Bxscience.edu
PART ONE
Early 1300s – Late 1600s
Birdsa1l Chaps. 1-5, AP Achiever Chaps. 1-5
Emergence of Modern Europe, Renaissances, Reformations and Wars of Religion
EMERGENCE OF MODERN EUROPE
The Great Schism:
-Two Popes ruled simultaneously; one in Rome and the other in Avignon, which caused problems with the Catholic Church
-The Council of Pisa:
-Where a new pope was elected, Alexander V. Pope Gregory XII of Rome and Pope Benedict XIII of Avignon would not step down, which meant three popes now ruled.
-Council of Constance:
-1414-1418
-ended Great Schism and Martin V was elected sole pope and ruled in Rome
Hundred Years War (1337-1453):
-Conflict between England and France
-Ended in English loss of all territories in France
-Weakened the authority of Monarchy in France and England
War of the Roses (1455-1485):
-Lancaster (red rose) vs. York (white rose)
-Lancaster victory
England:
-King Henry VII (1485-1509)
-Suspended Trial by Jury, created Star Chamber (which made king in charge of arrest, trying, punishing) and ended private armies in nobility, strengthens economy. Son is Arthur marries Catherine of Aragon. He died, and Henry VIIII would come to power.
France:
-Louis XI (1461-1483)
-Let France recover from 100 years war and turned into a strong absolute monarchy
-created an effective army
-established royal control over the judicial system
-King Francis I (1515-1547)
-spent too much money on failed wars
-made sure he was in control of the Church
Spain:
-Ferdinand and Isabella
-Developed an extremely powerful army
-Began the Spanish Inquisition; regular ceremonial executions of Jews and Muslims called auto-da-fe, took place
-Jews and Muslims made up most of the merchant class, so the Spanish economy suffered as a result of their expulsion.
-Jews and Muslims moved to Northern Africa, Italy, the Ottoman Empire, Poland, and Russia.
Holy Roman Empire:
-Charles V
-mostly dealt with combating the Protestant Reformation
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
Why it began in Italy:
-Geography
-Mediterranean, therefore center of trade and ancient culture
-was a very urbanized place, which made trade and passing of ideas/ culture easier
-Status
-wealthy merchant class gives rise to ideas of status based on achievement, not just bloodline
-Freedom
-no centralized authority; was left to turn attention to art and culture
Family in Renaissance Italy:
- played a key role in the society. Marriages were paid much attention to; dowries were important because women could rise up in society depending on the size of their dowries. The father was the center of the family, the leader of economic decisions and children relations. The wife managed the household, which gave them autonomy in their daily lives. Females were unable to receive education, besides studying religion, etc. Intellectual women were accepted however the ideal of a good Christian women was the norm.
Writers, Artists and Philosophers:
-Pico Della Mirandola (1463-1494)
-revived Plato’s philosophy in “Oration on the Dignity of Man,” which demonstrated Neo-Platoism. Said that humans have some divinity in them
-Lorenzo de’Medici (1449-1492)
-known as the ‘Magnificent,’ ruled Florence during the Golden Age, a huge patron of the arts and supported or humanism
-Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1526)
-wrote The Prince, first instance of political science, explains that the ends justify the means and gives instructions on how to rule like a fox and lion (sly, devious, and brave and strong); dedicated to the Medici family
-Petrarch (1304-1374)
-‘Father of Humanism,’ popularized the idea that Italy was leaving the Middle Ages time of ignorance, and people should take advantage of the new ideas.
-Was very interested in Latin and love
-Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
-‘Renaissance Man,’ interested in art, anatomy, science, engineering etc.
