MMR 8th Edition Instructor's Manual
Mass Media Research: An Introduction, 8th Edition
Instructor’s Manual
[pic]
Roger Wimmer & Joseph Dominick
With assistance from Hyung-jin Woo and Yeora Kim
For more information, see:
Chapter 1 – Science and Research
Overview
This chapter describes what research is and what procedures are needed to conduct research, which is defined as: an attempt to discover something. All people conduct research every day in their daily tasks to reach a decision about a variety of events. It is important to know how to conduct research. The most appropriate method of knowing for mass media research is the scientific method, which is public, objective, empirical, systematic, cumulative, and predictive.
Although the two major research sectors, academic and private, are different in terms of the approach and objectives (purposes), the two sectors have common research goals: to understand problems and to predict the future.
Eight research steps are described in detail in this chapter. The typical eight research steps are the following: select a problem; review previous studies; develop hypotheses or research questions; determine research design; collect data; analyze and interpret the results; present the results; replicate the study.
Researchers can find research ideas from several sources, including professional (academic) journals, magazines and periodicals, research summaries, archive data, the Internet, and everyday situations. The Internet is a useful source to find and select research topics. The Internet provides a huge amount of information for researchers.
When researchers determine topic relevance, they should ask themselves eight basic questions about research feasibility, significance of the problem, validity, the approach, and ethics. Also, replication is important because the results of a single study provide information about only what may exist or may not exist. To establish scientific facts, studies should be replicated a number of times.
Since many media researchers use research suppliers and field services when they conduct a research project, it is important to understand the term “incidence” and how to calculate cost per interview (CPI). This chapter shows how to compute a CPI in detail.
Scientific research must be internally and externally valid. Researchers must be aware of the potential intervening variables that ruin internal validity. They must also pay attention to problems with external validity. External validity means that the results of a study can be generalized across populations and different settings.
Exercises
1. Obtain a recent issue of the Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media and Critical Studies is Mass Communication. Discuss the different characteristics of the both journals.
2. Encourage students to use search engines on the Internet to find additional information about all of the topics discusses in the text. In addition, have the students read “Internet Search Engine Tips” in the “Readings” section on .
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following terms is generally not accepted by a researcher who follows the scientific method:
a) Proposition
b) Theory
c) Operational definition
d) Undisputed fact
2. “It is impossible to get an A on a college test—my brother said so.” is an example of the:
a) Method of intuition
b) Method of authority
c) Method of tenacity
d) Scientific method
3. When relationships among variables are invariant (always the same) under given conditions, researchers may formulate a:
a) Theory
b) Proposition
c) Law
d) Constitutive definition
4. A bank card for an ATM machine is the same as a proposition is to a:
a) Constitution definition
b) Theory
c) Concept
d) Operational definition
5. Which of the following statements regarding “two sectors of research” is correct?
a) Nongovernmental companies and their research consultants conduct private sector research
b) Academic research is generally more expensive to conduct than research in the private sector
c) Scholars from colleges and universities conduct only academic sector research
d) Academic research and private sector research are independent of each other
6. The early model of mass communication suggestion that a mass communicator need only “shoot” messages at an audience and that those messages would produce preplanned and almost universal effects is known as the:
a) Theory of universal effect
b) Stimulus-response model
c) Hypodermic needle model
d) Universal and preplanned model
7. Which of the following statements about the advantages of secondary analysis is correct?
a) Using available data is expensive
b) There are questionnaires or instruments to construct and validate
c) Interviewers and other personnel need to be paid
d) There are no costs for data collection or subjects
8. Which statement regarding characteristics of the scientific method is correct?
a) Scientific research is public
b) Science is constitutive
c) Science is systematic and temporary
d) Science is critical and cultural
9. Which event or social trend encouraged the growth of mass media research?
a) World War II
b) Vietnam War
c) Violence and sexual content in radio industry
d) increased competition among the media for advertising dollars
True/False
1. Scientific advancement depends on privately held information. (F)
2. A constitutive definition defines a word by substituting other words or concepts for it. (T)
3. A theory’s adequacy lies in its ability to predict a phenomenon or event successfully. (T)
4. In scientific research, it is important for a single research study to stand alone. (F)
5. Empiricism derives from the Greek word for “experience.” (T)
Fill in the Blank
1. Statistical procedures or formulas are called (algorithms).
2. A user of the (method of tenacity) follows the logic that something is true because it has always been true.
3. The (method of authority) promotes a belief in something because a trusted source, such as a parent, a news correspondent, or a teacher, says it is true.
4. A (theory) is a set of related propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relationships among concepts.
5. According to the text, any question can be answered as long as there are (operational definitions) for the independent or dependent variables.
Short Answer
1. How does the scientific method differ from the other methods of knowing?
2. Explain the similarities and differences among academic and private sector research.
3. How does the phrase, “Let the chips fall where they may” relate to research?
Chapter 2 - Elements of Research
Overview
This chapter describes important elements of research, including concept, construct, variables, measurement, scales, reliability, and validity. To conduct effective research, a researcher needs to have a clear understanding of these elements.
A concept is a term that expresses an abstract idea formed by generalizing from particulars and summarizing related observations. Researchers can simplify research by using concepts that helps them formulate a general and inclusive term. A construct is a combination of concepts. Variables are used to describe the phenomena and events that can be measured in empirical world. Independent variables are varied by the researcher, whereas dependent variables are the ones that researcher wants to find out about. Researchers can observe the phenomena or events by a clear statement of what is to be observed, called an operational definition.
Measurement is an assignment of numerals to persons, objects, or characteristics. In this chapter, four levels of measurement are described. The nominal level simply assigns numerals to the objects without mathematical significance. The ordinal level ranks objects according to certain orders, such as from smallest to largest. The scale is at the interval level when the intervals between adjacent points are equal. The ratio level, the highest level of measurement, has all the properties of interval scales and plus a true zero point.
Measurement of some variables requires scales. This chapter describes Thurstone scales, Guttman scales, Likert scales, and semantic differential scales. Likert scales and semantic differential scales are the most commonly used scales in mass media research.
A measurement must be both reliable and valid to be useful in any research procedures. We can say a measure is reliable if it consistently gives the same answer. Reliability consists of three components: stability, internal consistency, and equivalency. To assess the reliability of measurements, researcher can use the test-retest method with the correlation coefficient. The split-half technique and the cross-test reliability method can be used to examine the internal consistency and the equivalency component of reliability. Also, intercoder reliability is used in the case of content analysis.
A valid measure measures what it is supposed to measure. Four major types of validity are described in detail: face validity, predictive validity, concurrent validity, and construct validity. Reliability and validity are related. Reliability is a necessary condition to establish validity, but it is not a sufficient condition. A measurement can be reliable even if it is not valid. It is important to remember that a measurement must be both reliable and valid to be used in the research.
Exercises
1. Have students find an article from any empirically based academic journal and summarize the four basic elements of the research process: concepts and constructs, measurement, variables, and scales in the research paper.
2. Search the Internet regarding qualitative and quantitative research.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following does the researcher systematically vary?
a) Independent variables
b) Dependent variables
c) Control variables
d) Internal variables
2. To eliminate unwanted influences, which of the following do researchers use?
a) Independent variables
b) Dependent variables
c) Control variables
d) Predictor variables
3. Which of the following variables can take on any value, including fractions?
a) Discrete
b) Dependent
c) Continuous
d) Dummy
4. Another name for Thurstone Scale is:
a) Discrete interval scale
b) Equal-appearing interval scale
c) Monotonic interval scale
d) Continuous interval scale
5. One of the most commonly use scale in mass media research is the:
a) Guttman Scale
b) Thurstone Scale
c) Likert Scale
d) Anderson Scale
6. The research procedures and methodologies used by field services or research suppliers in private sector research is audited by:
a) The American Marketing Association
b) The American Statistical Association
c) The Research Association of America
d) No one
7. Which term asks if a study really investigated what it was supposed to investigate?
a) Operational validity
b) Internal validity
c) Post hoc validity
d) External validity
8. The deterioration of research instruments or methods over the course of a study is called:
a) Maturation
b) Mortality
c) Instrument decay
d) Statistical regression
9. What is often used to verify subjects’ responses?
a) Cross-validating
b) Homogeneity
c) Artifact testing
d) Multiple response question
True/False
1. Qualitative research uses larger samples of subjects or respondents. (F)
2. Concepts simplify the research process by combining particular characteristics, objects, or people into more general categories. (T)
3. The ordinal level is the weakest form of measurement. (F)
4. The numerical midpoint on a Likert Scale is 4. (F)
5. One way to test internal consistency in a measurement scale is through a test known as the split-half technique. (T)
Fill in the Blank
1. A (concept) is a term that expresses an abstract idea formed by generalizing from particulars and summarizing related observations.
2. (Dependent variables) are observed and their values presumed to depend on the effects of the independent variables.
3. (Qualitative research) involves several methods of data collection, such as focus groups, field observation, in-depth interviews and case studies.
4. (Triangulation) refers to the use of both qualitative methods, and quantitative methods to fully understand the nature of a research problem.
5. The term (isomorphism) means identify or similarity of form or structure.
Short Answer
1. What is the advantage of including marker variables in a research study?
2. Explain the concept of research “noise.”
3. Explain the different levels of measurement.
4. Why are operational definitions so important in research? What types of problems can a researcher encounter if operational definitions are not used in a research study?
Chapter 3 - Research Ethics
Overview
The ethical problems of doing scientific research should not be overlooked. Considering ethical problems is vital for doing any research project. There are many important ethical concerns in the research process, including why research must be ethical, general ethical theories, ethical principles, specific ethical problems, and ethics in data analysis and reporting.
Since most mass media research involves human beings, researchers must not violate the rights of participants. Ethical research is the right thing to do. In this chapter, three general types of theories are discussed that have evolved concerning ethics: rule-based or deontological theories, balancing or teleological theories, and relativistic theories.
Four relevant ethical principles are mentioned: autonomy or self-determination, nonmaleficence, beneficence, and justice. Autonomy suggests that researchers should respect the rights, values, and decisions of other people. As a way to guarantee this principle, researchers in mass media use informed consent.
Nonmaleficence means that it is wrong to intentionally inflict harm on others, while beneficence stipulates that a researcher should remove any existing harm and provide benefits to others. Justice is related to the equal rights of participants, suggesting that participants should be treated equally and all benefits should be shared with all who are qualified.
The chapter mentions specific ethical problems: voluntary participation, informed consent, concealment, deception, and protection of privacy. As mentioned earlier, research participation should be a voluntary process and informed consent provides information to the participants to aid them in making a choice. The researcher should warn of any possible discomfort or unpleasantness in the research process and obtain the consent form from the participants.
Concealment involves the withholding of certain information from the participants. Deception is intentionally providing false information. Although there are arguments concerning the pros and cons of both practices, these two techniques should not be used indiscriminately. Researchers can use two ways to protect the privacy of participants: a promise of anonymity or confidentiality. Researchers are responsible for having a moral and ethical obligation in data analysis and reporting. Questionnaire responses and experimental observations should not be fabricated, altered, or discarded.
Online research raises special ethical problems. Passive analysis of online content generally raises fewer ethical issues than does active research where the investigator tries to gather information directly from online users.
