including strike if necessaryCritics of the New DealLiberals wanted the New Deal to do moreConservatives thought the programs were too expensiveFather Charles E. CoughlinA radio priest from DetroitCoughlin turned against Roosevelt when he refused to nationalize the banking system and provide for the free coinage of silverBlamed the Great Depression on an international conspiracy of Jewish bankers (he was anti-semantic)Huey P. LongGovernor of Louisiana who felt the New Deal did not do enough for the peopleLong proposed a 100% tax on personal fortunes exceeding a million dollars. The elderly would receive pensions. The poorest Americans were promised an estate worth no less than $5,000, with a $2,500 yearly minimum income guaranteedElection of 1936Franklin D. Roosevelt (Democrat) won reelection over Republican nominee Alfred LandonProof that the New Deal was effective and most Americans supported itThe Second New Deal ProgramsWorks Progress Administration (WPA)Employed millions of workersSpent 11 billion dollars giving jobs to over 8 million Americans651,000 miles of roads and streets as well as 125,000 public buildings were constructed/built as a resultCourt-Packing PlanLaw proposed by FDR to add more justices to the U.S. Supreme CourtRoosevelt’s purpose was to obtain favorable rulings regarding New Deal legislation that the court had ruled unconstitutionalIt did not pass, but FDR got most of the New Deal programs passed anywayLegacy of the New DealMost felt it was effective in getting the U.S. on a path out of the Great DepressionJobs were provided for millions of AmericansFederal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) – insured bank depositsSocial Security – retirement benefits to the elderly and disabledSecurities and Exchange Commission (SEC) – to regulate the stock market1939 – year that the depression ended because there was growth in personal incomesLimitations of the New DealIt did not wholly solve the unemployment problems; the programs were a temporary fixThe public work jobs were a good moral booster, but they were not permanentAdded several billion dollars of national debt at a timeAmendments during this time period20th – moved presidential inaugurations to January21st – repeal of prohibition (18th amendment no longer valid) New Deal – President Franklin Roosevelt’s program to alleviate the problems of the Great Depression, focusing on relief for the needy, economic recovery, and financial reformReconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) – an agency established in 1932 to produce emergency financing to banks, life-insurance companies, railroads, and other large businessesCivilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – an agency, established as part of the New Deal, that put young unemployed men to work building roads, developing parks, planting trees, and helping in erosion-control and flood-control projectsAgricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) – a law enacted in 1933 to raise crop prices by paying farmers to leave a certain amount of their land unplanted, thus lowering productionTennessee Valley Authority (TVA) – a federal corporation established in 1933 to construct dams and power plants in the Tennessee Valley region to generate electricity as well as to prevent floods Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) – an agency created in 1933 to insure individuals’ bank accounts, protecting people against losses due to bank failuresSecurities and Exchange Commission (SEC) – an agency, created in 1934, that monitors the stock market and enforces laws regulating the sale of stocks and bondsWorks Progress Administration (WPA) – an agency, established as part of the Second New Deal, that provided the unemployed with jobs in construction, garment making, teaching, the arts and other fieldsNational Labor Relations Act (NLRB) – an agency created in 1935 to prevent unfair labor practices and to mediate disputes between workers and managementWagner Act – a law – also known as the National Labor Relations Act – enacted in 1935 to protect workers’ rights after the Supreme Court declared the National Industrial Recovery Act unconstitutional Social Security Act – a law enacted in 1935 to provide aid to retirees, the unemployed, people with disabilities, and families with dependent childrenSupreme Court Packing Plan - Critics of the New Deal (Father Coughlin, Huey Long)Limitations of the New Deal“An investment in knowledge pays the best interest” – Benjamin Franklin XIV. UNIT 7 – WORLD WAR II*Essential question to think about as you study: What were the causes of WWII? How did the U.S. role in WWII change from its beginning of the war to its end? What were the significant social changes at home brought about by WWII?MAIN OVERALL CONCEPTS:The Treaty of Versailles ending World War I set the stage for World War II to begin. Germany’s economy was in complete disarray from the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which allowed Hitler to take over very easily. Hitler’s goals in WWII were to create a German empire by taking over other countries and to exterminate the Jewish population through systematic murders (the Holocaust). Jewish populations were taken from their homes and placed in concentration/death camps. The two sides of World War II were the Allies (Great Britain, France, Soviet Union and the U.S.) and the Axis Powers (Germany, Japan, and Italy). Despite the war beginning in Europe after Germany invaded Poland and then took over France, the U.S. remained isolationist. As the war raged on, the U.S. slowly began moving away from isolationism due to President Roosevelt’s Four Freedoms Speech and the provisions added to the Neutrality Act. It was not until Japan bombed Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 that the United States officially entered WWII. The home front mobilized for war and women and African Americans make great strides towards equality during this time. After many battles and conferences among the Allies, Germany surrendered. However, Japan did not surrender until after the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on the cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima. World War II helped get the U.S. out of the depression, but it also made it practically impossible to ever go back into isolationism. The war also sparked the race for every country to race to build nuclear weapons. NOTES/TERMS:Failures of the World War I peace settlement set the stage for World War IIThe Treaty of Versailles that ended WWI caused anger and resentmentGermans were upset because they had to sign the war guilt clause, thus taking full responsibility of WWI and their economy was completely destroyed from the war debtRussians were upset because even though they were on the same side as the United States, France and Great Britain during WWI, Russia was completely left out of the peace talks. Russia also got land taken away from it in the restructuring of borders in the treatyCountries were desperate and democratic governments in Europe crumbled as dictators were able to seize controlThe Rise of DictatorsJoseph Stalin in the Soviet UnionStalin created a model communist country Made farms “collectives” – owned by the governmentHe industrialized the countryAll economic activity was under complete control of the governmentTotalitarian governmentA political system in which the government recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible, without any respect for human rightsThere were no individual rights and the government stopped all opposition For example, Stalin eliminated anyone who threatened his power (8-13 million murdered)Benito Mussolini in ItalyCalled himself “Il Duce” – the leaderEstablished a totalitarian government in ItalyEstablished fascism in Italy (Fascist Party)Fascism is a form of radical totalitarianismBelieved that democracy was obsoleteBelieved society should be ruled under a totalitarian government to prepare a nation for armed conflict and to respond effectively to economic difficultiesStressed nationalism and placed the needs of the government above individualsPut power in the hands of a single, strong leader such as a dictatorAdolf Hitler in GermanyHead of the National Socialist German Workers Party (aka Nazis)Nazism – form of fascism that incorporates scientific racism and anti-Semitism (anti-Semitism is the hatred of Jewish people)Hitler was a great public speaker and organizer; he easily rose to power because Germany needed something to believe in after their defeat in WWICalled himself Der Fuhrer (the leader)Mein Kempf – Hitler’s book where he laid out his beliefs; basically blaming Jewish people for all the problems in the worldHitler wanted to enforce racial purification. He thought the Aryan race was the perfect race = blonde hair and blue eyesHe wanted to expand Germany (imperialism)Once in power he established the Third Reich – empire to replace the German RepublicFrancisco Franco in SpainFranco was a general who led a rebel army against the Spanish Republic; this led to a civil war in SpainThe civil war began the spread of fascism in SpainDespite hearing about the problems in Europe, the United States’ response was to cling to isolationism and not get involved.The Neutrality Acts prevented the U.S. from selling arms (weapons) to countries at war with other countries or in the middle of a civil warPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt was against neutrality and isolationismAxis Power Aggression Leads to War in EuropeHitler created Lebensraum “living space” and remilitarized the RhinelandAustria fallsHitler wanted to expand the German Empire In 1938, Germany took over Austria unopposed Many of the citizens were GermansCzechoslovakia fallsSudetenland = western border regions of Czechoslovakia that had many German speaking citizensHitler wanted to take it over (living space and natural resources)France and Britain both opposed the action but ended up signing the Munich AgreementThe Munich Agreement – Hitler promised not to take over any more territories and then Britain and France allowed Hitler to take the SudetenlandThis was a form of appeasement – giving someone something they want in order to avoid conflictHitler eventually broke the agreement and took over the rest of the countrySoviet Union declared neutrality Nonaggression PactBetween the Soviet Union and Germany; they agreed to never attack one anotherThey also agreed to split up PolandEventually this pact fell apart when the Nazis invaded the Soviet UnionGerman offensiveGermany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia (not just Sudetenland) Used Blitzkrieg in order to conquer Poland Blitzkrieg – German lightning warfareMade use of fast tanks and powerful aircraft to take the enemy by surprise and quickly crush opposition By the time it was over, Germany and Russia controlled Poland and Britain and France had declared war on GermanyEventually Hitler took over Belgium, Norway, Luxembourg and the NetherlandsCompeting Sides in World War IIAllied Powers (Allies)Main countries: Great Britain, France, Soviet Union, United StatesThe U.S. did not enter the war until after the attack on Pearl HarborOther countries: China, Poland, India, Mongolia, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Norway, Yugoslavia, Greece, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Czechoslovakia Axis PowersGermany, Italy, JapanOther countries: Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania (not officially in alliance)The Fall of France In 1940 France fell to GermanyCharles de GaulleLeader of France who set up an exile government in England to remain intactHe said, “France lost the battle but not the war”Battle of BritainTwo solid months of German attacks on Great BritainRoyal Air Force was able to successfully defend the countryThe HolocaustHolocaust – the systematic murder of 11 million people from across Europe (more than half were Jews)Jewish people were targetedFueled by anti-Semitism – hatred of JewsEuropean nations had a long history of anti-SemitismHitler blamed the Jewish people for all of Germany’s failures after World War IDuring the Holocaust Jews were stripped of their citizenship, property and jobs and had to wear the Star of David so they could easily be identified as a JewKristallnacht – “Night of the Broken Glass”November 9-10, 1938Nazi storm troopers attacked Jews in their businesses, homes and synagogues100 Jews were killed and over 30,000 were arrestedJewish RefugeesRefugee – a person who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution or natural disasterJewish refugees had trouble finding nations to accept themOther countries worried about anti-Semitism in their own lands100,000 were accepted in the United States, but only if they were persons of exceptional merit (for example: Albert Einstein was Jewish and allowed to come to the U.S.)Americans worried that it would make the Great Depression worse and that some of them were even German spiesHitler’s “Final Solution”Was a policy of genocide – the deliberate and systematic killing of an entire populationBased