-works such as Mona Lisa, Last Supper
-Michelangelo (1475-1564)
-works such as David, Pieta, St. Peter’s Basilica
NORTHERN RENAISSANCE: also called Christian Humanism
-Erasmus (1466-1536)
-“Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched”
-wrote ‘Praise of Folly’ which poked fun at the Catholic Church abuses
-Focused more on a way to incorporate religion into classical ideals
PRE-REFORMATION:
Important people/ideas:
-John Wycliffe (1328-1384)
-said Bible was source only of Christian doctrine, and should be made accessible to public, so translated it to English. He rejected papacy and hierarchy of the church, and the Eucharist
-Jan Hus (1369-1415)
-Follower of Wycliffe, spread ideas to Bohemia, and Czechs, until he was killed for expressing his beliefs
^^two above mentioned foreshadowed the Reformations
PROTESTANT REFORMATION:
Causes:
-Church Corruptions
- Indulgences- selling salvations
-Nepotism- giving holy positions to family
-Simony- paying for sacraments and holy offices
-Church and church officials not taxed
-Tithes- church taxes implemented on Monarchs
-Black Death- weakened faith in Church
-Renaissance thinking
-Individualism- people had own worth, wanted personal connection with God
-Humanism-wanted to be educated, idea of not being just told what to think
-Secularism- worldly views, more religions then their own, looked for other connections to God
-Printing Press
Key People/Reformed Religions:
-Martin Luther/ Lutheranism
-95 theses
-Questioned indulgences
-Started Lutheranism
-Diet of Worms-Holy Roman Emperor Charles V tells Luther to recant but he won’t, Charles wants Luther, Luther flees to Germany
-Translates Bible to German
-Peace of Augsburg 1555- allows German states to choose own religion
-believed Christianity was a spiritual connections between God and the people, and rejected the clergy’s participation in religion; also rejected some of the sacraments
- Salvation achieved by good faith not good works
-John Calvin/ Calvinism
-French, humanist education
-believed in predestination and a Geneva of the predestined people
-salvation achieved by good faith and good works show predestined-ness.
-Anabaptists
-believed membership to Christianity was an adult choice and wanted to baptize q adults only
-were too radical for other Catholics and Protestants because they believed in things like polygamy and mystics.
Social Impact:
-Women
-At this time the woman’s role was evolving to have more prominence in society. Catholicism had sanctified the idea of a family, however now marriage was looked on as a way abstain from sin. The conception of family was further developed to be the center of human life with an importance in the relationships between the members. Women were now educated beyond what they had been taught during the Renaissance, which allowed them to formulate their own ideas on religion and the doctrines behind each one. They were the ones who purchased the new pamphlets.
-Education
-More bible reading because it was published in the vernacular, more importance placed on education
Anglicanism and England:
-Henry VIII
-marries Catherine for heir, attracted, keeps alliance w/ Spain, she would take her dowry from Arthur if she left, she can’t give him a son
-falls in love with Anne Boleyn- his mistress, wants to divorce Catherine- claims to pope that the marriage was invalid because she was his brother’s widow, even though it had been previously granted by the pope. Pope says NO.
-Cardinal Woolsey, Henry VIII’s most trusted advisor, comes along and stops the case, unclear why he does this.
-Pope is too busy during the second trial, doesn’t grant annulment.
-Anne tells Henry to look into other types of Christianity in Cambridge.
-He is given advice from CRANMER- Archbishop of Canterbury & CROMWELL- king’s principal secretary to turn divorce into moral issue rather than a legal one.
-Bribes universities into saying marriage should be annulled. Europe turns against Catherine.
-Catherine has supporters, one being Abel, Henry’s advisor, plays double agent when speaking to Charles V. Abel writes book, Henry becomes angry at Abel and Charles V. Henry reads the bible⋄sees there is no mention of the pope, ‘spoke to Henry’s thirst for power and anger about the delayed divorce’, decides to break from the church.
-1533: Henry created Act of Restrain of Appeals- abolished papal authority.
-Henry marries Anne while being married to Catherine. Catherine goes to convent.
-Cromwell grants marriage (Thomas Moore refuses to go along with change of church power⋄imprisoned, condemned to death.)
-First monarch to break with pope and put state above church- secular, humanistic, break came from aristocracy, meaning acts through parliament make England into a state, applied to later life in England. (Takes over Wales and Ireland.)
- (1534) Act of Supremacy-king is the head of Church of England and clergy.
-Limits of clergy: Clergy has to obey common law, bishop have to live bishop ranks, limited power of clergy
-You don’t accept, you die. Had to take oath of supremacy.
-Cromwell controls parliament therefore controls clergy and religion.