Exercises
1. Visit the Institutional Research Board at your university and let your students to know about the history of these boards and why all universities use them.
2. Examine the APA’s Code of Conduct at ethics/code
Multiple Choice
1. An example of a deontological theory would be:
a) Utilitarianism
b) Situational ethics
c) Categorical imperative
d) Golden mean
2. Maximizing good and minimizing harm is the key concept of:
a) Categorical imperative
b) Relativism
c) Egoism
d) Utilitarianism
3. The ethical principle of beneficence means:
a) Do no harm
b) Treat all people equally
c) Confer benefits on all
d) None of the above
4. Voluntary participation is less of a problem in:
a) Mail surveys
b) Focus groups
c) Lab experiments
d) Qualitative research
5. Concealment and deception occur most frequently in:
a) Focus groups
b) Field observation
c) Telephone surveys
d) Experiments
6. An Institutional Review Board (IRB):
a) Safeguards the rights of researchers
b) Creates codes of ethics for researchers
c) Safeguards the rights of human subjects
d) Makes sure research proposals use appropriate research methods
7. When reporting and analyzing data, researchers should:
a) Not plagiarize the work of others
b) Not tamper with data
c) Share findings and methods with other researchers
d) All of the above
True/False
1. Formalized codes of ethics are common among professional organizations involved in mass media research. (F)
2. A researcher should submit an article for publication consideration to only one journal at a time. (T)
3. Anonymity means that the names of respondents cannot be linked to their responses. (T)
4. John Stuart Mill developed the categorical imperative. (F)
5. A relativistic ethical theory argues that there is only one right way of behaving. (F)
6. There are specific social science ethical principles that guide researchers who gather data online. (F)
Fill in the Blank
1. The principle of (nonmaleficence) says it is wrong for a researcher to intentionally inflict harm on another.
2. Rule-based theories are also known as (deontological) theories.
3. The principle of (justice) holds that people should be treated equally.
4. (Informed consent) means that people must know enough about a research project so they can make an intelligent choice as to participate or not.
5. Researchers should promise (confidentiality); that is, respondents should be assured that even though they can be identified as individuals, their names will never be publicly associated with the information they provide.
6. “The greatest good for the greatest number” summarizes the (utilitarian) principle.
Short Answer
1. Why should researchers be concerned about ethical behavior?
2. What is the difference between concealment and deception?
3. Discuss some of the problem that can occur when research is done with students as respondents or subjects.
4. What would you do if you were involved in a research project that appeared to violate ethical codes or guidelines?
Chapter 4 - Sampling
Overview
Some scientific research examines every member of a population, a process called a census. However, in most situations, it is impossible to examine every member of a population. In these instances, researchers draw a sample from the population. A sample is defined as “a subset of the population that is representative of the entire population.”
There are two types of samples: probability samples and nonprobability samples. A probability sample follows mathematical guidelines and allows researcher to calculate the estimated sampling error present in a study. Probability samples include random samples, where each subjects in a population has an equal chance of being selected; systematic random samples, stratified samples, and cluster samples.
In addition, this chapter explains several types of nonprobability samples, including available samples, volunteer samples, purposive samples, and quota samples. The process of sampling and the advantages/disadvantages of each sampling methods are described in detail.
Sampling methods must be selected carefully by considering issues such as the purpose of the study, cost versus value, time constraints, and the amount of acceptable sampling error.
In this chapter, two concepts related to sampling error are described—confidence level and confidence interval. In addition, the process of computing sampling error is explained.
Exercises
1. Search the Internet for “sampling.” One good website to get you started is located at: .
2. Using a table of “random numbers,” let students generate a simple random sample from the students’ list in your class or department.
Multiple Choice
1. The biggest difference between a probability and a non-probability sample is:
a) Non-probability samples have smaller measurement errors
b) Probability samples have smaller measurement errors
c) There is no sampling error in a probability sample
d) It is impossible to calculate the amount of sampling error present in a non-probability sample.
2. Which of following is not an example of a non-probability sample?
a) Convenience sample
b) Multistage sample
c) Volunteer sample
d) Quota sample
3. Which of the following is not an advantage of a simple random sample?
a) Detailed knowledge of population not required
b) External validity can be inferred
c) Cheaper than other methods
d) Representative group easily attainable
4. Sampling interval is most closely associated with what kind of sample?
a) Simple random
b) Quota
c) Systematic random
d) Convenience
5. All other things equal, as sample size increases:
a) Standard error decreases
b) Confidence level increases
c) Confidence level decreases
d) Random error becomes constant
6. Which of the following research techniques usually uses the smallest sample size?
a) Multivariate studies
b) Panel surveys
c) Focus groups
d) Phone surveys
7. Which of the following is not an advantage of a stratified random sample?
a) Representativeness of relevant variables is assured
b) No prior knowledge of population is needed
c) Sampling error is reduced
d) Selection is made from a homogenous group
True/False
1. A census is a subset of the population. (F)
2. Non-probability samples are usually adequate for pilot studies. (T)
3. The confidence interval and the confidence level are two different names for the same concept. (F)
4. One of the problems associated with random digit dialing (RDD) is the large number of invalid telephone numbers generated. (T)
5. Sampling error occurs when measurements taken from a sample do not correspond to what exists in the population. (T)
Fill in the Blank
1. The process of examining every member of a population is called a (census).
2. A characteristic of the population is called a (parameter).
3. A telephone directory is an example of a (sampling frame).
4. To calculate the (.95) confidence interval, you would imply the standard error by 1.96.
5. A statistical procedure known as (weighting) or (sample balancing) is sometimes used to overcome sampling inadequacies.
Short Answer
1. Differentiate among the major types of probability sampling.
2. What are the stages in multistage sampling?
Chapter 5 - Qualitative Research Methods
Overview
This chapter describes qualitative research methods. Three basic paradigms are discussed: the positivist paradigm, the interpretive paradigm, and the critical paradigm. The positivist paradigm, which underpins quantitative research methods, involves such concepts as quantification, hypotheses, and objective measurements. The interpretive paradigm, which underpins qualitative methods, concerns how people create meaning in everyday lives and try to interpret the world. The critical paradigm is interested in understanding the distribution of power in society.
The process of qualitative research in mass media is described in terms of data analysis, reliability, and validity in qualitative data. Two popular forms of data analysis are the constant comparative method and the analytic induction method. Five common qualitative research methods are next presented in detail: field observations, focus groups, intensive interviews, case studies, and ethnography.
Field observation involves studying a phenomenon in a natural setting. Field observation is often used as a pilot study to identify important frames for a hypothesis and to provide useful preliminary information. The role of an observer is important when deciding between covert/overt participation and observation. In field observation, researchers should choose the research site carefully to avoid subject reactivity problems.
Focus groups are similar to group interviewing and they are often used to understand respondents’ attitudes and behaviors. The focus group method also can be used as a pilot study to gather preliminary information about some phenomena. The role of the moderator in this method is crucial. A focus group is appropriate to answer why or how questions instead of how much or how many. Online focus groups are widely used in private sector research but the technique has many problems.
Intensive interviews, or in-depth interviews, are similar to the one-on-one interview approach. Even though intensive interviews have several disadvantages, including lack of generalizability and interviewer bias problems, these methods are useful to collect in-depth and detailed information. Also, researchers can collect responses that are more accurate on sensitive issues by building rapport with participants.
Case studies are conducted to understand or explain a phenomenon by using as many data sources as possible. The case study method is useful for suggesting why something has occurred. A wealth of information and tremendous detail of information are advantages of case studies. However, sometimes it is very hard to analyze and summarize these huge amounts of information.
Ethnography involves intensive field research that uses a variety of data gathering techniques to examine a problem from the point of view of the participants. Ethnography can be either descriptive or critical.
There is no single approach to writing a qualitative research report because there are so many variations of the method. However, most qualitative reports include an introduction (an overview of the project), methods (data collection approach), the research setting, sampling procedures, data collection procedures, findings, and conclusion.
Exercises
1. The focus group procedure can be demonstrated easily in your classroom by allowing the students to conduct a focus group for a class assignment. Have students select a topic of interest to them and conduct a focus group in the classroom using other students from the class. One thing students will learn is that moderating a focus group is not as easy as it may seem.
2. Search “ethnography” in the Internet to discover the many ways the term is used, investigated, and reported.
3. Choose a public place where people watch TV (a bar, for example). Become a covert observer and see if you find rules or norms that are followed in this setting.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following was not listed as a step in the constant comparative technique?
a) Comparative assignment of incidents to categories
b) Elaboration and refinement of categories
c) Searching for relationships with data from similar studies
d) Simplifying and integrating data into a coherent theoretical structure
2. Which of the following is not a true statement about field observation?
a) One type of field observation is called covert participant
b) It is usually inexpensive
c) Observe bias may favor certain preconceptions
d) The observer may influence the behavior of subjects
3. Which of the following is a disadvantage of focus group research?
a) One participant can dominate the conversation
b) Respondents tend to give incomplete answers to questions
c) The subjects must be articulate to participate
d) The results obtained cannot be generalized to an entire population
4. Upon what type of reasoning do most case studies depend?
a) Deductive
b) Inductive
c) Reductive
d) Pluralistic
5. Which of the following is not an advantage of using a notebook computer in field observations?
a) Storing field notes as text and structuring data as files
b) Scanning field notes for key words and phrases
c) Performing complex statistical functions, such as ANOVA, on field notes
d) Processing field notes on location
6. Which of the following is a problem in personal interviewing?
a) Unstructured question format
b) Multistage sampling
c) The possibility of interviewer bias
d) Low response rate
7. Which of the following is not a factor to help build credibility in qualitative research?
a) Audit trail
b) Expert sources
c) Research team
d) Multiple methods of data collection
True/False
1. Subjects who are required to answer a long questionnaire are more likely to have negative attitudes about the interview experience. (T)
2. In-depth interviews may provide more accurate responses to sensitive issues than do other survey techniques. (T)
3. One advantage of focus groups is that the results can always be generalized to the population. (F)
4. Case studies are most valuable when researchers want to collect a lot of information. (T)
5. Both positivist and interpretive researchers consider multiple realities in their studies. (F)
6. Ethnographic studies are generally conducted over long periods of time. (T)
Fill in the Blank
1. Case studies can be described as (particularistic) since they focus on a specific situation, event, program, or phenomenon.
2. (Member checks) is a technique for checking reliability and validity of qualitative research.
3. (Snowball) sampling is a technique where a field observation participant refers the researcher to other potential participants who, in turn, refers her or him to other potential participants.
4. The field researcher must have a/an (exit) plan so that leaving the setting of the study will not be upsetting to the subjects.
5. (Ethnographic research) can be similar to a case study, although field observation is usually the central method used, but the name is often misused as a synonym for qualitative research in general.
6. One of the problems with online focus groups is that the moderator cannot see the (nonverbal behaviors) of the group.
Short Answer
1. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of field observations.
2. Some researchers claim that, excluding data collection, there are no fundamental differences between qualitative and quantitative research. What is your opinion about this perspective?
3. Describe a project where a qualitative method would serve as a first step for a quantitative study.
4. Describe a project where a qualitative study would follow a quantitative study.
Chapter 6 - Content Analysis
Overview
This chapter discusses content analysis. Content analysis is popular with mass media researchers because it is an efficient way to investigate the content of the media. Modern content analysis developed from research by the military in World War II. After the war, researchers used content analysis to study propaganda in newspapers and radio. Mass media researchers in academic areas adopted this method to analyze content on cultural products, such as magazine, newspaper, radio, and TV.