on the idea that Aryans (blonde hair, blue eyes) were superior and the purity of the “master race” must be preservedDeclared any “inferior” group to be enemies of the country and condemned them to slavery and/or deathNot just Jewish people, but homosexuals, mentally challenged, disabled, seriously ill people as wellHitler began rounding up the “inferior” people with his SS (security squadron) troopsJews were put in ghettos – segregated areas for Jews in Polish cities (barb wire and stone walls in the cities)They were forced to work for Germany in factoriesThere were dead bodies everywhereConcentration CampsLabor camps where each individual was tattooed and identified with a numberFamilies were often separated upon arrivalDaily life included: hunger, humiliation, torture, work and deathPrisoners were crammed into small living quarters and given barely enough food to survive off ofThey worked from dawn to dusk seven days a week to the point of exhaustionThose who became too weak to work were executedThe prisoners were also used in scientific experimentsThe Final StageThe last part of the final solution was mass extermination – murder by poisonous gasSix death camps built with gas chambers that could kill up to 12,000 people per daySome were sent to work, put in death showers, used in gruesome experimentsThe stench of dead bodies smelled for milesAmerican IsolationismPublic was outraged at profits of banks and arms (weapons) dealers during World War IAmericans became isolationists and President FDR backed away from foreign policy1935 Neutrality Acts tied to keep the United States out of future wars by outlawing arms sales and loans to nations at warIn 1937 Japan launched a new attack on China and FDR sent aid to ChinaWhile the majority of Americans and members of Congress wanted to remain isolated, President FDR wanted to target the aggressor nation (Germany, Italy and Japan) to stop the warAfter France fell to German control, FDR became very concerned about the safety of democracy Four Freedoms Speech given by President Franklin D. RooseveltRoosevelt tried to provide British with “all aid short of war”Roosevelt’s hope was to provide a rationale for why the United States should abandon the isolationist policies – it was unrealistic to believe dictators would do things fairlyFDR said everyone is entitled to four basic freedoms:Freedom of speechFreedom of worshipFreedom from wantFreedom from fearU.S. Moving Away from NeutralityFDR’s Four Freedoms Speech“Cash and Carry” provisionAdded to the Neutrality Acts in September 1939Allowed warring nations to buy U.S. arms as long as they paid in cash and transported them in their own shipsAllowed the U.S. to help France and Britain defeat HitlerAmerican isolationists were against this provisionThe U.S. began boosting defense spendingFirst peacetime military draft (drafting men for war when the country is not officially at war)Roosevelt won a third term as presidentLend-Lease Plan – the President would lend or lease weapons and other supplies to “any country whose defense was vital to the U.S.” (March 1941)Britain and the USSR received aidAtlantic CharterRoosevelt and Churchill (Prime Minister of Great Britain) met secretly aboard the USS AugustaAgreed on a joint declaration of war aims – collective security, economic cooperation and freedom of the seasThe basis of the “Declaration of the United Nations” was signed by 26 nations (Allies)Great Britain and the U.S. agreed upon:No territorial gains: freedom of the seas and lower trade barriersSelf-determination: economic cooperation and advanced social welfareJapanJapanese AmbitionsHideki Tojo invaded China in July 1937He wanted to unite East Asia under Japanese controlU.S. declared an oil embargo (ban on trade) on Japan, who had very limited natural resourcesPeace TalksJapan pretended to negotiate peace talks with the U.S.November 5, 1941 – Japan prepared for attack on U.S.U.S. broke Japan’s secret code and knew an attack might come soon, but they did not know when or whereMonth long peace talks ended on December 6, 1941 when President Roosevelt received a decoded message to end all talksPearl Harbor attacked on December 7, 1931 early in the morningJapanese dive bombers attacked the largest U.S. naval base in the Pacific for an hour and a half2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 were wounded21 ships were damaged or sunk (including 8 battleships)More than 300 aircraft damaged or destroyedMobilizing for Defense – preparing for warExecutive Order 9066 allowed the Secretary of War to set up military zonesJapanese internment – Japanese people on American soil being sent to internment camps because they were thought to be spies of the enemy; 62% of those people were American citizensKorematsu v. United States – court case filed questioning the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066Courts found in favor of the government, saying that the internment camps were constitutional Office of War Mobilization (OWM) was an independent agency of the U.S. government formed during World War II to coordinate all government agencies involved in the war effortOffice of Price Administration (OPA) – fought inflation by freezing prices on most goodsRationed foods such as meat, butter, cheese, vegetables, sugar and coffeeNational War Labor Board (NWLB) – limited wage increases and kept unions stableWar Productions Board (WPB) – rationed fuel and materials vital to war effort (gasoline, heating oil, metals, rubber and plastic)Used rationing – establishing fixed allotments of goods deemed essential for the militaryDeficit Spending is the amount by which the government spends more than it is taking inThis was used to finance WWII in the United StatesThe Industrial ResponseBy February 1942 all private automobile production endedFactories were reworked to produce tanks, planes, boats and command cars18 million people were working in war industries and 6 million of those were womenRosie the Riveter is a cultural icon of the United States and represents the American women who worked in factories and shipyards during World War IIThese women sometimes took entirely new jobs, replacing the male workers who were in the militaryRosie the Riveter is used as a symbol of feminism and women’s economic power in modern daysFederal government takes control of the war effort by employing the Selective Service system (draft) and expanding the militaryWomen’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) – women in non-combat positionsNurses, ambulance drivers, radio operators, electricians, pilotDiscrimination – African Americans and Native Americans served in segregated units and Asian Americans served as interpreters and spiesMinorities at WarVolunteered their service – Double “V” CampaignServed mainly as cooks and other service jobsDorie Miller – first soldier decorated in WWIICongress of Racial Equality (CORE) – an interracial group founded in 1942 by James Farmer to work against segregation in Northern CitiesTuskegee AirmenPilots that came from the Tuskegee InstituteFirst African-American military aviatorsExecutive Order 8802 prohibited racial discrimination in the national defense industry. It was the first federal action to promote equal opportunity and prohibit discrimination in employmentPhilip Randolph was a civil rights activist who worked to get into this effectNavajo Code TalkersUsed their tribal language to encode messages; this was the only code that was never broken in WWIIRepeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act Japanese propaganda tried to sever any possible ties between the Chinese and America by advertising that America refused to let Chinese people in In response, America lifted the ban on Chinese Exclusion and set a quota for a certain amount to be let in Zoot-Suit Riots of 1943 were a series of conflicts that occurred in June 1943 in Los Angeles between U.S. servicemen and Mexican-American youths (called zoot suits)GI BillGovernment issued soldiers, guns, eyeglasses, rationed food, uniforms and equipmentPropagandaDefined as using media to send biased messagesWas used to increase support for the war wand commitment to an Allied victoryUsing a vast array of media (posters, radio broadcasts, movies, etc.) the WWII propaganda goals were to:Create hatred of the enemyCreate support for America’s alliesUrge greater public effort for war productionEncourage victory gardensPersuade people to ration (save) some of their material so that more material could be used for the war effortSell war bondsBattle of the Atlantic German goal was to keep goods from reaching the Allied forces and they were very successful in the beginningDestroyed 681 Allied ships in the Atlantic by 1942Because of this, the Allies began using the convoy systemGroups of ships travelling together for mutual protectionPlanes also began to follow and find German U-BoatsBy 1943, the Allies had turned it around and were winning the Battle of the AtlanticNorth Africa CampaignAllied forces wanted to start another frontStalin (Russia) wanted to start one in Western Europe since there was fighting happening in his country (Eastern Front)Axis Powers controlled North AfricaChurchill and Roosevelt thought this was a better optionThey invaded in November of 1942 and the last of the troops in North Africa surrendered by May 1943Operation Torch, the campaign in Africa was commanded by General Dwight D. EisenhowerTurning Points in the WarBattle at MidwayJapan wanted to attack Midway in June 1942The United States intercepted a message and translated itAfter intercepting the message, the U.S. was able to prepare for the attack and were waiting at Midway for Japanese forces and the U.S. launched a surprise counter-attackBattle of Stalingrad – Stalingrad was named after Stalin, so Hitler wanted to take it overGermany wanted a quick battle, so they invaded USSR in summer 1942However, they couldn’t get through as quick as they wanted and ended up being there until February 1943Germans could not handle the Soviet winter and many died of frostbiteTehran ConferenceThe Big Three met in Tehran, Iran: Roosevelt (U.S.), Churchill (Great Britain) and Stalin (USSR); a strategic meeting of allied powersHere, they decided to launch Operation Overload the following year (known as D-Day)The three leaders also agreed that their military staffs should keep close contactD-Day – “Operation Overload”Three million American, British and Canadian troops gathered in EnglandThey sent an incorrect message knowing the Germans would intercept itJune 6, 1944 – largest land-sea-air operation in army historyDwight D. Eisenhower – commander of the Allied forces at D-DayThe US., Britain and Canadian forces stormed the beaches of Normandy, France and began the invasion and liberation of Nazi controlled Europe; thus making it the largest amphibious invasion everU.S. suffered thousands of deaths and injuries, but in the end, U.S. forces were able to liberate (free) France and Belgium by September 1944As the Allies marched through Europe, they came up the concentration camps. They were stunned and disgusted at what had been going on. The Allied forces liberated the concentration campsThe Nazis tried one last time to break through Allied lines in the Battle of the Bulge, but the Allies were victorious in this last battleHitler killed himself and the Nazis surrender May 8, 1945 – VE DayAfter VE Day, the Allied Powers were able to turn their attention to Japan in the PacificIwo JimaAn important island in close proximity to Japan – “island hopping”Island hopping was a military strategy employed by the Allies in the Pacific War against Japan and the Axis powers during WWIIThe Allies needed the island of Iwo Jima to launch bombs at Japan, but it was heavily protected by Japanese troopsBattle of OkinawaKamikaze – a Japanese aircraft loaded with explosives and making a deliberate suicidal crash on an enemy target. Last desperate effort of the Japanese to disable the U.S. military“Death before dishonor” sacrificesThe Japanese used almost 2,000 kamikazes in the Battle of OkinawaThe land battle ended with Japanese casualties at more than 12x the amount America lostImportant Generals fighting in the Pacific Chester NimitzCommander of the American naval forces in the PacificMoved to defend the Midway IslandsHis troops devastated Japanese aircraft carriers, cruisers and planesDouglas MacArthurFought in the Philippines for the Allied forces When it seemed like they wouldn’t win, President Roosevelt ordered him to leave the Philippines, but he came back to defeat the Japanese in 1944He later became general of the armyYalta ConferenceThe Big Three met again: Roosevelt (President), Churchill (Great Britain), Stalin (Soviet Union)They met in February 1945 in the Soviet UnionStalin wanted to punish Germany, Churchill disagreed, and Roosevelt was the mediatorSoviet Union wants to punish GermanyU.S. and Great Britain want lasting peaceCreated the United Nations – international, peace keeping organizationKey points of the Yalta Conference:Agreement to the priority of the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany. After