-Aristocracy controls Henry
-Henry dissolves monasteries through Guise of Reforms, gives aristocracy land and gives king money. Aristocracy supports king.
- (1536) 10 Articles
-affirm Luther & reject Purgatory
-Confirms Luther’s ideas of faith and salvation
-Protestant
- (1539) - 6 Articles
-Reaffirm celibacy, transubstantiation, power of confession
-Catholic
-Anne Boleyn ends up being executed b/c couldn’t produce an heir or handle being a queen. She had Elizabeth.
-Marries Jane Seymour 1546, has Edward VI, dies during childbirth
-When Henry dies he says Edward is first, then Mary, then Elizabeth.
ENGLAND AFTER HENRY VIII
Succession:
-Edward VI
- 9 years old, Protestant, advised by Cranmer and Duke of Somerset.
-creates Book of Common Prayer: prayers in English, clergy could now marry, removes religious icons.
-dies when 16
-Mary Tudor
-Comes along, aka Bloody Mary, tries to re-Catholicize England- unpopular because people saw her as Spanish and she resented England.
-Marries King Phillip II of Spain
-had many Protestants executed.
-a lot of opposition against her because the people wanted Elizabeth to overtake her because she was Protestant.
-Mary dies after false pregnancy
-Phillip tries to become king but fails
-Elizabeth
- (1558-1608)
-had Renaissance education: well-read and spoke many languages, good writer.
-Finishes infrastructure of Church- develops into modern way
-Was a politique- new monarch who put state first, good leader, create body of people who were loyal to her, patronage to her.
-Protestant, however didn’t worship in public- started to separate church and state
-all is determined by monarch and passed through parliament
-no more communion, clergy cannot marry but she keeps them, no more saints, translates the bible into English, faith by salvation
-Church controls marriage, wills, taxes, tithes
-doesn’t get involved with Church doctrine
-1559- new Act of Supremacy: makes Elizabeth governor of Church
-Creates New England- putting needs of state first
-39 Articles reaffirmed Church of England and bible in English.
-Elizabeth was object of plots (Phillip II)
-Her rein was at the same time of civil war in France and Phillip II’s rule in Spain
-Economy under Elizabeth-
-England was not wealthy, she started to participate in piracy and imposed taxes (Ship money: Coastal town tax, in return they received protection from royal armies)
-Begins market economy: England was exporting and importing-trade
-Wool manufacturing, English cloth ties into Netherlands
- wanted ties to Netherlands b/c they were Protestant
-Enclosure: taking common land to give to Parliament, who would rent/enclose it to farmers who would make money out of the land
-Increased amount of poor people b/c enclosure took away public land and you had to pay for the wheat you were farming and there was plague
-Widespread inflation b/c of the gold and silver brought from the Americas
-Food riots occur, greater amount of highway crime, hookers, priggers of prancers, taxes on windows
-Elizabeth rewarded people with power
-1598- First poor laws: Poor houses for mentally ill to keep them off the streets
-Mortality rates went down, fertility rates went up
-Elizabeth valued sobriety
-Yeoman Farmers were below the aristocracy
-Middle class comes about- commerce, bankers, merchants
-Problems during her reign-
1. Her legitimacy: Catholics never considered Henry and Anne Boleyn’s marriage real
2. Church Excommunicated her
3. No heir
4. Surrounded by only men who thought they were smarter than her
5. Problems handling religious enemies-did not want to alienate a religion; Catholicism is still strong.
6. Went to New World- has Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Wally to gain control
7. Many didn’t believe she was a virgin and she had had an affair- she did not marry though she was popular because she didn’t want to take power from Tudors
-Mary Queen of Scots
-Scottish
-friends with Ruccio, Darmley, and her husband kills Ruccio
-gets put under arrest, flees to England, Elizabeth imprisons Mary and takes her pearls.
-Mary is discovered to be plotting with Catholics and is condemned to death
-Phillip is angered b/c he is Catholic, he sends out the Armada towards England
CATHOLIC REFORMATION:
-Occurred under Pope Paul III, with the help of Jesuits and Ignatius Loyola (if I see something white and the church says it is black then it is black)
-Other Catholic religious orders included the Capuchins, Oratorians, Theatines, Ursulines, and Discalced Carmelites.