There are five main purposes of content analysis but remember that it is difficult to classify and categorize studies as varied and diverse as those using content analysis. Content analysis is useful for: 1) describing communication content; 2) testing hypotheses of message characteristics; 3) comparing media content to the “real world;” 4) assessing the image of particular groups in society; and 5) establishing a starting point for studies of media effects.
Despite its usefulness, content analysis alone cannot serve as a basis for making statements about the effects of content on an audience. That is, a certain amount of exposure to a TV commercial is not equal to the same amount of product purchasing by the audience. In addition, there are some additional limitations of content analysis: 1) different researchers may use varying definition to measure a single concept; 2) many topics or characters receive little exposure in the mass media; and 3) content analysis is frequently time-consuming and expensive.
Content analysis is conducted in several discrete stages: 1) formulating the research question or hypothesis; 2) defining the population in question; 3) selecting an appropriate sample from the population; 4) selecting and defining a unit of analysis 5) constructing the categories of content to be analyzed; 6) establishing a quantification system; 7) training coders and conducting a pilot study; 8) coding the content according to establishing definitions; 9) analyzing the collected data; and 10) drawing conclusions and searching for indications.
In content analysis, reliability and validity checks are very important before researchers begin the main data collection phase of their project. This chapter introduces several formulas to compute intercoder reliability. After selecting a subsample (usually 10%-20%) from the population, researchers should measure the degree of agreement among coders in terms of Holsti’s percentage of agreement, Scott pi, or Cohen’s kappa. As a rule, most published content analyses report a minimum reliability coefficient of about 90% or above when using Holsti’s formula, and about .75 or above when using pi or alpha.
This chapter also covers Internet research as related to content analysis. However, although there are many areas to investigate, including the content of banner or pop-up ads, chat room discussions, personal web pages, email, homepages of commercial media, political campaign websites, and online news coverage, reliability may be questioned because there is no sampling frame and the content of existing sites is constantly changing. Internet research provides content analysts with many challenges.
Exercises
1. Have students conduct a content analysis of the front page of the school newspaper.
2. Show a 15-minute clip of “Cops” to your students and code the ethnicity of suspects and police officers on the coding sheet after some training. Using Holsti’s percentage of agreement, calculate intercoder reliability.
Multiple Choice
1. What is an inappropriate definition of content analysis? Content analysis is…
a) Systematic
b) Objective
c) Introspective
d) Quantitative
2. One purpose of content analysis is to . . .
a) Describe media effects
b) Test hypotheses of audience behaviors
c) Compare media content with the real world
d) Assess the correlation between content and behavior
3. What is a method of sampling in content analysis?
a) Composite week
b) Likert scale
c) Semantic differential
d) Snowball sampling
4. Of following, which is an inappropriate statement? Content analysis categories must:
a) Be mutually exclusive
b) Have the property of exhaustivity
c) Be reliable
d) Should be inexpensive
5. Of following, which is a formula to check intercoder reliability?
a) Holsti’s pi
b) Kappa’s pi
c) Cohen’s pi
d) Scott’s pi
6. In content analysis, what is the most commonly used statistical tool?
a) Regression
b) Chi-square
c) MANOVA
d) Correlation
7. In a content analysis, the unit of analysis:
a) Is selected after all the data have been coded
b) Must be measured at the interval level
c) Must be operationally defined
d) Is determined by the sampling technique
8. Most descriptive content analysis relies on_____ validity.
a) Face
b) Concurrent
c) Predictive
d) Constant
True/False
1. All content under consideration is treated in exactly the same manner. (T)
2. It is rare to achieve perfect objectivity in a content analysis. (T)
3. Content analysis can serve as the sole basis for claims about media effects. (F)
4. Content analyses do not have well-formulated research questions or hypotheses in the private sector. (F)
5. A pilot study should be conducted with a fresh set of coders who are given some initial training to impart familiarity with the instructions and the methods of the study. (T)
Fill in the Blank
1. Two dimensions are usually used to determine the appropriate universe for a content analysis: (topic area) and (time period).
2. A (composite week) refers to a technique using a sample of one Monday, one Tuesday, and so on, until all weekdays have been included.
3. Quantification in content analysis can involve all four of the levels of data measurement, although usually only (nominal), (interval), and (ratio) data are used.
4. The smallest element of a content analysis is the (unit of analysis).
Short Answer
1. When you content analyze Internet websites, what are some factors that might have an impact on reliability?
2. What type of sampling procedure would you use in an analysis of the front-page headline of the New York Times from 1965-2001? Why?
3. Discuss the five purposes or uses of content analysis that can be applied in mass media research.
Chapter 7 - Survey Research
Overview
This chapter introduces the basics of survey research. There are two major types of surveys: descriptive and analytical. The former attempts to describe or document current conditions or attitudes whereas the latter tries to describe and explain why a situation exists. The advantages and disadvantages of survey research are summarized. Surveys have several advantages including, 1) they can be used to investigate problems in realistic settings; 2) the cost of surveys is reasonable considering the amount of information gathered; 3) a large amount of data can be collected with relative ease from a variety of people; 4) surveys are not constrained by geographic boundaries; and 5) data helpful to survey research already exist.
While survey research has many advantages over other research approaches, it is not a perfect research methodology because: 1) independent variables cannot be manipulated the way they are in laboratory experiments; 2) inappropriate wording or placement of questions within a questionnaire can bias results; 3) the wrong respondents may be included in survey research; and 4) some survey research is difficult to conduct.
This chapter provides practical procedures for constructing questionnaires, question wording, and questionnaire design. It also includes examples to show how a question or an interviewing approach may elicit a specific response.
The chapter introduces researchers to a variety of data collection methods: mail surveys, telephone surveys, personal interviews, computer assisted personal interviewing, mall interviews, disk-by-mail surveys, Internet surveys, and group administration. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are discussed.
Researchers should consider including an incentive, notifying survey subjects beforehand, and personalizing the questionnaire to achieve a reasonable response rate. No matter what type of survey is conducted, it is virtually impossible to obtain a 100% response rate. Therefore, certain elements of the research design can have a significant impact on response rates. Monetary incentives and non-monetary incentives, preliminary notification, personalization of the questionnaire, a follow-up letter, and personal interview may increase response rate in surveys. However, a cover letter, the assurance of anonymity, and a statement of a deadline, stressing the social utility of the study, and appealing to the respondent to help the research do not seem to affect response rates.
Finally, several obstacles are frequently encountered even though surveys are valuable tools in mass media research: 1) subjects are often unable to recall information about themselves or their activities; 2) prestige bias may affect a respondent’s feeling; 3) subjects may purposely deceive researchers; 4) respondents often give elaborate answers to simple questions because they try to know what the purpose of a study is and what the researcher is doing; and, 5) surveys are often complicated by the inability of respondents to explain their true feelings, perceptions, and beliefs.
Exercises
1. The best way for students to understand how data collection works is to visit a research facility in your area. Most field services are happy to comply, and students will get first-hand knowledge of the interviewing process, CATI systems, and what an interviewer goes through to complete a survey.
2. Go to and search for online survey form. Participate in online survey conducted by universities and private sector.
Multiple Choice
1. Of the following, what is an advantage of survey research?
a) A large amount of data can be collected with relative ease from a variety of people.
b) Researchers don’t have to hire interviewers
c) Cause-and-effect can be established
d) Any type of respondent can be interviewed
2. What is the CATI system?
a) Computer Associated Telephone Institute
b) Computer Assistant Technique Investigation
c) Computer Aided Telephone Interviewing
d) Computer Assigned Television Interviewing
3. Of following, which is not recommended while designing a questionnaire?
a) Demographic data should be placed at the first page of the questionnaire
b) Sensitive items should be placed at the end of the questionnaire
c) Age and gender information are usually included in the first part of a questionnaire
d) The questionnaire should be proceed from the general to the specific.
4. All of the following statements are accurate except:
a) Long questionnaires cause low completion rates
b) Shorter questionnaires do not cause respondent mortality
c) The maximum time limit of one-on-one interview is 10 minutes
d) Questionnaire length is determined by trial-and-error
5. Of the following, what is an appropriate way to conduct a pretest?
a) Use college student samples
b) In telephone surveys, call 40-50 people and do a run-through
c) Pretest with the type of respondent who will not participate in the actual study
d) Conducting a mini-study with a small sample
6. Which of the following is a disadvantage of mail surveys?
a) Researchers must use monetary incentives
b) Researchers are able to know exactly who answers the questions
c) Low return rate casts doubt on the reliability of the findings
d) Wide geographic reach
7. In a telephone survey, the largest number of callbacks is usually made to:
a) Ineligible respondents
b) Answering machines
c) Noncontacts
d) Initial refusals
True/False
1. There are three major types of surveys: descriptive, analytical, and cultural. (F)
2. Surveys are not constrained by geographic boundaries. (T)
3. The biggest disadvantage of a survey is that independent variables cannot be manipulated the way they are in laboratory experiments. (T)
4. Group administration combines some of the features of mall surveys and computer assisted personal interviewing. (F)
Fill in the Blank
1. A (code book) is a menu or list of quantified responses.
2. A (double-barreled question) is one that asks two or more questions simultaneously.
3. Multiple-choice responses must be (mutually exclusive) to enable a respondent to check a response that appropriate to his/her situation.
4. (Screener questions) or (filter questions) are used to eliminate unwanted respondents or to include only respondents who have specific characteristics or who answer questions in a specific manner.
5. (Disk-by-mail surveys or DBM) refers to a survey in which respondents are sent computer disks that contain a self-administrated questionnaire, and they are asked to complete it by using a personal computer.
Short Answer
1. Compare and contrast mail surveys and telephone surveys.
2. Discuss some general dos and don’ts about writing questions in surveys.
3. Suppose you are going to use the survey research method to investigate children’s perceptions toward a certain action figure (i.e., Power Rangers, PokeMon, or Barbie doll) on TV. Who would you use in the pretest? What pretest questions would you include?
Chapter 8 - Longitudinal Research
Overview
This chapter introduces longitudinal research. Although relatively rare in mass communication research, this research method involves the collection of data at different points in time. Longitudinal techniques are divided into three different types: 1) a trend study in which different people are asked the same question at different points in time; 2) a cohort analysis involves the study of specific populations, usually all born during a given period, as they change over time; 3) a panel study uses the same individuals who are interviewed several times.
There are several different statistical methods available for this method. Usually, path analysis, log-linear methods, and structural equations are used as statistical techniques to conduct longitudinal analysis.
The three main types of longitudinal studies have advantages and disadvantages. With trend studies, researchers can establish a pattern over time to detect shifts and changes in an event. Another advantage is that trend studies can be based on a comparison of survey data originally constructed for other purposes. Meanwhile, this technique has a vulnerable point. If data are unreliable, a false trend will show up in the results. Trend analysis must be based on consistent measures.
Cohort analysis provides insight into the effect of maturation and social, cultural, and political change. In addition, it can be used with either original data or secondary data. In many instances, this technique can be less expensive than an experiments or a survey. However, this technique can’t completely remove the specific effects of age, cohort, and period from a standard cohort table. In addition, a second disadvantage of the technique is sample mortality.