the war, Germany and Berlin would be split into four occupied zonesStalin agreed that France might have a fourth occupation zone in Germany and in Austria, but it would have to be formed out of the American and British zonesGermany would undergo demilitarization and denazificationGerman reparations were partly to be in the form of forced labor. The forced labor was to be used to repair damage Germany inflicted on its victimsCreation of a reparation council which would be located in the Soviet UnionThe status of Poland was discussed. It was agreed to reorganize the communist Provisional Government of Poland that had been installed by the Soviet Union on a broader democratic basisChurchill alone pushed for free elections in PolandCitizens of the Soviet Union and of Yugoslavia were to be handed over to their respective countries, regardless of their consentRoosevelt obtained a commitment by Stalin to participate in the United NationsStalin agreed to enter the fight against the Empire of Japan within 90 days after the defeat of GermanyNazi war criminals were to be hunted down and brought to justiceNuremberg Trials – the court proceedings held in Nuremberg, Germany after World War II, in which Nazi leaders were tried for war crimesA “Committee on Dismemberment of Germany” was to be set up. Its purpose was to decide whether Germany was to be divided into six nationsQUICK TIMELINE TO PUT THE NOTES ABOVE INTO PERSPECTIVE:December 1943 – Tehran Conference, decide to launch Operation OverloadJune 1944 – D-DayFebruary 1945 – Yalta ConferenceFeb-March 1945 – Battle of Iwo JimaApril 1945 – President Roosevelt dies and his Vice President Harry S. Truman takes overMay 1945 – suffering many defeats, Nazi Germany surrenders and Hitler kills himselfBut the war is not over yet Potsdam Conference Truman (U.S.), Churchill (Great Britain) and Stalin (Soviet Union) July-August 1945Held in occupied GermanyWanted unconditional surrenderTruman authorized the use of the bombDecided to split Germany into four occupation zonesSoviet UnionAmericaGreat BritainFranceManhattan ProjectGroup of scientists in charge of many aspects of research and development developed and tested the nuclear weapon later used in the warTested on atomic bomb in July 1945Spend about 2 billion throughout the war for this deviceThe introduction of nuclear warfareNuclear weapons: a vast amount of energy being released from a small amount of matter due to nuclear reactionsA uranium bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 Bomb’s name: “Little Boy”Three days later, a plutonium bomb was dropped on NagasakiBomb’s name: “Fat Man”Enola Gay – the plane that dropped the first atomic bombAftermath of the WarThe United States was no longer in Great DepressionSix million Jews killedGreatly affected U.S. foreign policy in the futureEntered into the Nuclear AgeMarshall Plan Drafted by George MarshallFinancial plan to help build up war-torn nations in EuropeSparked economic revival and prosperity in these countries, alleviating the suffering of many peopleTIME LINE OF WWII:Treaty of VersaillesHitler takes powerHolocaust beginsMunich PactInvasion of PolandWar officially beginsInvasion of FranceBattle of BritainAtlantic CharterPearl HarborJapanese InternmentTehran ConferenceD-Day/Operation OverloadYalta ConferenceBattle Iwo JimaRoosevelt diesTruman becomes presidentAllies invade GermanyNazi surrender VE dayBattle of OkinawaPotsdam ConferenceAtomic BombsVJ Day“The beautiful thing about learning is that no one can take it away from you”– B.B. KingXV. UNIT 8 – COLD WAR ERA & VIETNAM WAR*Essential question to think about as you study: How did the Cold War era influence U.S. foreign policy decisions, domestic programs, and major social movements?MAIN OVERALL CONCEPTS:Despite the United States and Soviet Union being Allies in both world wars, the Cold War Era was a time of immense tension between the two countries. There was no actual physical fighting during the Cold War. The Soviet Union and U.S. were constantly competing with one another to try to build the biggest nuclear weapons and to build up a vast space program. Americans constantly lived in fear that the Soviet Union would drop a nuclear bomb at any minute. There was also a lot of suspicious and mistrust between Americans during the second Red Scare. People were accused of being communists and spies for the Soviet Union. During this time, the United States intervened in two countries in attempts to stop the spread of communism. The first was Korea. North Korea was communist and tried to take over South Korea, so the U.S. went to South Korea’s aid. After fighting for a while, North and South Korea signed an armistice cease-fire where they agreed to not fight each other any longer. The countries are still divided today on the 38th parallel and the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) separates the countries. The second country the U.S. tried to prevent from becoming fully communist was Vietnam. Just like in Korea, the North Communists were trying to take over the South. Unlike Korea, however, the U.S. failed to prevent communism from spreading to South Vietnam and the entire country became communist. NOTES/TERMS:The Cold War – a state of political and military tension after World War II between powers in the Western Bloc (the United States and its NATO allies) and the powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact)President Truman’s Fair Deal – programs in the United States focused on helping the country make the transition from a wartime economy to a peacetime economyThe United Nations Hopes for world peace were highApril 25, 1945: representatives from 50 nations met in San Francisco to make United NationsGoal: to promote peaceSoon it became an arena for superpowers to competeFormer Allies clashThe Soviet Union and the U.S. had been Allies during WWIIStalin was formally an ally of Hitler in the non-aggression pact and the U.S. took a very long time to enter the war, so both countries were already suspicious of one anotherPotsdam Conference (from WWII)The Big Three met: U.S., Great Britain, and Soviet UnionAt Yalta, Stalin promised to allow free elections – failedTruman was convinced that the U.S. and Soviet aims were differentSoviets wanted reparations, Truman opposedCompromise: take reparations from their own zonesThe U.S. and the Soviet Union had different goals in EuropeU.S.Create a new world order in which all nations had self-determinationGain access to raw materials and marketsRebuild European governments to ensure stability and create new markets for U.S. goods Reunite Germany to create a more productive countrySoviet UnionEncourage communism in other countries Rebuild its war-ravaged economy in Eastern Europe’s industrial equipment and raw materialsControl Eastern Europe to balance U.S. influence in Western EuropeKeep Germany divided and weak so it wouldn’t threaten the Soviet UnionSoviets tightened their grip on Eastern EuropeDuring the Cold War, the Soviet Union maintained a balance of power with the United States be devoting vast economic resources to nuclear armamentSuffered heavy losses and devastation during war (20 million people)Felt justified in claim to Eastern Europe to stop any further invasionsInstalled communist governments in Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Poland (satellite nations)The Iron CurtainRefers to the ideological fighting and physical boundary that divided Europe into two separate areas until the end of the Cold WarOn either side of the Iron Curtain, countries developed their own international economic and military alliancesPhysically, the Iron Curtain took the shape of the Berlin WallBerlin Wall – a concrete wall that separated East Berlin and West Berlin from 1961 to 1989, built by the Communist East German government to prevent its citizens from fleeing to the WestServed as a longtime symbol of the Iron Curtain“Iron Curtain” speech was made by Winston ChurchillIn one of the most famous speeches of the Cold War period, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill condemned the Soviet Union’s policies in Europe and declares, “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent”Containment Policy – taking measures to prevent any extension of communist rule to other countriesThis was motivated by the domino theory: if one country falls to communism all the others will followDuring the Cold War, there were no confrontations on the battlefields – tension and possibilityIn 1947, President Harry Truman issued an executive order creating the Federal Employee Loyalty Program to eliminate communist influence in the federal governmentThe Truman DoctrineBecame a central principle of U.S. foreign policy after the expansion of communism after WWIITruman Doctrine: policy of U.S. to support free peoples who were resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressuresAddressed the issue of communist expansion by pledging assistance to countries resisting communist expansion$400 million sent to aid Turkey and GreeceMarshall PlanPromoted economic and political stability among the nations it helpedWestern Europe was in chaos (factories bombed or looted, people in refugee camps, damaged crops, frozen rivers)Secretary of State George Marshall proposed sending aid to nations that needed itStruggle over GermanyAfter WWII, Germany was divided into four occupational zonesIn 1948, Great Britain, France and the United States decided to combine their three zones into oneThere was no agreement on how to get to Berlin (in Soviet zone)Stalin blocked access June 1948No food or fuel could reach West Berlin (2.1 million residents for five weeks)Berlin AirliftPlan to fly food and supplies into West BerlinExemplified the U.S. foreign policy goals of containment by preventing the Soviets from controlling the entire city327 days – planes took off and landed every few minutes around the clock (277,000 flights = 2.3 million tons of supplies)Food, fuel, medicine, etc.May 1949 – Soviets lifted blockadeFederal Republic of Germany created in the WestGerman Democratic Republic created in the EastNATOWas created partially due to the success of the Berlin AirliftWestern European nations joined U.S. and Canada to form North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), pledging military support to one anotherFirst military alliance for U.S. during peace timeWarsaw Pact – west Germany allowed to arm and join NATO; Soviet Union formed their own military alliance with 7 Eastern European countries New Leadership During the Cold WarNikita Khrushchev Took control when Stalin died in 1953Believed communism would take over the world, but he wanted to do it peacefully through coexistenceDwight EisenhowerFormer U.S. Army GeneralElected president of the U.S. (1953-1961)Took a military approachSpace RaceOctober 4, 1957: Soviets launched Sputnik (world’s first satellite)The so-called Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union took on renewed urgency when this was launchedAmerica = shocked by Sputnik and poured money into their own space programLed to the passage of the National Defense Education Act of 1959Increasing access to advanced scientific and technical instructionFirst time satellite launch by U.S. was a failureFirst success: January 31, 1958U-2 IncidentCIA made secret high-altitude flights in U-2 planes to monitor troop movements and missile sites using infrared cameras; pretty much an open secretPresident Eisenhower wanted flights to stop/worried it would start somethingMay 1, 1960 – Francis Gary Powers’ plane crashedPowers was arrested and sentenced to ten years in Soviet prison for spyingOpened tension between the two superpowersChina becomes CommunistChinese communists (leader, Mao Zedong) battles nationalist government of China (leader, Chang Kai-shek)U.S. supports nationalist government even though the government was inefficient and corrupt, to the U.S. it was better than communismPeasants flocked to the communist Red Army and by 1945, communists had taken control of northern ChinaRenewed Civil War in ChinaU.S. send military aid to nationalist that were in opposition to communism (domino theory)1949, Nationalists fled to the island of Taiwan and the communists established the People’s Republic of the Mainland U.S. does not recognize the communist Chinese government and the U.S. public was stunned by the takeoverConservatives blamed Truman for not sending enough aidKorean ConflictIn 1945, Soviet forces occupied Korea north of the thirty-eighth parallel and installed a Soviet-style governmentIn turn, the United States backed a government south of the thirty-eighth parallel because the U.S. desired to stop the spread of communism (containment – keep it where it is)1950 – North Korea invades South Korea with the help of the ChineseSouth Korea called on United Nations to stop invasion; Security Council approvedGeneral MacArthur put in command of South Korean/U.S. forcesU.S. response was to try and stop the North Koreans because of our desire to stop the spread of communismHelped the U.S. fulfill its foreign policy of containing