-Roman Inquisition –established by papacy to detect heresy in Catholic Church, used torture etc. to find and accuse people of such, and ended in increased censorship (the list of censored books)
-Council of Trent (1545-1563) Cardinals eliminated church abuses and provided better education for priests and regulation of priests as well. Reaffirmed reality of transubstantiation, celibacy of priests, mass, and importance of good works
ANTI-PROTESTANT CRUSADES IN SPAIN:
Occurred under Phillip II:
-Phillip II
-Phillip was the crusader for the Catholic; Very Catholic
-Split Spanish empire into two halves when their father retires, Phillip gets Western half (brother Ferdinand gets other half)
-Had control over Netherlands, Burgundy, Kingdom of Two Sicily, Sardinia, and Balearic Islands as well as Portuguese Empire.
-Intended to spread Christianity throughout his domain
-had the strongest army in Europe-liked to focus on details got the nickname “the King of Papers” as a result
-Renaissance man, traveled Europe
-marries Mary Tudor, making it impossible for England to be part of the Hapsburg empire
-Builds El Escatorial: monastery and castle, burial place for Spanish kings- influence from German monasteries
-Problems with the economy
-Spent too much money on warfare
-Dependent on Americas for income but most of it goes to conquistadors
-Empire was going into debt, but he still fought other countries
-Too much land, not enough money
-Didn’t develop an economic infrastructure because:
-Wanted to put down the revolution in the Netherlands -Wanted to restore English monarchy to Catholics
-Got involved in French wars to make France Catholic.
-Wanted to see a check in the Ottoman’s power
Wars under Phillip:
-Dutch Revolt
-Dutch resented Spanish rule
-Dutch was increasingly Catholic
-Spanish heavily taxed Dutch, and the Dutch realized it
-Duke Alva’s Reign of Terror
-1567, executed rebels
-Ended in Dutch Independence in 1609, but was not officially recognized until Peace of Westphalia in 1648
-Battle of Lepanto (against Turks)
-Greatest Spanish naval victory
-weakened Turkish power in the Mediterranean
-aided by Genovese and Venetian fleets
-Spanish Armada (war with England)
-Phillip hoped to restore England to Catholicism by conquering England
-Encouraged conspiracies against Elizabeth, but these failed
- 1588 decided to execute a naval attack on England
-Luckily for England, there is a huge storm (called the Protestant Wind)
-Spain is no longer a naval power, but England is. Spain used merchant ships which were big, but slow.
-England can see when Spain is going to attack, they send fire-ships into area where Spain has to pass through, and their ships sink.
-England wins, which establishes them as best naval power in Europe, and begins Spain’s decline as a European power.
FRENCH WARS OF RELIGION:
France:
-Ruled by Henry II (r. 1547-1559)
-who was ‘weak willed’
-married to Catherine de’ Medici
-died with three sons, all too young to rule so Catherine took over
-Catherine de Medici
-Problems in France:
-Land ownership = wealth, French did not believe in making money (which is why they did not trust or respect the Medicis, who based wealth the Italian way )
-Does not have acquiescent nobility, nobles would not submit to laws of the state
-Disunity of the nobles’ lands led to Protestantism
-Protestantism split nobles and the crown
-Huguenots (branch of Calvinism) became 10% of the population: had their own armies and forts, wanted the nobles to be on their side, hard to attack
- Is alarmed by the growing strength of the Huguenots and plots their extermination
-Huguenots try to marry Prince Henry of Navarre to Margaret Delvavie (Catherine’s daughter),
-At the wedding Catherine organizes mass murder of Huguenots: Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
-War of the Three Henrys (1585-1589)
-Causes:
-Paris VS Periphery
-Crown VS Nobility
-Catholics VS Calvinists
-Calvinist nobility wanted their own state and Huguenot territories
-3 Major Nobility Families
1) Guise: Catholic, allied with Phillip ⇓Henry Duke of Guise
2) Montmorency: Weakest, not decidedly Catholic or Huguenots ⇓King Henry III
3) Bourbons: Huguenot⇓Henry of Navarre
- Civil war continues until the last man standing remains: Henry of Navarre (Henry Bourbon), who becomes king
-Henry Bourbon (1590s)
-Politique
-wants to unite France under a single faith, so converts to Catholicism to appeal to his people but supports Protestants when he issues the Edicts (word of the king) of Nantes: written by the king and he controls it
-Public part: Huguenots had places they could worship, weren’t allowed to hold certain offices
-Private part: Huguenot nobles could retain fortresses for eight years, crown would help them pay for them, help pay for the armies, allowed to have own religious organization
-Parliament exists to makes sure that the Edicts are carried out, not called often
-King is not the head of the Church in France
-Henry needs an heir- marries Marie Medici, have son,
-Marie brings renaissance into the court
-Duke of Sully is the finance minister- brings economic stability, increase taxes, establish tapestries
-France has settlements in the New World, mainly in Canada, canals which connect them to other trading ports
THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR (1618-1648): Began as a German war of religion but expanded into one fought by much of Europe over political, economic and geographic issues as well.