Panel studies can be useful in answering questions about the dynamics of change. This approach helps solve the problems normally encountered when testing an hypothesis based on a one-shot case study. On the negative side, panel members are often difficult to recruit. In addition, respondents often become sensitized to measurement instruments after repeated interviewing, thus making the sample atypical. Finally, respondent error is always a problem.
It is possible to combine quantitative and qualitative data in a study that extends over time. They point out that this combined technique has certain advantages: 1) the qualitative data can aid in the interpretation of the quantitative data and provide insights that might have been missed; and, 2) qualitative data might suggest new hypotheses that might be examined in subsequent waves of data collection.
This chapter also looks at longitudinal research on the Internet. Using the Internet has both advantages and disadvantages. With the Internet, researchers can recruit a large number of individuals, and the Internet makes it easier for researchers to target and collect data from low-incidence groups. In addition, data collection over the Internet is rapid. However, Internet panels may not be representative of the entire population. Internet panels also get bored or lose interest and drop out as time goes by.
Finally, it is possible to build in a longitudinal dimension to experiments.
Exercises
1. After dividing your students by gender, and ask them to report the number of times they visited video game arcades per week according to a specific point of time in the past (e.g., when they were 12 years old, 16 years old, and 20 years old). Compare the numbers and discuss age effect and period effect.
2. Let your students select a longitudinal research paper published in an academic journal and present the research findings in class.
Multiple Choice
1. The first longitudinal study in mass communication area analyzed:
a) An advertising campaign
b) A presidential election
c) Television viewing
d) Violence in media
2. Which of the following is not one of the types of longitudinal studies?
a) Trend studies
b) Panel studies
c) Period studies
d) Cohort analysis
3. While conducting longitudinal studies, researchers use some advanced statistical techniques including all of the following except:
a) Chi-square
b) Path analysis
c) Structural equations
d) Log-linear models
4. Which of the following is not an advantage of trend studies?
a) Can establish a pattern over time to detect shifts and changes in some event
b) Can be based on a comparison of survey data constructed for other purposes.
c) Can compare results produced at two different times even if researchers have unreliable data
d) Make it possible for researchers to recognize nay differences in question wording and context that might differ from one survey to the next
5. Which of the following is not an advantage of cohort analysis?
a) Highly flexible
b) Provides insight into the effects of organization’s ownership on employees
c) Can be less expensive then experiments or surveys
d) Can be used with either original data or secondary data
6. The major disadvantage of cohort analysis is that the specific effects of age, cohort, and period are difficult to untangle through purely statistical analysis of a standard cohort table. To solve this problem, researchers use all of the following except:
a) Palmore’s triad method
b) The Constrained multiple regression model
c) The goodness-of-fit technique
d) Partial correlation
True/False
1. Cross-lagged correlations are done when information about two variables is gathered from the different samples at two different times. (F)
2. Influences associated with each particular time period are called period effects. (T)
3. Cohort analysis can be more expensive than experiments or surveys. (F)
4. It is impossible to combine quantitative and qualitative data in a longitudinal study. (F)
5. The Internet has made it possible to collect longitudinal data online. (T)
Fill in the Blank
1. (Cohort analysis) involves the study of specific populations, usually all those born during a given period, as they change over time.
2. Influences produced by the sheer fact of maturation, or growing older, are called (age effects).
3. In longitudinal studies, respondents often become sensitized to measure instruments after repeated interviewing, thus making the sample atypical. This is called (the sensitization effect).
4. A (follow-back panel) selects a cross-sectional sample in the present and uses archival data from an earlier point in time to create the longitudinal dimension of the study.
5. A (catch-up panel) involves selecting a cross-sectional study done in the past and locating all possible units of analysis for observation in the present.
Short Answer
1. Why aren’t there more trend studies in mass media research?
2. What kinds of techniques have been used to minimize sample mortality?
Chapter 9 - Experimental Research
Overview
This chapter introduces experimental research methods. Experimental research is used relatively infrequently in the mass media. Due to its infrequent use, this chapter examines only the more basic techniques: controlled laboratory experiments, quasi-experimental designs, and field experiments.
The first part of chapter discusses the advantages and disadvantages of laboratory experiments and presents systematic procedures about how to conduct experimental research. One advantage of experiments is establishing cause and effect. In a laboratory situation, researchers have control over the environment, the variables, and the subjects. In addition, experimental research provides researchers with a low cost compared to other research methods and makes it easier for others to replicate. However, the experimental technique is not perfect because of the artificial nature of the experimental environment, researchers’ bias, and limited scope.
There are eight steps that experimental researchers should follow when conducting an experiment: 1) select the setting; 2) select the experimental design; 3) operationalize variables; 4) decide how to manipulate the independent variable; 5) select and assign subjects to experimental conditions; 6) conduct a pilot study; 7) administer the experiment; and, 8) analyze and interpret the results.
The chapter also explains how to control confounding variables, and several suggestions are provided (randomization, matching, and including the confounding variables in the design) to experimental researchers in order to ensure the internal validity of their research.
There are a variety of experimental designs, such as pretest-posttest control group design, posttest-only control group design, Solomon four-group design, as well as factorial studies and the repeated-measures design. In cases when the researcher does not have the luxury of randomly assigning subjects to experimental conditions, researchers should use quasi-experimental designs: 1) pretest-posttest nonequivalent control group design, and 2) interrupted time series design.
The next part of the chapter discusses the strengths and weaknesses of field experiments. Although field experiments provided greater evidence of external validity, it is much harder for researchers to control extraneous variables in a field setting.
Finally, the Internet offers new possibilities for experimental research. Internet experiments enable researchers to achieve large sample sizes and a geographically diverse sample but they suffer from a lack of control and problems of validity.
Exercises
1. Ask the students to design a research project investing the potential effects of watching horror movies. How do they define and measure “effects?” How many groups would they use to conduct the study? What types of ethical conflicts might there be with this type of study? What would they expect to find?
2. Show the film, “Milgram’s Obedience Study” and discuss the ethical issues in experimental research.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following is not one of the advantages of the experiment?
a) Experiment help establish cause and effect
b) In a laboratory situation, researchers can control over the environment
c) The cost of an experiment can be low when compared to other research method
d) Results can be generalized to real-life situations
2. To control confounding variables in experimental research, researchers can use several techniques. Which one is appropriate to control this problem?
a) Randomization
b) Using field experiment
c) Observing subjects all the time
d) Including another variable in the design
3. Which of the following is the drawback of the Solomon four group design?
a) Lack of randomization
b) Limited range of independent variables that can be tested
c) The design needs more time to conduct
d) Not appropriate for younger subjects
4. If the researcher thinks that the order of presentation of the independent variables in a repeated-measures design will be a problem, what substitute design can be used?
a) Latin square design
b) Solomon four-group design
c) Factorial studies
d) Pretest/treatment/posttest design
5. What type of study does this notation describe: R X O2?
a) Posttest only
b) Pretest only
c) Pretest-posttest
d) Solomon pretest only
6. What type of study does this notation describe: R O1 X O2?
a) Posttest only
b) Pretest only
c) Pretest-posttest
d) Latin Square posttest only
7. Which of the following is a disadvantage of an online experiment?
a) large sample size
b) experimenter bias
c) self-selection of sample
d) geographically diverse sample
True/False
1. The cost of an experiment can be high when compared to other research methods. (F)
2. A factorial design for a study must have at least two factors or independent variables. (T)
3. The advantage of the repeated-measures design is that fewer subjects are necessary because each subject participates in all conditions. (T)
4. Field experiments can be inexpensive. (T)
5. In field experiments, researchers can control all the intervening variables. (F)
Fill in the Blank
1. To counteract researcher bias, some researchers use the (double-blind) technique, in which neither subjects nor researchers know whether a given subject belongs to the control group.
2. Research studies involving the simultaneous analysis of two or more independent variables are called (factorial designs).
3. The definition of (carryover effects) is that the effects of one manipulation may still be present when the next manipulation is presented.
4. (Reactivity) is the influence a subject’s awareness has on being measured or observed.
Short Answer
1. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of field experiments.
2. If you conduct experiment to explain the relationship between viewing violent TV programs and children’s aggressive behaviors, what techniques (laboratory vs. field experiment) are you going to use? Why?
Chapter 10 - Introduction to Statistics
Overview
This chapter introduces some of the more common descriptive and inferential statistics used by mass media researchers. Statistics are mathematical methods to collect, organize, summarize, and analyze data. Statistics provide valid and reliable results only when the data collection and research methods follow established scientific procedures. With the development of the computer, the science of statistics has changed dramatically.
This chapter describes basic statistical procedures: descriptive statistics, sample distribution, and data transformation. In descriptive statistics, the chapter presents the concept of data distribution, frequency distribution, cumulative frequency, histogram, bar chart, frequency polygon, normal curve, and skewness. Furthermore, this section describes summary statistics. Summary statistics make data more manageable by measuring two basic tendencies of distributions: 1) central tendency; and 2) dispersion (variability). These statistics make it easier for researchers to understand data.
Central tendency statistics provide information about the grouping of numbers in a distribution by giving a single number that characterizes the entire distribution. Using the mode, median, and mean, researchers can figure out a typical score of a distribution. In addition, dispersion measures describe the way scores are spread out about a central point. Using range, variance, and standard deviation, allows researchers to understand the characteristics of the data.
The chapter introduces the term sample distribution—the distribution of some characteristic measured on an individual or other unit of analysis that were part of a sample. Additionally, the chapter introduces the notion of a sampling distribution—a theoretical probability distribution of all values of a variable for a given sample size.
The final part of the chapter discusses data transformation. Most statistical procedures are based on the assumption that the data are normally distributed. When some anomalies arise, researchers can attempt to transform the data to achieve normality. Data transformation can be possible by multiplying or dividing each score by a certain number, or taking the square root or log of the scores.
Exercises
1. Learn about statistical packages such as SPSS, SAS, or LISREL on the Internet. Try to find out the characteristics, history, price, and so on.