communismThe U.S. fights in Korea:North Korea drive South, captures SeoulUnited Nations and South Korean troops forced in to small defensive zoneMacArthur attacks North Korean’s from two sides and pushes in to the NorthChina sends more troops to help North Korea; push south, capture SeoulFighting continues for two more yearsMacArthur recommends attacking China, but Truman rejects request because Soviet Union and China had mutual assistance pact (might bring them both into war)United Nations and South Korea retake Seoul, advance North to the 38th parallelMacArthur pushes for an attack on China again and gets first by TrumanPublic was outragedSettling for Stalemate1951: Soviet Union suggests cease-fire1953 armistice: Korea still divided along 38th parallelDemilitarized zone established (DMZ)Lack of success, high casualty rates, and financial costs helped Eisenhower defeat Truman for the next presidential electionThe Cold War on the Home FrontSecond Red Scare Fear of communist influence: Americans feared communism would spread around the world (Soviet Union, China, North Korea were all communists at this point)Concern over loyalty of communists in the U.S.Loyalty Review Board – investigated loyalty of government employees91 “subversive” organizations listedDismissed 212 employees and 2,900 resignedCouldn’t see the evidence against themHouse Un-American Activities Campaign (HUAC)Investigated communist influence in the movie industry (sneaking propaganda into films)Subpoenaed 43 witnessesHollywood Ten: 10 witnesses that refused to cooperate (unconstitutional); sent to prisonHollywood instituted a blacklist: list of people whom they condemned for having a communist background (500 people)Beginning in 1947, many Hollywood actors, writers and directors were blacklisted because they were suspected of being communistMcCarran Act – made it unlawful to plan any action that might lead to the establishment of a totalitarian dictatorship in the U.S.SpiesAlger HissFormer state department employee accused of spying for the Soviet UnionRichard Nixon (congressman at this point) pursued the chargesConvicted of perjury (1990s records proved Hiss’s guilt)Ethel and Julius Rosenberg When USSR tested the atomic bomb earlier then expected, the U.S. feared spies gave info on the bomb to SovietsKlaus Fuchs admitted to giving Soviets information and Rosenberg’s implicated in helpingRosenberg’s denied charges, but were found guilty on espionage charges and executedMcCarthy’s “Witch Hunts”Senator Joseph McCarthy took advantage of American’s fear and made unsupported accusationsMcCarthyism – unfair tactic of accusing people of disloyalty without evidence (included mistreatment of government workers, college teachers, screen writers, etc.)Said he had over 200 names of communists in the State Department (never produced one)Charged Democratic party with treason for allowing infiltration of Communism into governmentOnly spoke out in Senate where he had immunity from slander1954 spoke out against the Army in a nationally televised investigationAmerican people saw McCarthy as a bully because that’s how treated “witnesses”Causes and Effects of McCarthyismCauses Soviets successfully established communist regimes in Eastern Europe after WWIISoviets develop the atomic bomb more quickly than expectedKorean War ends in a stalemateRepublicans gain politically by accusing Truman and Democrats of being soft on communismEffectsMcCarthyism had a polarizing effect in the United States because it created a climate of suspicion and mistrustMillions of Americans are forced to take loyalty oath and undergo loyalty investigationsActivism by labor unions goes into declineMany people are afraid to speak out on public issuesAnti-communism continues to drive U.S. foreign policyPresident Kennedy and the Cold WarThe presidential election between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon included the first ever televised debateIt was a very close election – Kennedy won by less than 119,000 out of the 68 million votesTwo factors helped Kennedy win the election: television and the civil rights issueWhen Kennedy took office he became the youngest and only Catholic president ever electedKennedy’s first foreign policy issue was the crisis over Cuba. The U.S. cut off diplomatic relations with Cuba days before Kennedy took office when Cuba’s leader Fidel Castro openly declared himself a communistThe CIA secretly trained 1,400 of Cuban exiles in the U.S. for an invasion of Cuba. Their hope was that the invasion would trigger a massive revolt against Castro and overthrow the communist governmentBay of Pigs InvasionApril 17, 1961, the Cuban exiles land on Cuba’s southern coast at the Bay of Pigs. Major miscalculations and mistakes cause the invasion to fail. Some of the invasion force was killed, others were taken as prisonersThis incident made the U.S. look incompetent to the rest of the worldBy 1962 the flow of Soviet weapons, including nuclear missiles increased greatly. President Kennedy warned the Soviet Union that the U.S. would not tolerate the presence of nuclear weapons on Cuba. Kennedy issued a speech warning the Soviets that any missile attack from Cuba would result in an all-out attack on the Soviet UnionCuban Missile Crisis Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of Cuba to stop Soviet ships from bringing in more weaponry (brinksmanship). Kennedy also prepared a very large invasion force to assault CubaA few days later, Khrushchev offered to remove the missiles if Kennedy agreed not to invade Cuba and remove nuclear weapons in the Middle East aimed at the Soviet Union. Kennedy agreed and the crisis endedBerlin CrisisDemocratic West Berlin was outshining communist East Berlin. The prosperous economy of West Berlin drew in 20% of East Berlin’s population during the 11 years after the Berlin AirliftKhrushchev threatened to cut off all access from East to West Berlin. August 13, 1961, East German troops began construction of the Berlin Wall, which one completed, would divide the city in halfThe Berlin Wall ended the Berlin Crisis, but further aggravated Cold War tensions. The wall was not successful at reducing the outflow of Eastern Berlin refugees, but became a major symbol for communist oppression A hot line was established between the White House and Kremlin. This allowed both Kennedy and Khrushchev to quickly communicate with each other should another crisis ariseBoth nations agreed to a Limited Test Ban Treaty and that would eliminate nuclear testing in the atmosphere. The treaty was successful in reducing Cold War tensionsPresident Kennedy’s New FrontierWith no current Cold War crisis’ to deal with, Kennedy focused on making progress in the U.S. His legislative agenda for accomplishing his progressive goals was known as the New FrontierKennedy’s New Frontier agenda met with resistance from Congress. He was not getting the votes he need to pass the legislationKennedy tried to stimulate the economy by increasing government spending. The Department of Defense received a 20% budget increase. Congress also approve an increase in the minimum wage to $1.25 an hourDomestic AgendaKennedy attempted to fight poverty and racial segregation. He ordered the Justice Department to investigate racial injustices in the South and presented Congress with a civil rights bill. He also developed a proposal to cut taxes by over $10 billionRace to the MoonApril 12, 1961, the Soviets launched the first manned spaceship into orbit. Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human in spaceKennedy felt that the U.S. had to go one step further in order to finally pull ahead of the Soviets. In 1961, he announced to Congress that by the end of the decade the U.S. would land a man on the moon and return him safely back to earthThe goal was reached on July 20, 1969, when U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the moonTragedy in DallasOn November 22, 1963, Kennedy arrived in Dallas, Texas to meet with members of the state’s Democratic Party.As the President’s car passed a state building, rifle shots were heard and Kennedy was fatally wounded having been shot in the back and the head. He died less than an hour after he had been shotAmericans sat in front of their televisions waiting for the answers of who shot the president and why. Viewers watched as Kennedy’s Vice President, Lyndon B. Johnson, took the oath of office aboard Air Force OneDallas police arrested Lee Harvey Oswald and charged him with the murder of President Kennedy. However, before he could be sentenced Oswald was shot and killed as well.A commission led by Chief Justice Earl Warren began an investigation into the JFK assassination and after 10 months, the Warren Commission concluded that Kennedy had been shot by Lee Harvey Oswald and that Oswald had acted alone1964 Presidential ElectionLyndon Johnson (Democrat) vs. Barry Goldwater (Republican)Goldwater frightened Americans by suggesting that he would use nuclear weapons on Cuba and VietnamJohnson’s campaign used this fear and produced a commercial of a little girl counting daisy petals that dissolved into a mushroom cloud created by an atomic bombPresident Johnson won the electionThe Johnson YearsPresident Johnson used JFK’s tragedy to get Congress to pass the civil rights and tax cut billsThe tax cut bull boosted the economy and reduced the budget deficit from $6 billion in 1964 to $4 billion in 1966The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed after getting Southern senators to accept the civil rights billThis act prohibited the discrimination based on race, religion, national origin and granted the federal government the power to enforce these lawsThe Great Society – President Johnson’s presidential policy that focused on eliminating poverty and racial injusticeEconomic Opportunity Act – gave nearly $1 billion for youth programs, small business loans and job trainingCreated Project Head Start – an education program for underprivileged preschoolersElementary and Secondary Act of 1965 – provided more than $1 billion in federal aid to help schools buy textbooksSocial Security reformEstablished Medicare and MedicaidMedicare – provided hospital insurance and low-cost medial insurance to Americans over 65Medicaid – extended health insurance to people on welfareThe Warren CourtNamed after Chief Justice Earl Warren Banned prayer in public schoolsDecided in the court rulings for court cases Miranda v. Arizona, Roe v. Wade and much moreExpanded the rights of people accused of crimesThe Vietnam WarLasted through 20 years and 4 presidents from 1956-1975President Eisenhower, President Kennedy, President Johnson, President NixonFrance had been in control of “Indochina” for years, which included Vietnam. When Vietnam was in danger of becoming communist, France tried to fight back with the assistance of the U.S. Their attempts failed and a leader, Ho Chi Minh, declared Vietnam a free countryThe Geneva Accords of 1954 separated Vietnam, much like KoreaNorth Vietnam – communistsSouth Vietnam – non-communistsBasically, the U.S. wanted to intervene because they did not want communism to spread to South Vietnam (containment & the domino theory)Ngo Dinh Diem – South Vietnamese nationalist; America liked him because he was very anti-communist. However, he was Catholic when many of his people were Buddhist, so many of his own people did not approve of himVietcong – by 1957 a Communist group in the South formedThe National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam (or the Vietcong) attack Diem’s governmentNorth Vietnam sent arms/weapons to the Vietcong along the Ho Chi Minh trailTonkin Gulf Resolution“Alleged” attack on the American ship U.S.S. Maddox in the Gulf of Tonkin off the shore of VietnamPresident Johnson asked for power to repel the enemyTonkin Gulf Resolution gives LBJ broad military powers1965 Eight Americans killed, President Johnson ordered sustained bombing of North VietnamU.S. combat troops were sent to South Vietnam to battle the VietcongCongress and the majority of the American public supported sending troopsBy 1967, there were 500,000 U.S. troops in VietnamSinking MoraleThe Vietcong used Guerrilla Warfare (jump out of trees in a sneak attack), the harsh jungle conditions, and the lack of progress all lowered moraleMany people turned to alcohol and drugsMost still believed in justice of halting communismPresident Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society SuffersLBJ gets tax increase to pay for war; $6 billion funding cut from Great SocietyThe Living Room WarCombat footage on nightly TV news shows stark picture of warCredibility gap between administration and TV reportsThe DraftSelective Service System calls men 18-26 to military serviceThousands look for ways to avoid the draft (college deferment, move to Canada)80% of soldiers from lower economic levelsAfrican Americans serve in disproportionate numbers in ground combatThe Roots of OppositionThe New LeftYouth movement of the 1960s demand sweeping changesStudents for a Democratic Society (SDS); Free Speech Movement (FSM)Campus activism began to riseAnti-war