INTRODUCTION



Outline of Aristotelian Concept of Tragedy from Poetics

Aristotle's ideas about tragedy were recorded in his book of literary theory titled Poetics. In it, he has a great deal to say about the structure, purpose, and intended effect of tragedy. His ideas have been adopted, disputed, expanded, and discussed for several centuries now.

Aristotle’s definition of tragedy: “Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions. . . . .”

According to Aristotle’s definition, tragedy is the “imitation of an action” (mimesis) according to “the law of probability or necessity.” Aristotle indicates that the medium of tragedy is drama, not narrative; tragedy “shows” rather than “tells.” In this sense, tragedy is higher and more philosophical than history because history simply relates what has happened while tragedy dramatizes what may happen. History thus deals with the particular, and tragedy with the universal. Events that have happened may be due to accident or coincidence; they may be particular to a specific situation and not be part of a clear cause-and-effect chain. Therefore they have little relevance for others. Tragedy, however, is rooted in the fundamental order of the universe; it creates a cause-and-effect chain that clearly reveals what may happen at any time or place because that is the way the world operates. Tragedy therefore arouses not only pity but also fear, because the audience can envision themselves within this cause-and-effect chain.

It might be worth noting here that Greek drama was not considered "entertainment," pure and simple; it had a communal function--to contribute to the good health of the community. This is why dramatic performances were a part of religious festivals and community celebrations. From a literary perspective, a tragedy concerns MORE than a “disastrous event.” A tragedy also involves the concept of pathos, “an element in experience or in artistic representation evoking pity or compassion.” In the interest of simplicity, we will concentrate on Aristotle’s notions of plot and character.

I. Plot: According to Aristotle, plot is the “first principle,” the most important feature of tragedy. Aristotle defines plot as “the arrangement of the incidents”: i.e., not the story itself but the way the incidents are presented to the audience, the structure of the play.

A. must be “a whole,” with a beginning, middle, and end

i. beginning, or the incentive moment, must start the cause-and-effect chain

ii. middle, or climax, must be caused by earlier incidents and itself cause the incidents that follow it

iii. end, or resolution, must be caused by the preceding events and solve or resolve the problem created during the incentive moment.

iv. desis cause-and-effect chain leading from the incentive moment to the climax the “tying up,” in modern terminology the complication

v. lusis the more rapid cause-and-effect chain from the climax to the resolution the “unraveling,” in modern terminology the dénouement

B. must be “complete,” having “unity of action”

i. structurally self-contained incidents bound together by internal necessity

ii. each action leading inevitably to the next with no outside intervention, no deus ex machina

C. must be “of a certain magnitude”

i. quantitatively (length, complexity)

ii. qualitatively (“seriousness” and universal significance)

D. may be either simple or complex, although complex is better

i. simple plots have only a “change of fortune” (catastrophe)

ii. complex plots have both “reversal of intention” (peripeteia) and “recognition” (anagnorisis) connected with the catastrophe

1. peripeteia and anagnorisis dependent upon surprise

2. peripeteia occurs when a character produces an effect opposite to that which he intended to produce

3. anagnorisis “is a change from ignorance to knowledge”

4. peripeteia leads directly to the anagnorisis

5. combined they create the catastrophe leading to the final “scene of suffering”

II. Character: According to Aristotle, character should support plot, i.e., personal motivations will be intricately connected parts of the cause-and-effect chain of actions producing pity and fear in the audience.

A. The Tragic Hero

i. occupy a "high" status position

ii. embody nobility and virtue

iii. renowned and prosperous, so his change of fortune can be from good to bad

iv. great, he/she is not perfect; audience must identify with the tragic hero

v. commits some error of judgment or possesses some character flaw will trigger tragedy

B. The Tragic Flaw

i. hamartia or error of judgment or character flaw usually translated as "tragic flaw" (The meaning of the Greek word is closer to “mistake” than to “flaw”)

ii. often involves hubris (which is defined as a sort of arrogant pride or over-confidence)

iii. downfall partially hero’s fault, the result of free choice rather than malignant fate

C. The Tragic Fall

i. protagonist will mistakenly bring about his own downfall

ii. fall not because he is sinful or morally weak, but because he does not know enough

iii. peripeteia (above) is really more self-destructive actions taken in blindness, leading to results diametrically opposed to those that were intended (often termed tragic irony)

iv. anagnorisis (above) is the gaining of the essential knowledge that was previously lacking

D. The Punishment

i. exceeds the crime

ii. catastrophe is not wholly deserved.

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