2. Let students use Excel and SPSS and compare both tools’ functions
Practical Problems
1. Find the mean, mode, and median for these two data sets.
Data set A: 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 3, 3, 5, 3, 3, 9, 10
Date set B: 10, 11, 11, 20, 29, 13, 13, 17, 13, 16, 18
2. Find range, sample variance, and standard deviation for the set of data.
5, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9, 9, 10, 11, 11, 19
Answers
1. Data set A Data set B
Mean = 4.21 Mean = 15.54
Mode = 3 Mode = 13
Median = 4.5 Median = 13
2. Range = 14
Sample variance = 13.07
Standard deviation = 3.62
Multiple Choice
1. A frequency distribution:
a) Is an example of an inferential statistic
b) Is used to display data
c) Is the same thing as a frequency polygon
d) Cannot be used with nominal data
2. On a histogram, the frequency of the scores is usually displayed on the:
a) Horizontal axis
b) Orthogonal axis
c) Vertical axis
d) Vertical and horizontal axis
3. Which statistic does not refer to the midpoint of the data?
a) Mode
b) μ (mu)
c) Sigma
d) Mean
4. One descriptive statistic is dispersion. Which of the following is not a measure of dispersion?
a) Range
b) Skewness
c) Variance
d) Standard deviation
5. Suppose that a mass media researcher wants to compare average time per day of TV viewing and newspaper reading in a group of college students. However, this researcher used a different instrument (5 point Likert scale for TV viewing & 7 point Likert scale for newspaper reading). What statistic would be appropriate to compare the average score of these media behaviors?
a) Standard deviation
b) Z-score
c) Histogram
d) Chi-square
6. A radio manager sampled 300 listeners and found that 30% of the sample was listening a certain program. What is the approximate .95 confidence interval estimate for the population mean? The population average lies between…
a) 33% and 37%
b) 20% and 24%
c) 10% and 15%
d) 25% and 35%
True/False
1. A frequency distribution is a table of the scores ordered according to magnitude and their frequency of occurrence. (T)
2. The median is the score that occurs most frequently. (F)
3. A small variance indicates that most of the scores in the distribution lie widely scattered from the mean. (F)
4. To obtain a measure of dispersion that is calibrated in the same units as the original data (standard deviation), it is necessary to take the square root of the median. (F)
5. The mean of a distribution of z-scores is always 1.0. (F)
Fill in the Blank
1. If a line is drawn from the midpoint of each interval at its peak along the y-axis to each adjacent midpoint/peak, the result graph is called a (frequency polygon).
2. (Skewness) refers to the concentration of scores around a particular point on the x-axis.
3. The amount that sample mean differs from the population mean is called the (sampling error).
4. (Confidence interval) is an area within which there is a stated probability that the parameter will fall.
5. When such anomalies arise, researchers can attempt to transform the data to achieve (normality).
Short Answer
1. Discuss the difference among central tendency measures
2. Discuss possible practical uses of the confidence interval (e.g., establishing norms for medical tests, IQ tests, etc.)
Chapter 11 - Hypothesis Testing
Overview
This chapter describes the importance of hypotheses testing in empirical research procedures. Hypothesis development in scientific research is important because the process refines and focuses research by excluding extraneous variables and permitting variables to be quantified. Scientists rarely begin a research study without a problem or a question to test. Without research questions or hypotheses, research proves to be a waste of time.
Researchers develop studies based on existing theory and are thus able to make predictions about the outcome of their work. Therefore, hypothesis development is usually the culmination of a rigorous literature review. Researchers should use hypotheses in scientific research to: 1) provide direction for a study; 2) eliminate trial-and-error research; 3) rule out intervening and confounding variables; and, 4) allow for quantification of variables. In addition, hypotheses should be: 1) compatible with current knowledge in the area; 2) logically consistent; 3) stated concisely; and, 4) testable.
The second half of the chapter emphasizes the concepts of null hypothesis, error, and power because hypotheses must be tested for statistical significance. In hypothesis testing, a researcher either rejects or fails to reject the null hypothesis that the statistical differences being analyzed are due to chance or random error. To determine the statistical significance of a research study, the research must set a probability level (significance level) against which the null hypothesis is tested. If the results of the study indicate a probability lower than this level, the researcher can reject the null hypothesis. If the research outcome has a high probability, the researcher fails to reject the null hypothesis. It is common practice in mass media research studies to set the probability level at .01 or .05, which means that either one or five times out of 100, significant results of the study occur because of random error or chance.
All research contains error. Typically, two types of error (Type I error: the rejection of a null hypothesis that should not be rejected, and Type II error: the acceptance of a null hypothesis that should be rejected) are relevant to hypothesis testing. There is always the possibility of making an error in rejecting or failing to reject a null hypothesis. It is not easy for researchers to balance these two error types, but one procedure, power analysis, helps researchers deal with the problem. Because power (the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true) indicates the probability that a statistical test of a null hypothesis will result in the conclusion that the phenomenon under study actually exists, if there is a difference, researchers are able to detect it.
Exercises
1. Let students look over the Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media since 1995 and have them collect hypotheses and research questions that researchers used. Discuss the criteria of a good hypothesis and research questions.
2. Let students make three hypotheses in relation to their own research topics.
Practical Problems
1. Which are untestable hypotheses?
a) Heavy viewers of Jerry Springer Show are very skeptical.
b) American mothers would engage in more active mediation regarding sexually explicit Internet content, compared to Japanese mothers.
c) Students with experience reporting for a university TV news program will perform better on a news reporting test than will students without this experience.
d) Chinese hackers have more nation-oriented patriotism than American hackers.
e) Elementary school students with no exposure to televised wrestling may act less aggressive behavior than those who watch this program.
f) Einstein’s theory of relativity is more important than Newton’s principle of gravity.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following statements is not related to exploratory research?
a) The purpose of this research is to gather preliminary data
b) This research is able to refine research questions
c) This research try to find the causality between two variables
d) This research often used by graduate students for theses and dissertations
2. All of the following are benefits of hypothesis except that hypotheses:
a) Provide direction for a study
b) Eliminate trial-and-error research
c) Rule out intervening and confounding variables
d) Can establish cause and effect
3. All of the following are criteria for useful hypotheses except that they should be:
a) Compatible with current knowledge
b) Be value-driven
c) Succinct
d) Testable
4. Which of the following statements about Type I and Type II error is incorrect?
a) Type I error is the rejection of a null hypothesis that should be accepted
b) The probability of making a Type I error is equal to the established level of significance
c) Type II error is controlled by the design of the research
d) The researcher can control Type II error
5. Statistical power is a function of three parameters. What does not belong to this group?
a) Probability level
b) Sample size
c) Region of rejection
d) Effects size
6. In hypothesis testing, the researcher:
a) Rejects or accepts the null hypothesis
b) Rejects or accepts the substantive hypothesis
c) May defer a decision to a later time
d) May elect to collect more data before a decision
7. It is common practice in mass media research studies to set the probability level used in hypothesis testing to_____.
a) .25
b) .95
c) .10
d) None of the above
8. In a two-tail test, the region of rejection:
a) Is located in the right tail of the sampling distribution curve
b) Is located in the left tail of the sampling distribution curve
c) Is located in both the left and right tails
d) Cannot be precisely determined
9. The power of a statistical test refers to:
a) How large a sample size is needed
b) The level of measurement used
c) The probability that a statistical test will result in a Type I error
d) The probability that a statistical test of a null hypothesis will result in the conclusion that the phenomenon under study actually exists
True/False
1. In hypothesis testing, the researcher rejects or accepts the alternative hypothesis. (F)
2. A one-tail test is more stringent than the two-tail test. (T)
3. There is no easy answer to the problem of balancing Type I error and Type II error, but power analysis to help researchers deal with this issue. (T)
4. Many researchers suggest a desirable power value is .8 when working at the .05 level of significance. (T)
Fill in the Blank
1. (Exploratory) research is intended to search for data indications rather than to attempt to find causality.
2. The (null hypothesis) asserts that the statistical differences or relationship being analyzed are due to chance or random error.
3. In a theoretical sampling distribution, the proportion of the area in which the null hypotheses is rejected is called the (region of rejection).
4. (Type I error) is the rejection of a null hypothesis that should be accepted.
5. Type II error often called (beta error).
Short Answer
1. Explain Type I error and Type II error by using an example.
2. A medical research group tried to produce new medicine for curing AIDS. One researcher used a probability level of .05 when he tested a new medicine and another researcher in that group used a probability of level of .001 when testing a second medicine. Assume both medicines showed significant results. If you were a research consultant, which medicine would you recommend to the customer? Why?
Chapter 12 - Basic Statistical Procedures
Overview
This chapter discusses basic statistical procedures. Because statistics are necessary to understand the scientific method of knowing because they allow researchers to make inferences about the population from which the sample has been taken. Specially, this chapter describes the basic inferential statistical methods (chi-square goodness of fit, contingency table analysis, t-test, analysis of variance, correlation, and regression) used in mass media research and suggests ways in which these methods may help answer research questions.
Statistical methods are commonly divided into two broad categories: nonparametric and parametric. In the past, both types of statistics had some distinctions based upon levels of measurement. For the most part, the distinctions have vanished. Both nonparametric statistics and parametric statistics can be used successfully with all types of data and that both are appropriate for generalizing results to the population when used with a random sample.
For nonparametric statistics, mass media researchers often compare the observed frequencies of a phenomenon with the frequencies that might be expected or hypothesized. This is the Chi-square goodness of fit test. In addition, this chapter also discusses cross-tabulation, or contingency table analysis.
Parametric statistics defined by two characteristics: 1) these methods usually use interval and ratio data and 2) these methods assume that data are normally distributed. This chapter introduces that t-test as the most elementary method for comparing two groups’ mean scores.
For comparing more than two groups’ mean scores, the chapter introduces analysis of variance (ANOVA). This statistic can be used to simultaneously investigate several independent variables, (also called factors). A one-way ANOVA investigates one independent variable; a two-way ANOVA investigates two independent variable, and so on. In two-way ANOVA, researchers may find main effects and interaction effects in the relationships among the variables.
To understand the relationships between two variables in a study, researchers can use correlational statistics: numerical expressions of the degree to which two variables change in relation to each other. If researchers want to control confounding variables in the relationships between two variables, they may use partial correlation, eliminating the effect of spurious variables.
Regression is introduced in the chapter. Based on correlation between variables, this statistic is used to determine the degree to which one variable changes with a given change in another variable. If researchers deal with the relationship between two or more independent variable and a single dependent variable, this statistic is called multiple regression.
Exercises
1. Borrow basic statistics textbooks from the library and check the mathematical logic of each nonparametric and parametric statistic.
2. Fisher introduced the idea of the likelihood that an event will occur. How likely is it that a pair of sixes will come up when you roll two dice?
Practical Problems
1. Suppose the researcher finds a chi-square value of 11.71, with degrees of freedom of 4, and has established an alpha level of .01. What do you expect that the researcher will do concerning the null hypothesis? Explain why.
2. The following are data of Internet use per day by gender. Using t-test, determine the statistical significance with probability .05 between the two groups. Are these groups statistically different or not? Why?
Gender Male Female
Mean 2 hours 6 hours
Participants 10 10
Standard error 57 51
Answers:
1. The Chi-square table shows a value of 13.277 at this level (df = 4 and probability = .01). Since 11.71 is smaller than 13.277, the difference is not significant.
2. t = X1 – X2/Sm t = 2 – 6 / 1.09 = 3.67 df = 18, t =3.67
If the problem is tested at the .05 level of significance, a t value of 2.101 is required for the results to be considered statistically significant. In this case, the t value is 3.67. Since 3.67 is greater than 2.101, the two groups are statistically different.