demonstrations and protests increased; some men even burned their draft cardsDoves – people who strongly oppose warHawks – people in favor of sending greater forces to win the war1967 – majority of Americans supported the war and considered protestors disloyal The Tet Offensive – 1968Vietcong among the crow attack over 100 towns; 12 U.S. air bases on Tet (Vietnamese New Year)Lasted one month before U.S./South Vietnam regain controlBefore Tet most Americans were hawks, after Tet it was nearly evenMainstream media openly criticized the warNew Secretary of Defense concludes the war is unwinnable and President Johnson’s popularity drops, so he decided not to run again1968 Race for PresidentRobert Kennedy decided to run for president, but he got assassinatedVP Hubert Humphrey wins Democrat nomination10,000 demonstrators at convention in Chicago; police beat them; riotRichard Nixon (Republican) wins nomination in 1968 on the platform that he would restore law and order and end the warGovernor George Wallace is a third party candidate running on segregation and states’ rightsRichard Nixon won the electionThe End of the War and its LegacyPresident Nixon found negotiations were not progressingVietnamization – U.S. troops withdraw, South Vietnam troops take over“Peace with honor” to maintain U.S. dignitySilent majority – moderate, mainstream people who support warMy Lai Massacre – news breaks that U.S. platoon massacred civilians at My Lai village. The lieutenant was convicted and imprisonedInvasion of Cambodia – 1970 U.S. troops invade Cambodia to clear out enemy supplies1.5 trillion protesting college students close down 1,200 campusesTrouble Continues on the Home frontViolence on campusNational guard killed 4 in confrontation at Kent State UniversityGuardsmen killed 2 during confrontation at Jackson State (MS)Pentagon Papers Nixon invades Cambodia; Congress repeals Tonkin Gulf ResolutionPentagon Papers shows plans to enter war under Lyndon B. JohnsonConfirms belief of many that the government was not honest about their intentionsAmerica’s Longest War EndsKissinger agrees to complete withdrawalDétente – the flexible policy, involving a willingness to negotiate and an easing of tensions, that was adopted by President Richard Nixon and his adviser Henry Kissinger in their dealings with communist nationsSouth Vietnam rejects Kissinger plan and bombing resumesCongress calls for end to war and peace is signed January 1973The Fall of Saigon – cease-fire breaks down, the South surrendered after the North invaded in 1975The War Left a Painful Legacy58,000 Americans and over 2 million Vietnamese died in warReturning veterans faced indifference and hostility at homeCommunists put 400,000 South Vietnamese into labor camps; 1.5 million fled the countryLegacy at HomeGovernment abolished the military draft1973 – War Powers Act: President must inform Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops with a 90 day maximum deployment without Congressional approvalCynicism about government and political leaders “Whatever the mind can conceive and believe, it can achieve” – Napoleon HillXVI. UNIT 9 – CIVIL RIGHTS*Essential question to think about as you study: What was the role and importance of the Civil Rights movement in the expansion of opportunities for African-Americans in the United States? MAIN OVERALL CONECPTS:African Americans fought for equal rights for a very long time; the first Civil Rights Act was passed in 1875. That goes to show how long the struggles had been for them to gain equality in the United States. Organized groups planned boycotts, sit-ins and protests to get the message of equal rights out there. Most protests were peaceful, but then others turned violent and resulted in riots where people were killed. The success of the Civil Rights Movement inspired other groups of people to stand up and demand equality as well, such as Latinos, Native Americans and women. NOTES/TERMSThe Civil Rights Act of 1875 had outlawed segregation in public places. It was later overturned in 1883, when the Supreme Court declared the act unconstitutional – basically making segregation legal againIn 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring railroads to provide separate but “equal” areas on their rail cars for African AmericansThe 1896 Supreme Court Case Plessy v. Ferguson said declaring segregation was not unconstitutional, allowing for separate but equal After Plessy v. Ferguson, segregationists around the nation began passing Jim Crow Laws to further separate the two racesExamples of the Jim Crow Laws include outlawing interracial marriage, creating separate schools, elevators and streetcarsThese separate facilities were nearly always inferior to the white counterpartsNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)The NAACP began putting legal cases together to battle the segregation lawsIn 1938 Thurgood Marshall became lead council for the NAACPHis most important court case was in 1954. Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka argued for nine year old Linda Brown to be able to go to an all-white school four blocks from her house instead of an all-black school 21 blocks awayThe Supreme Court unanimously ruled in favor of Brown and declared segregation in schools unconstitutional The decision was met with resistance in the South Little Rock NineIn 1957, in Little Rock, the Governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, in attempts to get reelected, decided to cater to the segregationists and ordered the National Guard to deny entry into Central High School to nine black students had volunteered to integratePresident Eisenhower placed Arkansas’ National Guard under federal control and used them to protect the nine black studentsFaubus shut down the school at the end of the year to prevent further integrationThe school was later reopened and several of the Little Rock Nine continued on to graduate from Central HighMontgomery Bus Boycott1955 Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks was told to give up her seat in the colored section of a bus so a white man could sit down; she refused and was arrestedThe NAACP boycotted the public bus system in Montgomery. They formed the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) to organize the boycottsDr. Martin Luther King, Kr. was elected leader of the MIA1956 the Supreme Court outlawed bus segregationKing founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). This organization planned non-violent protests and demonstrations to combat segregation in the SouthSit-Ins – protesters sat at segregated lunch counters and refused to leave until they were servedCongress of Racial Equality (CORE) – is a U.S. civil rights organization that played a pivotal role for African Americans in the Civil Rights MovementFreedom Riders – boarded buses in the south to test the established laws against segregation on interstate busesFreedom Summer – college students spent summer vacation registering voters in the SouthSegregationSegregation in the North differed from that in the SouthThe problem in the North was de facto segregation – segregation that exists by practice and custom through social interactionIn the South, African Americans not only had to deal with de facto, but also de jure segregation which was segregation by lawDe facto segregation intensified after African Americans migrate to Northern cities after WWIIAfrican Americans moved into the cities and as a result, whites “escaped” into the suburbsUrban ViolenceAfrican Americans began acting out in aggression in response to the treatment they were receiving by the policeA riot broke out in Watts, a neighborhood in Los Angeles, when white police were seen arguing with the mother of a drunk driver who had just been arrestedThe Watts riot lasted for 6 days and 34 people were killed. Around $30 million worth of damage was caused making the Watts riot one of the worst race riots in the nation’s historyBlack PowerMalcolm X – born Malcolm Little, converted to Islam while in prison for burglary. He followed the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of IslamAfter being released from prison, Malcolm Little dropped his last name which he referred to as his “slave name” and replaced it with an XHe preached that whites were the cause of all the blacks’ problems and that blacks should be separate from white societyHe called for all blacks to arm themselves in order to defend against being unjustly and unlawfully attackedAfter going on a pilgrimage to Mecca, the Islamic holy land, Malcolm X changed his attitude toward whites – he now advocated trying to solve problems legally before resorting to violenceFebruary 21, 1965 Malcolm X was shot and killed while speaking to a group of followers in Harlem. The shooters were members of the militant portion of the Nation of IslamBlack Power OrganizationStokely Carmichael – leader of SNCC: Student Nonviolent Coordinating CommitteeAlthough under the name of a nonviolent organization, the SNCC members followed some of the militant beliefs of Malcolm XBlack Panthers In 1966, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale founded a political party known as the Black PanthersTheir purpose was to fight police brutality in the ghettoMost Black Panther members wore black berets, sunglasses, black leather jackets, black pants and shiny black shoesThe Panthers publicly preached armed revolt and adopted Mao Zedong’s slogan that “Power flows out of the barrel of a gun”The Panthers used grassroots activities such as, establishing daycare centers and free breakfast programs to gain support from the black communityMartin Luther King, Jr. did not agree with the teachings of the Black Power MovementTragedy in MemphisIn 1968 Dr. King was in Memphis speaking to a group of striking garbage workersApril 4, 1968, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was shot and killed by James Earl Ray while standing on the balcony of his hotel room in MemphisDr. King’s death sparked massive riots around the nations; 125 cities experienced riotingAffirmative Action – refers to policies that take factors including race, color, religion, sex or national origin into consideration in order to benefit an underrepresented group in areas of employment, education and businessCivil Rights OutcomesThe Civil Rights Movement ended de jure segregationCivil Rights Act of 1964 Banned most discrimination in employment and public accommodationsEnlarged federal power to protect voting rights and speed up school desegregationEstablished Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to ensure fair treatment in employmentVoting Rights Act of 1965Eliminated voter literacy tests and enabled federal examiners to register votersCivil Rights Act of 1968Banned discrimination against the sale or renting of housing to African Americans24th Amendment Prohibits states from charging any type of tax in order to voteAn Era of Social Change 1960-1975Latinos seek equality 1960s Latino population grows from 3 million to 9 millionEncounter prejudice, discrimination in jobs, housingCesar Chavez helps form United Farm Workers Organizing CommitteeLatinos organize and help elect Latino candidatesNative Americans seek equalityMany Native Americans cling to their culture, refuse assimilationPoorest group, most unemployment, health problems 1970s laws gave tribes more control over their own affairs and educationWomen fight for equalityWomen shut out of jobs that were considered “men’s work”Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique shows women’s dissatisfaction and helps galvanize women across the countryNational Organization for Women (NOW) – presses for day care centers, more vigorous enforcement by Equal Employment CommissionLegal and Social gainsGender-based distinction questions – like use of husband’s last nameHigher Education Act bans gender discrimination if federally fundedRoe v. Wade Feminist support of woman’s right to an abortion is controversial even still todayDecision says women have right to an abortion in the first trimesterEqual Rights Amendment - some support while others think it will lead to the drafting of women and an end to child support; fails to passCounterculture – white, middle class youths reject traditional AmericanHippies feel society and its materialism, technology and war are meaninglessWanted idyllic communities of peace, love and harmonyEra of rock and roll, crazy clothing, illegal drugs and free loveTurn in Eastern religion; a lot of people start meditating Art – pop art uses commercial, impersonal images from everyday lifeRock music: Beatles“It always seems impossible until it is done” – Nelson MandelaXVII. UNIT 10 – NIXON, CARTER, REAGAN, BUSH*Essential question to think about as you study: How did the collective impact of the events, policies and leadership characteristics of U.S. from 1970’s to the early 1990’s bring about an end to the Cold War?MAIN OVERALL CONCEPTS:The presidential administrations of Nixon, Carter, Reagan and Bush all helped the United States bring an end to the Cold War. President Nixon took the first steps in easing the tensions with the Soviet Union and other communist countries, such as China and was able to make progress. President Carter continued the work of Nixon and did not see the USSR as an enemy like the country had been perceived as for so long. However, when the USSR invaded Afghanistan, the times of peace were put to a halt. When President Reagan began his administration he hated the USSR and referred to it as an “evil empire.” Eventually, Reagan formed an unlikely friendship with the new leader of the Soviet Union and that friendship led to the dismantling of the threat of communism. The Berlin Wall came down, which was a long-standing symbol of communist oppression, and the reunification of Germany ended the occupational zones. However, when one era ends another typically begins. So, the tensions with the Cold War were pretty much over by now, but problems for the United States the Middle East were just beginning.NOTES/TERMS:President Richard Nixon (1969-1974)Adopted new approach, détente, to dealing with the Soviet UnionThis policy stressed the easing of tensions between the two superpowers through negotiations and compromisesIn 1972, Nixon negotiated the signing of the SALT I Treaty with the Soviet UnionIt limited the development of nuclear weapons and was a diplomatic triumph for NixonPresident Nixon & ChinaIn 1949, the communist forces of Mao Zedong won control of China and the U.S. refused to recognize the new government Throughout the 1960s and 1970s. relations between the U.S. and China were very coldNixon, however, made a bold move during his first term and became the first president to publicly acknowledge the communist regime as China’s legitimate governmentHe even visited China and met personally with Mao ZedongNixon’s efforts won him much praise, solidified his reputation as a master of foreign diplomacy and helped ease U.S.-Chinese relations during the Cold War The Watergate Scandal centered on the Nixon administration’s attempt to cover up a burglary of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate office and apartment complex in Washington, D.C. However, the Watergate story began long before the actual burglary. Many historians believe that Watergate truly began with Nixon and his advisorsAfter overwhelming evidence, Nixon announced his resignation from office before the impeachment process began President Gerald Ford (1974-1977)Ford pardoned Nixon (forgive/dismiss the offense)The departure f Nixon from office marked the beginning of a new chapter in U.S.-Soviet relationsFord continued the SALT talks and also signed the Helsinki AccordsThese agreements stated that both the U.S. and the USSR (along with Canada and some thirty European nations) pledged to cooperate with one another economically, respect national boundaries and promote human rightsPresident Jimmy Carter (1977-1981)Under Carter, détente continued with the signing of SALT IIIn 1979, however, the Soviet Union invaded neighboring AfghanistanThe U.S. condemned this invasionThe Soviet invasion also killed any chance SALT II had of being ratified by the SenateCarter implemented a grain embargo which halted shipments of U.S. grains to the USSR and also imposed an Olympic boycott, refusing to send a U.S. team to Moscow, Russia for the 1980 summer gamesBy the time of the 1980 presidential election, it was evident that détente was deadDomestic Problems Oil Crisis of 1979 – Carter considered the energy crisis the most important issue facing the nation. He believed that a large part of the problem was America’s reliance on imported oil Carter presented Congress with more than 100 proposals on energy conservation and development, but these faced a lot of resistance from automobile manufacturers and representatives from oil and gas producing states Out of the battle came the National Energy Act, which placed a tax on gas-guzzling cars, removed price controls on oil and natural gas produced in the U.S. and extended tax credits for the development of alternative energy; this act led to U.S. dependence on foreign oil slightly easing upOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – an economic association of oil-producing nations that is able to set oil pricesLove Canal – In 1972, Lois Gibbs and her family moved to Niagara Falls, New York. Underneath the quiet town, however, was a disaster in the making. In the 1890s, the Love Canal had been built to provide hydroelectric power for the Niagara Falls area. Over the years, chemical companies were dumping hazardous waste into the canal. In 1953, bulldozers filled in the canal and shortly thereafter, a school and rows of homes were built nearbyIn 1977, when Lois Gibb’s son fell sick, she decided to investigate. She eventually uncovered the existence of toxic water and mobilized the community to demand government actionIn 1980, President Carter authorized funds for many Niagara Falls families to move to safetyCarter and the Middle EastCamp David Accords – historic agreements between the United States, Israel and Egypt, reached in negotiations at Camp David in 1978. At this meeting was the first signed peace treaty with the United States and an Arab countryIran Hostage Crisis President Carter was friendly with the shah (leader of Iran) before a revolution broke out, overthrowing the shah as well as friendly relations with the United States. In October 1979, Carter allowed the old shah to enter the United States for cancer treatments which infuriated the revolutionaries of IranIn retaliation, on November 4, 1979, armed students seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took 52 Americans hostage. The militants demanded that the United States send the shah back to Iran in return for the release of the hostagesCarter refused, and a painful year-long standoff followed, in which the U.S. continued quiet but intense efforts to free the hostagesThe captives were finally released on January 20, 1981, shortly after the new president, Ronald Reagan was sworn into officePresident Ronald Reagan (1981-1989)Republican/conservative; elected by the “new right” and “moral majority”Unlike Nixon and his immediate predecessors, Reagan was convinced that the Soviet Union could not be trusted and that they would stop short of nothing but worldwide dominationReagan made headlines during his first term when he referred to the USSR as an “evil empire”Reagan believed that the Soviet economy could not survive an escalated arms race and that a military buildup by the U.S. would not only increase the nation’s defenses, but it would bring about the ultimate collapse of communism in the Soviet Union as well Reagan set about pouring 1.5 trillion dollars in to the nation’s militaryHe also initiated the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), more commonly known as Star Wars (in reference to the blockbuster 1977 film)With the SDI, Reagan envisioned the development of a satellite shield that could prevent Soviet missiles from ever reaching their targetReagan knew that the Soviet Union could not economically afford to compete with such a program. If nothing else, Reagan believed the SDI would give him an upper hand in his dealings with the SovietsIn 1985, a young and progressive leader named Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the USSR and despite Reagan’s misgivings about the Soviets, the two struck up an unlikely friendshipIn 1987, Reagan and Gorbachev signed the INF Treaty, which reduced the number of U.S. and Soviet missiles in EuropeGorbachev realized that the hurting Soviet economy could not sustain an arms race with the U.S. any longer. For this reason, he initiated glasnost (political openness) and perestroika (a restructuring of the economy to allow limited free trade enterprise)These changes, along with the economic collapse of communist nations in Eastern Europe, paved the way for the fall of communism, fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and German reunification (became one country again from the zones after WWII)Reagan and other foreign affairs:Poland’s Solidarity Movement – in the early 1980s, it became the first labor union in a Soviet bloc country. Solidarity gave rise to a broad, nonviolent, anti-communist social movement that, at its height, had about 9.4 million members. It is considered to have contributed greatly to the fall of communismSoviet Bloc just means communist nations that were allied with the Soviet Union in Eastern EuropeIran-Contra Scandal – In 1983, terrorist groups loyal to Iran took a number of Americans hostages in Lebanon. Reagan denounced Iran and urged U.S. allies not to sell arms to Iran for its war against Iraq. In 1985, he declared that “America will never make concessions to terrorists.”Therefore, Americans were shocked to learn in 1986 that President Reagan had approved the sale of arms to Iran. In exchange for those sales, Iran promised to win the release of seven American hostages held in Lebanon by pro-Iranian terroristsPresident George H.W. Bush (1989-1993)Bush won the election with his famous slogan, “Read my lips – no new taxes” During his time in office, Bush enacted a number of key domestic policiesAmericans with Disabilities Act – protected the civil rights of citizens with physical disabilitiesReauthorized the Clean Air Act – called for measures to increase the development of cleaner, alternative sources of fuelsSigned legislation increasing the rate of legal immigration to the U.S.Clarence Thomas Supreme Court Nomination HearingOn July 1, 1991, President George H.W. Bush nominated Clarence Thomas for the Supreme Court of the U.S. to replace Thurgood Marshall, who had announced his retirementThe nomination proceedings were contentious from the start, especially over the issue of abortion, and many women’s groups and civil rights groups opposed Thomas on the basis of his conservative views Towards the end of the confirmation hearings, sexual harassment allegations by Anita Hill, a law professor who had previously worked under Thomas were leaked to the media from a confidential FBI reportThe hearings were televised and held by the Senate Judiciary Committee before the nomination was moved to the full Senate for a vote. Thomas was confirmed by a narrow majority of 52 to 48Bush’s Foreign AffairsOperation Desert Storm during the Persian Gulf WarBush drew the “line in the sand” meaning Saddam Hussein had gone past the point in which consequences could be avoided after the Iraqi leader invaded KuwaitUnited Nations gave Iraq until January 1991 to withdrawWhen they did not, the U.S. launched Operation Desert Storm to liberate (free) Kuwait and protect American oil interests there and in Saudi ArabiaTiananmen Square Protests of 1989 – the site of 1989 demonstrations in Beijing, China, in which Chinese students demanded freedom of speech and a greater voice in government – happened during Bush’s presidency Bush’s greatest domestic challenge was the national deficit, which had tripled since 1980Despite his campaign pledge of no new taxes, Bush eventually agreed to a tax increase as part of a compromise with the Democrats in CongressThe move cost him the support of many Republicans who had previously voted for him and led to a drop in his popularityDespite low interest rates and low inflation, a slowdown in economic growth and high unemployment led to Bush not getting elected in the next election“There is no substitute for hard work” – Thomas EdisonXVIII. UNIT 11 – MODERN ERA*Essential question to think about as you study: How did American government and society shift from a Cold War identity to a culture of global interdependence? MAIN OVERALL CONCEPTS:The Cold War had brought about fear of atomic bombs from nuclear war with communist countries. In the modern era, there is still an immense fear of atomic bombs, but more-so from terrorist groups and organizations. American government and society was able to shift into a culture of global interdependence by focusing on domestic and foreign affairs (not just domestic = isolationism) as well as demonstrating a continued progression in science and research. NOTES/TERMS: President Bill Clinton (1993-2001) The economy saw an upswing during the Clinton presidencyNAFTA was ratified (North American Trade Agreement) and removed trade restrictions between the U.S., Canada and MexicoClinton focused a lot on the U.S. health care system and appointed his wife, Hillary Clinton, to head a task force to analyze health care and propose reformsHer reform plans were rejected by some saying they were too expensive and would lead to taxes being increased even moreImpeachment ScandalPresident Clinton was accused of improperly using money from a land deal with the Whitewater Development CompanyIn addition, Clinton allegedly had lied under oath about having an improper relationship with a young White House internIn 1998, Clinton admitted that he had had an improper relationship with the young woman, but he denied lying about the incident under oath or attempting to obstruct the investigationOn December 1998, the House of Representatives approved two articles of impeachment, charging the president with perjury and