Multiple Choice
1. Which of these statements is correct? The t-test . . .
a) Is the most elementary method for comparing two groups’ mean scores
b) Assumes that the samples are not normally distributed.
c) Assumes that the data are at the nominal level of measurement
d) Does not use degrees of freedom
2. Concerning ANOVA which of these statements is correct.
a) ANOVA can be used to simultaneously investigate several independent variables and two dependent variables.
b) One-way ANOVA investigates two independent and one dependent variable
c) A 2 X 2 ANOVA studies two independent variables, each with two levels
d) ANOVA is essentially an extension of the Chi-square
3. Which of the following is not one of the required assumptions for ANOVA?
a) Each sample is normally distributed
b) The variances in each group are equal
c) Nominal data
d) The scores are statistically independent
4. Concerning basic correlational statistics which of these statements is correct.
a) A positive relationship in correlation statistics exists when one variable increases while the other decreases
b) The least used correlation statistic is the Pearson product-moment correlation
c) Correlation is the same as cause and effect
d) The degree of correlation varies between –1.00 and +1.00
5. Which of these statements is incorrect about multiple regression?
a) Multiple regression is used to analyze the relationship between two or more independent variables and two dependent variable
b) Multiple regression serves basically to predict the dependent variable using information derived from an analysis of the independent variables
c) It is used by researchers to predict success in college, and sales levels
d) The dependent variables in multiple regression are predicted by weighted linear combinations of independent variables
True/False
1. If the calculated chi-square value equals or exceeds the value found in the table, the differences in the observed frequencies are considered to be statistically significant. (T)
2. In chi-square statistics, small samples may not produce significant results so that most researchers suggest that each category contain at least two observations. (F)
3. ANOVA is essentially an extension of the Chi-Square goodness of fit. (F)
4. Suppose the amount of time reading newspapers correlates with the amount of time watching television news. The correlation figure says nothing about the amount of time spent with each medium. (T)
5. Multiple regression is parametric technique used to analyze the relationship between two or more independent variables and two or more dependent variables. (F)
Fill in the Blank
1. The parametric statistical methods usually used with (interval and ratio) data.
3. (Systematic variance) in data is attributable to a known factor that predictably increases or decreases all the scores it influences.
4. In ANOVA, the scores from measurements are used to calculate a ratio of variance, known as the (F ratio).
5. (Interaction) refers to the concomitant influence of two or more independent variables on the single dependent variable.
6. In correlation, sometimes, the relationship between two variables is positive up to a point and then become inverse. When this happens, the relationship is said to be (curvilinear).
Short Answer
1. Suppose that you are a researcher who wants to know the relationship between viewing violent TV programs and adolescents’ perceptions toward school life. You randomly select subjects from metropolitan cities and small towns. You hypothesize that heavy viewing of violent TV programs may negatively affect adolescents’ perceptions toward school life. However, your findings show the totally opposite. (Heavy viewers of violent TV program show less negatively perceived school life than light viewers exposed to those programs.) What further analysis might you do? Why?
2. A researcher tries to find out how parents’ income and teachers’ skill affect elementary students’ learning the Internet. A 2 X 2 ANOVA was used to investigate the above topic. Parents’ income was divided into high income and low income. Teachers’ ability was divided into high skill and low skill. In this case, what effects should you consider in interpreting how the two independent variables affect the dependent variable?
Chapter 13 - Research in the Print Media
Overview
This chapter focuses on the historical background of print media research, and examines the several types of research methods used by newspapers and magazines. Much of the early research in newspapers and magazines was qualitative in nature. As the importance of readership emerged, quantitative research techniques became common in print media research. The reasons for this trend were (1) the growing availability of basic data; (2) the development of more sophisticated research tools; and, (3) the increase in institutional support for research.
Since 1960, newspapers and magazines were competing with other media such as television and radio for audience attention and advertiser investment. This situation greatly spurred the growth of private sector research. Most newspapers with a circulation of at least 100,000 now have an in-house research department. With the advent of diverse media in a market, the importance of research in newspaper and magazine companies is increasing as they try to get more profit. Moreover, the advent of online newspapers and magazines has prompted a new research area as traditional newspaper and magazines try to assess the competition from the Internet and examine how on-line versions relate to the traditional papers.
Newspaper and magazine researchers conduct six basic types of studies: 1) readership; 2) circulation; 3) management; 4) typography/makeup; 5) readability; and, 6) online media use. Research into newspaper readership is composed primarily of five types of studies: reader profiles, item-selection studies, reader-nonreader studies, uses and gratifications studies, and editor-reader comparisons. Readership research provides a newspaper company with data about who reads a publication, what items are read, and what gratification the readers get from their choices. Circulation studies examine the penetration levels of newspapers and magazines in various markets as well as various aspects of the delivery and pricing systems. It also investigates the effect on readership or subscription rates or variables that are unrelated to a publication’s content.
Due to expanded holdings in newspaper companies and increased media competition, management research has been a growing area. Through management research, newspaper companies obtain valuable data on management, organizational structure, employee job satisfaction, and effects of competition and ownership on newspaper content. Typography and make up research measures the effects of news design elements--particularly typeface and page makeup. Using this approach, researchers have tested the effects of different typography and makeup elements, including amount of white space, presence of paragraph headlines, size and style of type. Readability research considers the sum total of all the elements and their interactions that affect the successes of a piece of printed material. Several formulas (Flesch reading ease formula, Fog Index, SMOG Grading, Cloze procedure) provide researchers with valuable information about the reading difficulty of a document.
Qualitative methods are becoming increasingly common in print media research and are often used to pretest version of new publications.
Finally, on-line newspapers and magazines are relatively recent phenomenon. Diverse approaches are needed to get more information about online versions of printed media.
Exercises
1. Select your local newspaper or university magazine. Using Item-Selection studies, try to find the relationships between readership and particular items.
2. See if the owner of your local newspaper has a research department. If so, invite the research director to speak to the class about the publication’s research efforts.
Multiple Choice
1. Newspaper and magazine researchers usually conduct all the following types of studies except:
a) Readership
b) Circulation
c) Management
d) Government policy
2. Research into newspaper readership is composed primarily of the following types of studies except:
a) Reader profiles
b) Reader-non reader studies
c) Cultivation effects
d) Uses and gratification studies
3. A growing research area in the last two decades has been newspaper management practices. What makes this area grow?
a) Newspaper companies reduced heir holdings
b) Media competition became more intense
c) Media managers are very popular jobs for college students
d) Government tried to protect media industry from foreign ownership with strong regulations
4. To measure readability, researchers use several formulas such as:
a) Fog Index
b) Likert scale
c) Interquartile Range
d) Holsti’s percentage of agreement
5. Which statement below is an example of the findings of typographical research?
a) A smooth surface, or topography, is most pleasing to read
b) Small illustrations attract more readers than do large ones
c) Roman type can be read more quickly than other faces
d) Readers prefer to read type set in Italics
6. Which of the following techniques for using research in journalism did Philip Meyer develop?
a) Database journalism
b) Spreadsheet journalism
c) Precision journalism
d) Valid journalism
True/False
1. Newspaper and magazine research became more empirical because of the growing availability of basic data, the development of more sophisticated research tools, and the increase in institutional support for research. (T)
2. The item-selection study is used to determine who reads specific part of the paper. (T)
3. A uses and gratifications study is used to study all media content in order to understand readers’ motives and personal and psychological reward. (T)
4. Circulation research investigates the effect on readership or subscription rates of variables that are unrelated to a publication’s content. (T)
5. Magazine readership research tends not to use online reader panels because of small number of participants. (F)
Fill in the Blank
1. A (reader profile) provides a demographic summary of the readers of a particular publication.
2. (Readability) is the sum total of all the elements and their interactions that affect the success of a piece of printed material.
3. The (SMOG) grading is quick and easy to calculate: The researcher merely selects 10 consecutive sentences near the beginning of the text, 10 from the middle, and 10 from the end, and then counts every word of three or more syllables and takes the square root of the total.
4. (Psychographic studies) usually ask readers to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a large number of attitudinal statements.
5. (Editor-reader comparisons), a group of editors is questioned about a certain topic, and their answers are compared to those of their readers to see whether there is any correspondence between the two groups.
Short Answer
1. Discuss how the online version of newspaper relates to the traditional paper.
2. What is lifestyle segmentation research?
3. Discuss why newspaper management research is growing.
4. Virtually all newspaper advertisers place their advertising in newspapers without ever conducting research about the quality of the ads or the types of messages the ads convey to readers. Why do you think this is true?
5. What techniques could be used to study the lifestyles of online newspaper readers?
Chapter 14 - Research in the Electronic Media
Overview
The chapter describes the importance of research in the electronic media by introducing ratings and non-ratings research in chapter 14. Since radio became a popular mass medium in the 1930s, broadcast research has developed dramatically in sophistication and volume. When commercials began airing on radio stations and radio began to attract large audiences, advertisers naturally wondered how many listeners were exposed to their messages and how effective the messages were. It became the responsibility of broadcasters to provide empirical data about the size and characteristics of their audience.
However, advertisers and broadcasters quickly realized that they could not get accurate information about audience size and lifestyle patterns, and more information and precise data were needed. To respond to this demand, two companies (Nielsen Media Research & Arbitron) provided local television stations, local cable systems, advertisers, their agencies, and radio stations with ratings data by means of several methods of data collection: audimeter, diary, telephone coincidental, and the people meter.
There has always been controversy about broadcast ratings because of many uncertainties about measurements of audience size and their characteristics. However, until further refinements are made, ratings as they currently exist will remain the primary decision-making tool in programming and advertising.
In the rating research section, the chapter discusses how to understand the ratings and interpret terminologies such as Rating, Share, Cost Per Thousand, Metro Survey area, Average quarter-hour, etc.
Non-ratings research as well as ratings research for broadcasters, production companies, advertisers, and broadcast consultants is very important to understand audience likes and dislikes, analyses of different types of programming, demographic and lifestyle information about the audience, etc. Several non-rating methods are introduced: 1) Program test that gathers preliminary reactions to a planned project; 2) Music research that provides radio station’s listeners with music they like to hear—radio programmers use auditorium tests and call-out research; 3) Performer questionnaire that provides producers with performers and entertainers’ familiarity and appeal scores in order to determine what performer or group of performers give the show the greatest appeal; 4) Focus groups that help to develop questionnaires for further research and to provide preliminary information on a variety of topics such as format and programming changes, personalities, station images, and lifestyle characteristics of the audience.
Exercises
1. Visit local radio stations or cable TV companies and discuss their programming strategies when they compete their competitors in a given time period.
2. Make a questionnaire concerning a specific television program such as ER, NYPD Blue, or the Jerry Springer Show and try to find what the audience likes/dislikes by using a focus group.
Practical Problems
1. 1,500 of the sample of 3,000 households were tuned to CNN at the time of surveying. Total population is 100,400 in a market. In reality, how many households in the total market are estimated to be watching CNN?
Answer: Rating = 1,500/3,000 = 0.5 or 50% (0.5 X 100,400 = 50,200}
2. Assume that a single 30-second commercial on MTV costs $25,000. If the audience size is 120,000 in a market, what is the cost per thousand for such a commercial?
Answer:
CPM = $25,000/120 (thousand) = $2.08
3. Suppose a random sample of 3,600 households produces a rating of 10. What is the standard error? And what is the .95 CI?
Answer:
SE(p) = square root of {10(100-10)/3,600} = 0.5%
.95 CI = 10% +/- 1.96 X 0.5%
The rating ranges from 9.02 to 10.98 at the 95% confidence level.
Multiple Choice
1. Electronic media research studies fall into two main categories. They are:
a) Circulation and readership
b) Ratings and share study
c) Ratings and non-ratings research
d) Ratings and frequency research
2. Two companies provide ratings data for broadcasting and cable throughout the year. What are they?
a) FCC and CNN
b) Nielsen and Arbitron
c) NAB and FCC
d) Nielsen and Gallup
3. Nielsen’s dairy methodology is used in each of the 200+ television markets in the United States in four different months. Choose a correct answer.
a) November-December-January-February
b) May-June-July-August
c) June-July-August-December
d) November-February-May-July
4. When collecting data from the audience to obtain radio ratings data, what kind of method does Arbitron use?
a) Internet survey
b) Diaries
c) Mail survey
d) Personal interview
5. Which of the following statement about auditorium testing is incorrect?
a) Usually, 15-30 people are invited to a large room and asked to listen music
b) Usually, between 200 and 600 hooks are tested
c) Respondents are generally paid $25-$150 for their cooperation
d) Auditorium music testing is designed to test only recurrents and oldies
6. Although ratings and shares are important in audience research, a number of other computations can be performed with the data. All of the following are estimates to provide audience information except:
a) Metro survey area
b) Total survey area
c) Average quarter-hour
d) Callout research
7. What is a rating?
a) A percentage of all TV households watching a particular show
b) An evaluation of the quality of programming
c) A cost-effective CPM
d) A percentage of households watching TV
True/False
1. The reality is that television ratings produced by people meters are higher than those produced by meters and diaries. (F)
2. After Nielsen used people meters, debate about the accuracy of the various audience ratings method stopped. (F)
3. The CPM provides no information about the effectiveness of a commercial message, only dollar estimate of its reach. (T)
4. Music testing methods involve playing hooks of a several songs for a sample of listeners. A hook is a 5-15-second representative sample of the song. (T)
Fill in the Blank
1. Nielsen’s diary methodology is used in each of the 200+ television markets in the United States in November, February, May, and July of each year. These measurement periods are known in the industry as the (sweeps).
2. A useful figure for radio stations is the (audience turnover), or the number of times the audience changes during a given daypart.
3. The (gross rating points) are a total of a station’s ratings during two or more dayparts and estimate the size of the gross audience.
4. (Standard error) must always be considered before ratings are interpreted to determine whether a certain gender/age group has been under-sampled or over sampled.
5. The (rough cut) is a simplistic production that usually uses amateur actors, little or no editing, and makeshift sets.
Short Answer
1. Discuss why electronic media companies need to consider the quality of information based on empirical data.
2. If Nielsen Media Research offers to install a people meter on your TV set, would you agree to participate? Why or why not?
Chapter 15 - Research in Advertising
Overview
This chapter introduces three main advertising research methods: copy testing, media research, and campaign assessment. These methods provide advertisers with valuable information on markets and consumers. Copy testing consists of three dimensions (cognitive, affective, and conative) of impact in the persuasion process.
The cognitive dimension involves studying attention, awareness, exposure, recognition, comprehension, and recall of advertisement. The affective dimension usually involves research into whether a consumer’s attitudes toward a particular product have changed because of exposure to an ad or a campaign. The techniques used to study the affective dimension include projective tests, theater testing, physiological measures, semantic differential scales, and rating scales. The conative dimension mainly focuses on actual consumer behavior. The two main categories of behavior usually measured are buying predisposition and actual purchasing behavior.
In media research related to advertising, two terms are very important: 1) reach—the total number of households or persons that will be exposed to a message in a particular medium at least once over a certain period (usually four weeks); and, 2) frequency—the number of exposures to the same message that each household receives.
Media research falls into three general categories: studies of the size and composition of an audience of particular medium, studies of the relative efficiency of advertising exposures provided by various combinations of media, and studies of the advertising activities of competitors.
The chapter also explains how to measure frequency of exposure in media schedules and how to measure the Internet audience. Specifically, the Internet poses special problems for audience measurement. Reliable data on who is looking at web pages and banner advertising are important because without hard information, advertisers are reluctant to spend money on net advertising. However, there are some problems in measuring web advertising. The number of hits on a certain page and the number of times someone logs onto the page were unreliable because of server malfunction and artificially inflated number of hits.
Advertisers are always looking for information about the media choices of their competitors to avoid making the mistakes of less successful competitors and to imitate the strategies of more successful competitors.
To assess campaigns, the two kinds of measures are used: 1) pretest/posttest—measurement both before and after the campaign; and, 2) tracking studies—following the impact of the campaign by measuring effects at several times during the progress of the campaign.
Advertising researchers increasingly use qualitative measures. Two of the more popular methods include projective techniques such as word association and role playing, respondent diaries and directed observation.
Although many people outside the advertising community mention that all business and their advertising agencies use the cutting edge forms of advertising, its effectiveness is questionable. In reality, people pay less attention to ads in their daily life than advertisers assume.
Exercises
1. Recruit 6-12 volunteers to measure their consumer behavior concerning a cereal brand. Using the focus group method, let students produce items to ask participants.
2. Let your students participate in a few online surveys by an Internet advertising agency. Discuss students’ opinions about Internet banner advertising.
Practice Problems
1. Compute reach and average frequency for the following:
a. If 37 of 500 households are exposed to a commercial, what is the reach? (Reach = 37/500 = 7.4%)
b. If the total number of exposures for a sample of households is 200 and the reach is 30, what is the average frequency? (Average frequency = Total exposures for all households. Reach = 200/30 = 6.7%)
2. Suppose a program on MTV has a reach of 20% and an average frequency of 2.2, and a program on VH1 has a reach of 40% and a frequency of 1.0. Which program offers a better reach-frequency relationship?
MTV program = GRPs = 20 X 2.2 = 44
VH1 program = GRPs = 40 X 1.0 = 40
MTV program scores better in the reach-frequency combination than VH1 so the former is the better buy.
Multiple Choice
1. In the cognition dimension of advertising research, researchers study all of the following except:
a) Attention
b) Exposure
c) Recognition
d) Behavior
2. The affective dimension of advertising research usually involves research into whether a consumer’s attitudes toward a particular product have changed because of exposure to an ad or a campaign. What a technique is not used to study the affective dimension?
a) Projective tests
b) Socio-psychological tests
c) Theater testing
d) Semantic differential scale
3. Four physiological tests are frequently used to measure the affective dimension. All of the following are physiological tests except:
a) Pupilometer test
b) Galvanic skin response
c) Brain wave analysis
d) Heart rate test
4. All of the following measure readership except:
a) Unaided recall
b) Aided recall
c) Perception test
d) Recognition
5. Choose the correct statement regarding Internet advertising.
a) The first attempts to monitor web page traffic consisted of software programs that measured the number of banner ads and the speed of server
b) As of 2002, the two most visible organizations that measure the Internet audience are Nielsen/net and Arbitron
c) Reliable data on who is looking at web pages and banner advertising are important for advertisers because they are reluctant to invest money on net advertising without such data.
d) Internet ratings firms face a difficult problem in buying ratings software
6. Web advertising has shifted from the traditional banner ad to new forms. Which is not one of these new forms?
a) Skyscraper ads
b) Pop-up ads
c) Large square and rectangular ads
d) Text-oriented ads
7. The following statements concern campaign assessment research. Which is correct?
a) Campaign assessment research builds on political campaign strategy and media research
b) There are three kinds of assessment research
c) Pretest/posttest studies typically use personal interviews to collect data
d) Tracking studies also rely on personal or Internet surveys as their main data collection devices
8. Gross rating points (GRPs) are found by doing which of the following?
a) Contacting the Federal Communication Commission
b) Multiplying a station’s reach by its average frequency
c) Searching databases of one of the many reputable GRP firms
d) GRPs are promotional hyperbole, with no standard way of finding them
9. An example of a qualitative technique used specifically to study the effects of advertising is:
a) forced exposure
b) pantry check
c) GSR
d) split cable survey
True/False
1. Measuring the Internet audience by counting the number of “hits” and the number of time someone logs onto the page is a reliable method for determining audience exposure. (F)
2. People who do not participate simultaneously in two or more activities belong to a category known as monochromic behavior. (T)
3. To assess campaign effectiveness, advertising agencies use experimental research and copy testing. (F)
4. Some companies are not interested in selling their product online. Instead, they are using online advertising to build brand recognition. (T)
Fill in the Blank
1. The three functional research areas in advertising are (copy research), (media research), and (campaign assessment research).
2. (Theater tests) involve bring an audience to a special facility where they are shown television commercials that are embedded in a TV show.
3. (Reach) is the total number of households or persons exposed to a message in a particular medium at least once over a certain period.
4. (Frequency) refers to the number of exposures to the same message that each household receives.
5. The people who simultaneously participate in two or more activities, such as TV viewing and reading, belong to a category known as (polychronic behavior).
Short Answer
1. To sell video games for children, a company wants an advertising agency to produce violent commercials. If you were executive director in the agency, how would you respond?
2. Compare Internet advertising with print media advertising. If you were a company owner, what would you decide?
3. Many advertisers waste a lot of money in relation to the effectiveness of ads. What is your opinion? Is advertising worth it?
Chapter 16 - Research in Public Relations
Overview
Public relations has become research-oriented because research findings provide the initial information necessary to plan public relations programs and to assess their effectiveness. In this chapter a variety of research trends related to public relations are discussed
Public relations research can be divided into three types: 1) applied; 2) basic; and, 3) introspective. Applied research examines specific practical issues; in many instances, it is conducted to solve a specific problem. Specifically, strategic and evaluation research methods are used. Basic research in public relations creates knowledge that cuts across public relations situations. It is most interested in examining the underlying processes and in constructing theories that explain the public relations process. Introspective research examines the field of public relations: the percentages of women in the sports information field, PR professionals across a number of department in companies, PR college students’ opinions, etc.
Research in the public relations process is presented by a four-step model: 1) defining public relations problems; 2) planning public relations programs; 3) implementing public relations programs through actions and communications; and, 4) evaluating the program.
In defining public relation programs, several techniques (environment monitoring, public relations audits, communication audits, and social audits) are used. Gathering information helps define and anticipate possible public relations problems.
In addressing public relation problems, after obtaining data from the various methods of environmental scanning, the next public relations step is to interpret the information in order to identify specific problems and opportunities that can be addressed by a systematic public relations program.
In implementing public relations programs, two monitoring techniques are used to check the efforts of the public relations program. Gatekeeping research analyzes the characteristics of press releases and video news releases that allow them to pass through the gate and appear in a mass medium. Output analysis measures how well the organization presents itself to others and the amount of exposure or attention that the organization receives by measuring the total number of stories or articles that appear in selected mass media or gauging the tone of the article.
Evaluation research refers to the process of judging the effectiveness of program planning, implementation, and impact. The following three specific phases (implementation checking, in-progress monitoring, and outcome evaluation), provide information about how the program corrected the problem.
Qualitative research is enjoying increased popularity in public relations research. Two methods that are frequently used are the critical incident technique (a mini-case study of a single significant event) and discourse analysis (analyzing language elements of a particular message).
Exercises
1. Using “SWOT” technique, let students evaluate your department’s strength and weakness. Make an appropriate program to change weakness into strength.