obstruction of justiceAt the trial, the Senate fell short of the two-third majority required to convict him and Clinton remained in office and apologized for his actionsDuring his presidency: Oklahoma City Bombing – Domestic terrorist attack on federal government buildings on April 19, 1995. Most destructive terrorist attack in the U.S. prior to 9/11. Mastermind was Timothy McVeigh who hated the U.S. government “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” Policy – the official United States policy on military service by gays, bisexuals, and lesbians, instituted by the Clinton Administration on February 28, 1994 lasting until September 20, 2011U.S.S. Cole Bombing – a terrorist attack by Al Qaeda on October 12, 2000 against the United States Navy guided-missile destroyerPresident George W. Bush (2001-2009) The election of 2000 was decided by a mere 537 votes in the swing state of Florida – it was the closest presidential election in U.S. historyBush signed into law the No Child Left Behind Act, that reauthorized an earlier law, increased the standards of accountability for public school, required that all teachers be highly qualified and provided more flexibility for parents whose children attended schools which consistently failed to meet government standardsDuring his presidency:9/11 terrorist attacks- terrorist attacks carried out by Al Qaeda on the U.S. Two planes crashed into the World Trade Centers, one into the Pentagon and another in a field on the way to Washington, D.C.Response is a public outcry and War on Terror declarationAxis of evil is a term that Bush used to describe counties which he thought were involved with terrorism and weapons of mass destructionAfghanistan WarGoals were to take the Taliban out of government and capture Al QaedaTaliban were an Islamic fundamentalist faction that ruled Afghanistan for nearly ten years until ousted by the United States in 2002Al-Qaeda – Terrorist organization responsible for attacking the U.S. on 9/11 and the U.S.S. Cole. Lead by Osama Bin Laden until his death in 2011. He trained 9/11 terrorists in Afghanistan War in Iraq – President Bush orders the invasion of Iraq in 2003 because he believes they have weapons of mass destruction. Weapons are never found. Saddam Hussein captured, put on trial and executedPatriot Act – was passed after 9/11 and expanded the U.S. government law enforcement powers greatly; it increases the power of the government to investigate possible terrorist and criminal activity. Critics believe the law violates constitutional rights Hurricane Katrina in Louisiana – devastation and loss; years of recovery and government aid to rebuildMortgage Crisis from the number of foreclosures increasing and property values plummetingEntering the 2008 presidential election, the U.S. was in a ruthless recession from falling property values, investments slowing, businesses stopped hiring and expanding and overall spending declinedPresident Barack Obama (2009-2017)Barack Obama took the oath of office in January 2009 and chose to attack the recession with government spending. Early in his term he pushed an economic stimulus package through CongressThe stimulus package authorized massive government spending to provide financial relief to various businesses and industriesObama hoped such aid would prevent their financial collapse and also claimed it would help the overall economy by increasing production, consumer spending and employmentObama’s stimulus package succeeded in providing some immediate relief, but it failed to produce a full economic turnaround or sustained economic growthPresident Obama and Health Care ReformObama proposed a plan that would provide universal health care (health care for all U.S. citizens) and included a government insurance plan called the public optionSupporters cheered the proposed plan because it extended health care coverage to all citizens, critics attacked it a unaffordable and as a plan the would diminish the quality and availability of health care in the U.S.In March 2010, Congress passed a compromised version of Obama’s health care bill “Obama Care”Obama and the Middle EastArab Spring – also referred to as Arab revolutions. Starting in 2010, there was a revolutionary wave of both violent and non-violent demonstrations, protests, riots, coups and civil wars in North Africa and the Middle EastDepartment of Homeland Security – a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States to reduce America’s vulnerability to terrorism and minimize the damage and recover from the attacks that do occurTransportation Security Administration (TSA) – an agency of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security that has the authority over the security of the traveling public in the United States. It was created as a response to the 9/11 attacksGuantanamo Bay, Cuba, Detention Camp Guantanamo Bay Prison – a prison where inmates were treated wrongly and were convicted because they had suspicion of being a terroristExpanding HorizonsAIDS ResearchBreakthroughs in Genetic Research (Human Genome Project)Cancer ResearchStem Cell ResearchGenetically Modified FoodPersonal ComputerThe Internet – a worldwide network, originally developed by the U.S. Department of Defense, that links computers and allows almost immediate communication of texts, pictures, and soundsCell Phone and Smartphone Digital Divide – the gap between demographics and regions that have access to modern information and communications technology and those that don’t or have restricted accessSocial Media“Nothing is impossible, the word itself says ‘I’m Possible’” – Audrey HepburnXIX. Extended Response Rubric & ScoringExtended Response Scoring ScoreDescription4The student’s response:Constructs a sophisticated argumentSupports the argument with ample, well-chosen evidenceAddresses and demonstrates understanding of at least four of the documentsIntegrates a substantial amount of relevant information beyond what is provided in the documentsContains valid historical understandings and interpretations with no errors significant enough to detract from the argument3The student’s response:Constructs an acceptable argumentSupports the argument with sufficient and appropriate evidenceAddresses and demonstrates understanding of three of the documentsIntegrates adequate relevant information beyond what is provided in the documentsContains mostly valid historical understandings and interpretations, although less important ideas or details may be overlooked or misunderstood 2The student’s response:Constructs a weak and/or flawed argumentSupports the argument with limited and/or uneven evidence Addresses and demonstrates understanding of two of the documentsIntegrates some relevant information beyond what is provided in the documentsContains some valid historical understandings and interpretations, but a few significant errors may be present 1The student’s response:Must include at least one valid historical understanding or interpretation that addresses the prompt and is stated in the student’s own wordsMust demonstrate minimal understanding of the topic May contain several significant errors0The student’s response is incorrect, irrelevant, too brief to evaluate or blank You will receive the Extended Response checklist belowU.S. History Extended-Response ChecklistAs you write your response, remember these important points:Show an in-depth understanding of the topicSupport your ideas with well-chosen evidence from all of the relevant documentsSupport your ideas thoroughly with facts from your own knowledge of the topic, beyond the information that is given in the documentsCommunicate your ideas clearlyCompose a response that is long enough to fully answer the question; this will likely require multiple paragraphsFollow the steps below to help you write a successful extended responseStep 1: PlanningRead the question carefullyReview the documents and take notes that will help you create your responseThink about what you want to write before you beginUse the paper provided by your test administrator for planning your response and/or writing your rough draftStep 2: DraftingType your essay in the space providedUse the enter key to begin a paragraph, and then use the tab key to indent the paragraphInclude evidence from the documents as well as your own knowledge of the topic to support your ideasPut your ideas in a logical orderStep 3: Revising & Proofreading Review the requirements listed above to make sure you have covered all the pointsReread your responseDevelop your ideas in more detail if neededRearrange ideas or change words to make your meaning clearerReread your final draft and correct any errors you find Tips from Mrs. Clements:Write in complete sentences and make good vocabulary choices (the more history-related, the better!)Provide solid evidence to support what you are saying. No solid evidence or explanation: “The dead rats in the meat show what The Jungle was about.”Solid evidence, explanation and use of historical vocabulary: “Upton Sinclair was a muckraker whose intent was to expose the meatpacking industry and to create a new set of standards for the process of packaging food. The political cartoon in Document A shows dead rats being packaged in with the meat which portrays the disgusting shock factor of Sinclair’s novel, The Jungle.”Be prepared to use multiple different sources to answer one prompt. Make sure you provide evidence and connect your thoughts and ideas from all of the sources in order to answer the question.Reread what you wrote two-three times before you submit your response in order to check for errors.XX. Extended Response SampleThis section presents a task that includes five documents, one extended-response item, the U.S. History Extended-Response Checklist, information used to score the extended-response item, and samples of student responses.DOCUMENT 1 Montgomery Bus Boycott Begins On December 3 and 4, 1955, African American activists in Montgomery County distributed thousands of leaflets with this message. This is for Monday, December 5, 1955 Another Negro woman has been arrested and thrown in jail because she refused to get up out of her seat on the bus for a white person to sit down. It is the second time since the Claudette Colvin case that a Negro woman has been arrested for the same thing. This has to be stopped. Negroes have rights, too, for if Negroes did not ride the buses, they could not operate. Three-fourths of the riders are Negroes, yet we are arrested, or have to stand over empty seats. If we do not do something to stop these arrests, they will continue. The next time it may be you, or your daughter, or mother. This woman’s case will come up on Monday. We are, therefore, asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial. Don’t ride the buses to work, to town, to school, or anywhere on Monday. You can afford to stay out of school for one day if you have no other way to go except by bus. You can also afford to stay out of town for one day. If you work, take a cab, or walk. But please, children and grown-ups, don’t ride the bus at all on Monday. Please stay off of all buses MondayDOCUMENT 2 Supreme Court Decision Browder v. Gayle June 19, 1956After trial on the merits and careful consideration of the evidence… the Court, being fully advised in the promises, found in an opinion handed down on June 5, 1956, that the enforced segregation of Negro and white passengers on motor buses operating in the City of Montgomery as required by Section 301 (31a, 31b and 31c) of Title 48, Code of Alabama, 1940, as amended, and Sections 10 and 11 of Chapter 6 of the Code of the City of Montgomery, 1952, violates the Constitution and laws of the United States. [These statutes and ordinances] are unconstitutional and void in that they deny and deprive plaintiffs and other Negro citizens similarly situated of the equal protection of the laws and due process of law secured by the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. . . . The defendants . . . are hereby permanently enjoined and restrained [forbidden] from enforcing the aforesaid statutes and ordinances or any other statutes or ordinances which may require plaintiffs or any other Negroes similarly situated to submit to segregation in the bus transportational facilities in the City of Montgomery.DOCUMENT 3Excerpt from “Letter from Birmingham Jail” Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. wrote the “Letter from Birmingham Jail” in 1963. He was in jail for leading a nonviolent protest against racial discrimination. He wrote this letter in response to a statement made by eight white religious leaders challenging his protest methods. You may well ask, “Why direct action? Why sit-ins, marches and so forth? Isn’t negotiation a better path?” You are quite right in calling for negotiation. Indeed, this is the very purpose of direct action. Nonviolent direct action seeks to create such a crisis and foster such a tension that a community which has constantly refused to negotiate is forced to confront the issue. It seeks to so dramatize the issue that it can no longer be ignored. My citing the creation of tension as part of the work of the nonviolent-resister may sound rather shocking. But I must confess that I am not afraid of the word “tension.” I have earnestly opposed violent tension, but there is a type of constructive, nonviolent tension which is necessary for growth. The purpose of our direct-action program is to create a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door to negotiation. I therefore concur with you in your call for negotiation. Too long has our beloved Southland been bogged down in a tragic effort to live in monologue rather than dialogue. You express a great deal of anxiety over our willingness to break laws. This is certainly a legitimate concern. Since we so diligently urge people to obey the Supreme Court’s decision of 1954 outlawing segregation in the public schools, at first glance it may seem rather paradoxical for us consciously to break laws. One may well ask: “How can you advocate breaking some laws and obeying others?” The answer lies in the fact that there are two types of laws: just and unjust. I would be the first to advocate obeying just laws. One has not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey just laws. Conversely, one has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. I would agree with St. Augustine that “an unjust law is no law at all.” Any law that uplifts human personality is just. Any law that degrades human personality is unjust. All segregation statutes are unjust because segregation distorts the soul and damages the personality. It gives the segregator a false sense of superiority and the segregated a false sense of inferiority. I hope you are able to see the distinction I am trying to point out. In no sense do I advocate evading or defying the law, as would the rabid segregationist. That would lead to anarchy. One who breaks an unjust law must do so openly, lovingly, and with a willingness to accept the penalty. I submit that an individual who breaks a law that conscience tells him is unjust and who willingly accepts the penalty of imprisonment in order to arouse the conscience of the community over its injustice, is in reality expressing the highest respect for law. The way of nonviolence became an integral part of our struggle. If this philosophy had not emerged, by now many streets of the South would, I am convinced, be flowing with blood. And I am further convinced that if our white brothers dismiss as “rabble-rousers” and “outside agitators” those of us who employ nonviolent direct action, and if they refuse to support our nonviolent efforts, millions of Negroes will, out of frustration and despair, seek solace and security in black-nationalist ideologies—a development that would inevitably lead to a frightening racial nightmare. DOCUMENT 4Photo of Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C., August 1963Source: Library of CongressDOCUMENT 5Excerpts from President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Radio and Television Remarks Upon Signing the Civil Rights Bill, July 2, 1964 My fellow Americans: I am about to sign into law the Civil Rights Act of 1964. I want to take this occasion to talk to you about what that law means to every American. We believe that all men are entitled to the blessings of liberty. Yet millions are being deprived of those blessings—not because of their own failures, but because of the color of their skin. The reasons are deeply imbedded in history and tradition and the nature of man. We can understand—without rancor or hatred—how this all happened. But it cannot continue. Our Constitution, the foundation of our Republic, forbids it. The principles of our freedom forbid it. Morality forbids it. And the law I will sign tonight forbids it. The purpose of the law is simple. It does not restrict the freedom of any American, so long as he respects the rights of others. It does not give special treatment to any citizen. It does say the only limit to a man’s hope for happiness, and for the future of his children, shall be his own ability. It does say that there are those who are equal before God shall now also be equal in the polling booths, in the classrooms, in the factories, and in hotels, restaurants, movie theaters, and other places that provide service to the public. I am taking steps to implement the law under my constitutional obligation to “take care that the laws are faithfully executed.” We must not approach the observance and enforcement of this law in a vengeful spirit. Its purpose is not to punish. Its purpose is not to divide, but to end divisions—divisions which have all lasted too long. Its purpose is national, not regional. Its purpose is to promote a more abiding commitment to freedom, a more constant pursuit of justice, and a deeper respect for human dignity. We will achieve these goals because most Americans are law-abiding citizens who want to do what is right. This is why the Civil Rights Act relies first on voluntary compliance, then on the efforts of local communities and States to secure the rights of citizens. It provides for the national authority to step in only when others cannot or will not do the job. This Civil Rights Act is a challenge to all of us to go to work in our communities and our States, in our homes and in our hearts, to eliminate the last vestiges of injustice in our beloved country. So tonight I urge every public official, every religious leader, every business and professional man, every workingman, every housewife—I urge every American—to join in this effort to bring justice and hope to all our people—and to bring peace to our land. My fellow citizens, we have come now to a time of testing. We must not fail.The following question requires you to write an extended response that integrates information from documents 1 through 5 with your knowledge of U.S. history. Prompt: Analyze the role of civil rights activists and leaders in causing change at the federal level. In your response, address the effectiveness of federal action on civil rights issues during the period from 1954 through 1965.The following sample shows a student response typical of those which received a score of 4. A score of 4 is given when a student constructs a sophisticated argument, thoroughly supports the argument with evidence from both the documents and his or her outside knowledge, and communicates his or her ideas effectively. The response should include no errors significant enough to detract from the argument.Student Sample:“During the period from 1954 through 1965 the issue of Civil Rights was a “hot button” topic in the United States. Many of these issued were addressed either through legislation passed during this time period or via Supreme Court rulings that overthrew prior cases (Plessy v. Ferguson) which had allowed segregation and thus Jim Crow laws to be passed. In addition, we began to see African-Americans participate in non-violent demonstrations and protests designed to call attention to the plight of African-Americans. These protests took place in many different parts of the United States, however, they primarily took place in the South. In 1954, leaders such as Thurgood Marshall led the fight in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Marshall successfully argued against “separate but equal.” Chief Justice Earl Warren ruled that separate but equal was inherently unequal. This brought an end to segregation in public schools bringing African-Americans and whites to the same schools. While the ruling in Brown v. Board of Education was seen as a victory, in the South a policy known as “Massive Resistance” was put into place by Sen. H. Byrd of Virginia to try and not comply with the court ruling to desegregate at “all deliberate speed.” Other civil rights activists such as James Meredith -the first African-American who integrated Ole Miss (University of Mississippi) as well as the Little Rock Nine, and school children like Ruby Bridges were lesser known, but no less important to the movement. In 1956, the high court ruled that the segregation of buses was also illegal. This case stemmed from an Alabama law which required the segregation of the races on intrastate buses. The Court sided with a Federal court which ruled that the segregated buses violated the due process and equal protection clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. During the early 1960s, the Sit-In at coffee houses and lunch counters became one method by which African-Americans made their points to society about the inequities facing Blacks during this time period. Among the leaders of the Civil Rights movement, individuals differed on the methods of which to fight for civil rights. Whereas, people like Stokley Carmichael and Huey Newton, who organized the Black Panthers, agreed with a more violent means to achieve their goals, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Rosa Parks adhered to non-violent methods, such as civil disobedience. Rosa Parks act of defiance led to her being arrested for refusing to surrender her seat on a bus in Alabama to a white man, despite the fact that she was seated in the correct place for an African-American. As the bus filled, the white man ordered Ms. Parks to surrender her seat. She politely refused. This resulted in her arrest and led directly to a prime example of non-violent resistance -the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Meanwhile, leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr. targeted Birmingham, Alabama for non-violent protests because he considered Birmingham to be the most segregated city in the United States. While in Birmingham, protesters, many of which had younger school children, women, as well as whites, saw dogs attack, fire hoses sprayed to control the crowd, and others were beaten for their involvement. During these protests, which included marching, sit-ins, and non-violent protest, Dr. King was arrested and taken to jail where he composed the Letter from the Birmingham Jail. The letter was in response to white clergy who opposed King’s methods of breaking laws, etc. King, very eloquently, in the words of St. Augustine, argues “an unjust law is no law at all.” Furthermore, according to Dr. King’s civil disobedience was an effective means of working towards civil rights because it will raise awareness when people are arrested for breaking unjust laws. At the March on Washington, King gave his most famous speech the “I Have A Dream” speech and it proved to be the highlight of the march. Following the assassination of President Kennedy, Lyndon Baines Johnson pushed for civil rights legislation. Finally in July 1964 the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed and signed into law. This act was to ensure the blessings of liberty will be secured for all Americans, regardless of color. It goes on to state that those who are equal before God will now be equal in polling places, classrooms, as well as other public places. It brought an end to the era of Jim Crow and brought African-Americans into the polling places and into elected office in time. Ultimately, the Civil Rights movement brought an end to the segregationist laws that were in place, primarily in the South. It brought liberty to African Americans.”Why they got a 4:This response develops a sophisticated argument describing in detail the role of civil rights activists and leaders in causing change at the federal level during the period from 1954 through 1965. The student effectively argues that “the Civil Rights movement brought an end to the segregationist laws that were in place.” The response incorporates, either indirectly or directly, all five documents and a significant amount of outside information beyond what is presented in the documents. The explanations of the diversity of approaches among civil rights activists and the key roles of both leaders and ordinary citizens within the movement help this response reach the level of sophistication needed to score a 4. The student supports the argument with information from the documents provided. For example, in the third paragraph, the student not only observes that the Supreme Court struck down the segregation of buses, but also describes the court’s reasoning, that the law “violated the due process and equal protection clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.” In the second to the last paragraph, the response correctly summarizes the goal of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and its importance in ending “the era of Jim Crow.” The student makes extensive use of outside knowledge to further the argument. The first and second paragraphs describe the legal background to Jim Crow laws including Plessy v. Ferguson and the resistance in the South to the implementation of Brown v. Board of Education. In this section, the student addresses the effectiveness of federal action on civil rights.Remember, to believe in yourself!“What lies behind you and what lies in front of you, pales in comparison to what lies inside of you”– Ralph Waldo Emerson ................
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