2. Visit the public relations department in local newspapers or universities and discuss their strategy.
Multiple Choice
1. All of the following research types are conducted in public relations except:
a) Applied research
b) Basic research
c) Introspective research
d) Cultivation research
2. In defining public relations problems, all of the following techniques are used to gather information except:
a) Environment monitoring
b) Public relations audits
c) Communication audits
d) Agenda setting research
3. A public relations audit investigates the public relations position of an organization. Which of the following is correct?
a) This study is used only used to measure a company’s standing internally
b) Sometimes this has been called identifying the key memberships in the organization
c) This stakeholder analysis is usually conducted via personal interviews with all employees in each department
d) This study involves conducting a corporate image study
4. In a communication audit, what research techniques are generally used?
a) Readership surveys and readability studies
b) Mail surveys and cultural studies
c) Telephone surveys and lifestyle segmentation research
d) Internet surveys and reader-nonreader studies
5. Evaluation research should be involved in virtually every phrase of a program. In this research, there are three specific phrases to check the program. Which of the following does not belong?
a) Implementing checking
b) In-progress monitoring
c) Environmental reporting
d) Outcome evaluation
True/False
1. According to the Journal of Public Relations Research, the mail survey was the most used data collection method. (T)
2. The communication audit does not resemble a public relations audit. (F)
3. Evaluation research refers to the process of judging the effectiveness of program planning, implementation, and impact. (T)
4. In public relations research, the two most popular qualitative techniques are intensive interviewing and field observation (F)
5. Output analysis refers to the study on the characteristics of press releases and video releases that appear in a mass medium. (F)
6. An advantage of discourse analysis is that it can be conducted quickly. (F)
Fill in the Blank
1. (Strategic research) is used to develop public relations campaigns and programs.
2. (Precursor analysis) assumes that leaders establish trends that ultimately trickle down to the rest of society.
3. A/An (Omnibus survey) is a regularly scheduled personal interview with questions provided by various clients.
4. A (social audit) is a small-scale environmental monitoring program designed to measure an organization’s social performance.
5. (Benchmarking) is a method to assess impact that is gaining popularity.
Short Answer
1. What is a public relations audit?
2. What is a media audit?
3. What is a gatekeeping research?
Chapter 17 - Mass Media Research and the Internet
Overview
This chapter introduces various possibilities for Internet research in the media field. Because the Internet has had an influence on the way people communicate, conduct business, and process information, Internet research has developed dramatically. However, the Internet is not universally accepted as reliable and valid even if the Internet offers exciting possibilities for mass media researchers.
The history of the Internet provides us with the interesting fact that the concept of the Internet was developed from a project of the military. The basic principle behind this system was that each computer in the network would be equal to all the other computers, and each would decide on its own the best way to send, route, and receive messages. Thus, if a number of computers were destroyed, the remaining computers would figure out the best way to route messages through the system, bypassing the disabled computers.
Almost immediately upon the Internet’s debut to the public, researchers saw the opportunity to use the new vehicle as a research tool, specifically an inexpensive data collection tool. Internet data collection procedures, including email, databases, email, pop-up, randomly selected pop up, pre-recruit, instant messaging, and stationary display, provide researchers with valuable data in a more economical way than other traditional data collection methods.
This chapter discusses the advantages and disadvantages of Internet research. Some of the advantages of using the Internet include: 1) ease of feasibility; 2) easy to change questionnaire; 3) inexpensive; 4) respondent-oriented control; 5) no regulation to Internet research by the government; 6) quick turnaround; 7) no limitation to the type of questions; 8) interaction; 9) the access to people who belong to high income groups; 10) flexibility; 11) few geographical restriction; and, 12) large samples.
Meanwhile, some weaknesses make Internet research questionable. First, researchers do not know who answers an Internet questionnaire. Moreover, there is currently no way to determine if the Internet sample is representative of the population from which the sample was selected. Third, many Internet users are concerned with security and refuse to participate in any type of Internet research project. Fourth, responses from the same computer can be controlled so that one person cannot answer the survey more than once. Fifth, there are no definition research data about the appropriate length of Internet surveys. Sixth, people who have no knowledge of research have become Internet researchers. This is a detriment not only to the respondents, but also to the people who hire these people. That is, it is easy for unqualified person to develop websites to conduct the research.
Finally, the chapter discusses practical and ethical issues on Internet research. Researchers must have the ability to access a server and possess design skills as well as to publicize their research project. In addition, Internet researchers should be concerned about certain ethical considerations when they conduct research in cyberspace.
Exercises
1. After learning about Dreamweaver or Front Page, let students make a short on-line survey form.
2. Make an on-line survey for evaluating your class and let students participate in on-line evaluation.
Multiple Choice
1. According to history of the Internet, the concept of Internet stems from a military project. The goal of the project was to . . .
a) Find enemy in caves during Vietnam War
b) Eliminate land mines in Korean War
c) Communicate after an atomic attack
d) Improve logistical and supply systems
2. Which of the following is not an advantage of Internet research?
a) There is almost no limit to the type of questions that can be asked
b) Questionnaires can be interactive
c) Research projects can be replicated frequently as long as the researchers desire
d) Internet use is restricted only to certain types of respondents
3. All the following are disadvantages of Internet research except:
a) There is currently no way to determine if the Internet sample is representative of the population
b) Many Internet users are concerned with security
c) Many Internet users refuse to participate in any type of Internet research project
d) Internet research company’s computer can’t identify the IP address so that participants should put their ID and password in the server
4. Sometime, researchers who are using Internet research find a pattern of answers given by a respondent, such as all “5” ratings on a 1-10 rating scale. What is this tendency called?
a) Rough cut
b) Outlier
c) Response set
d) Repeated-measures
True/False
1. The concept of the Internet came from the business. (F)
2. The email approach requires the least amount of computer and Internet expertise, whereas the fully automated approach used in pop-up questionnaires requires the most expertise. (T)
3. Unlike laws in some areas of United States regulating telephone solicitation, there are currently no laws related to conducting Internet research. (T)
4. Researchers who analyze the content of bulletin boards, newsgroups, list servers, chat rooms, and email need to explain the goals of the research and give feedback to the participants. (T)
5. In academic research, it is not necessary to provide informed consent before participating in online survey. (F)
Fill in the Blank
1. Since the initial philosophy behind the Internet was (decentralization), there was no central authority that would prevent anyone from linking up.
2. The primary language used to construct Internet pages uses a language known as (HTML—Hyper Text Markup Language).
3. Most Internet users have free web space available from their (Internet service provider) to use for personal web pages.
4. The generic term for transferring files is known as (file transfer protocol).
5. In traditional experiments and surveys, a (debriefing) session is often needed to explain the goals of the research and give feedback to the participants.
Short Answer
1. Discuss the strong points and weak points about using the Internet for data collection.
2. What advice can you give to protect your participants from unethical practices in an Internet survey?
3. You may choose a mail survey or an online survey in your research to collect information on housewives’ perceptions about televised soap opera. Which method would be more effective in this case? Why?
Research in Media Effects
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Overview
This chapter focuses on media effects research that is conducted at colleges and universities. Academic research tends to be more theoretical in nature whereas private sector research is generally more applied. This chapter illustrates the history, methods, and theoretical development of five research areas (antisocial and prosocial effects of specific media content, uses and gratifications, agenda setting by the media, cultivation of perceptions of social reality, and the social impact of the Internet) in communication.
For the past 30 years, the effects of antisocial and prosocial content have been popular topics for academic researchers. Over the years, there has been a certain amount of friction between academic researchers and industry executives over the findings of this research. Content analysis, laboratory experiments, surveys, field experiments, observations, and panels are popular methods for media researchers to describe, explain, and predict antisocial and prosocial phenomenon related to media.
The uses and gratifications perspective examines how people use the media and the gratifications they seek and receive from their media behaviors. Uses and gratifications researchers assume that audience members are aware of and can articulate their reasons for consuming various media content. Researchers studying this perspective have relied heavily on the survey method to collect their data. As a first step, researchers have conducted focus groups or have asked respondents to write essays about their reasons for media consumption. Close-ended Likert-type scales are then typically subjected to multivariate statistical techniques.
Agenda setting research examines how the public agenda (the kinds of things people discuss, think, and worry about) is shaped by what the news media choose to publicize. Agenda setting research examines the relationship between media priorities and audience priorities in the relative importance of news topics. Researchers who study agenda setting use content analysis to define the media agenda, and surveys are used to collect data on the audience agenda. Since determining the media agenda and surveying the audience are not done simultaneously, a longitudinal dimension is present. More recently, some studies have used the experimental approach.
Cultivation analysis has concentrated on how the media affect audience perceptions of the real world. The basic assumption is that repeated exposures to consistent media portrayals and themes influence audiences’ perceptions toward the real world as the media depict it. There are two discrete steps in performing a cultivation analysis. First, descriptions of the media world are obtained from periodic content analyses of large blocks of media content. The second step involves surveying audiences about their television exposure, dividing the sample into heavy and light viewers and comparing their answers to the questions that differentiate the television world from the real world.
Finally, most of the research about the Internet examines audience characteristics, functions and uses, and social effects. It is too early to come to any specific conclusions about the social impact of the Internet but it appears that, as far as social relationships are concerned, a “rich get richer” effect has been observed. People who are extroverted increase their social contacts via the Internet.
Exercises
1. Divide your students into groups and ask them to summarize studies about the Internet in academic journals (for example, Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media).
2. Search V-chip in the Internet.
Multiple Choice
1. The first investigation into the possible anti-social effects of mass media was:
a) Research about violent comic books
b) Studies of TV violence during the 1950s
c) The Payne Fund research about violent movies in the 1930s
d) The commission on Obscenity and Pornography’s research in the 1970s
2. Which of the following theoretical rationales have been used to study antisocial and pro-social effects?
a) Social learning theory
b) Two-step flow theory
c) Agenda setting approach
d) The third person effect
3. Which of the following statement about uses and gratifications is appropriate?
a) This perspective takes the view of the media managers
b) Uses and gratification researchers assume that audience members are not active
c) This perspective can articulate their reasons for consuming various media content
d) This perspective has its roots in the 1920s when researchers became interested in why people couldn’t resist media messages
4. The following concern agenda setting. Choose the correct statement.
a) The first empirical test of agenda setting came in the results of a study done during the Cuban missile crisis
b) The agenda setting technique is only used with television news
c) Framing analysis has been called the second level of agenda setting
d) Experimental research is not appropriate to measure agenda setting effect
True/False
1. There has been friction between academic researchers and industry executives with regard to violence research. (T)
2. Uses and gratifications researchers have mainly used laboratory experimental methods to understand why people watch TV. (F)
3. Agenda setting theory examines the relationship between media priorities and audience priorities in the relative importance of news topics. (T)
4. The cultivation differential is measured by subtracting the percentage of heavy views’ television answer to the question from the percentage of light viewers who gave the television answers. (T)
5. Older Americans are among the fastest growing age category of Internet users. (T)
Fill in the Blank
1. (Desensitization) accounts for people who are heavily exposed to violence and antisocial acts becoming less anxious about the consequences.
2. (Closed-ended Likert-type) scales are constructed to measure uses and gratifications
3. How the media choose to portray the issues they cover is called (framing analysis).
4. Gerbner found that heavy television viewers scored higher on a/an (mean world) index than did light viewers.
5. Congress passed the Telecommunications Act of 1996. Part of the act specified that newly manufactured TV sets had to contain a (V-chip), a computer chip that allows parents to block out violent and other objectionable programming from their TV sets.
Short Answer
1. What is mainstreaming?
2. What is resonance in relation to mass media?
3. What affect, if any, does the V-chip have on the freedom of speech and protection for children?
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