Causes:
-Peace of Augsburg established Lutheranism as a religion but Calvinism wanted recognition as well
The Bohemian Period (1618-1625):
-Ferdinand a Hapsburg from Syria was elected king of Bohemia as well as Holy Roman Emperor as Ferdinand II
-The Protestant Hapsburgs were worried that they would lose their religious rights which caused vv
-The Calvinist Revolt- Calvinists defenestrated Catholic members of the Bohemian royal council (The Defenestration of Prague)
-Rebels put in a new king, Fredrick V, who was Calvinist
-Catholic victory however, because Emperor Ferdinand II got the help of king Maximillion I of Bavaria and they took back Prague and Palatinate.
The Danish Period (1625-1629):
-King Christian IV, Lutheran king of Denmark, Duke of Holenstein, and prince of HRE intervened in Bohemian period, but was defeated by Ferdinand II
-Treaty of Lubeck gave Holenstein back to Christian IV, but made him promise not to intervene again, so this period also ended in Catholic victory
The Swedish Period (1630-1635):
-King Gustavus Adolphus, Protestant and of Sweden wants to protect the Bohemian Calvinists, and convinced France to join the fight as well
-French sign an alliance with the Swedes and go to war, except they are fighting against the Hapsburgs, rather than against the Catholics
-Changes the religious war, to a political one, because France fears power of the Hapsburgs and wishes to diminish it
-Swedes win repeatedly and Ferdinand loses his commander Wallenstein to the Swedes
-Adolphus dies
-Swedes sign Treaty of Prague which mostly strengthens the Hapsburgs and weakens the Protestant German Princes, once again a Catholic Victory
The French Period (1635-1648):
-End the Treaty of Prague by going to war
-Cardinal Richelieu led
-Ferdinand II dies and his son agrees to peace negotiations
-Protestant victory
The Peace of Westphalia (1648):
-Ended 30 years’ war
-Sweden got west Pomerania
-Brandenburg got east Pomerania
-France annexed Alsace
-Independent Dutch Republic is formally recognized
-Independence of Switzerland is recognized
-German states could make treaties and alliances
-weakened power of HRE
-Peace of Augsburg was expanded to include Calvinists as well as Catholics and Lutherans
-HRE had no hope left of restoring Catholic Europe, it was very fragmented into almost independent states
-France is established is predominant power in Europe ⋄(Still fighting war with Spain which ends in French victory and the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which also contributes to the isolation and decline in power of Spain)
PART TWO
Late 1400s - Mid 1600s – Late 1700s
Birdsall Chaps. 6-10, AP Achiever Chaps. 5-7
Age of Exploration, Constitutional England, Absolute Monarchy France, Dutch Commercial Republic, Emergence of Austria, Prussia and Russia, and 18th century power struggle
AGE OF EXPLORATION (1490-1557):
Motives:
-desire to get rid of the Venetian and Muslim middle-man and get goods from Asia, which were in huge demand and little supply, therefore a very profitable business, encouraged exploration
-Religion (missionaries)
-‘Gold, God, Glory’
Technological/Geographical Advancements:
-improved ship construction
-compass
-astrolabe (latitude)
-more maps (but still pretty inaccurate)
Early Explorers:
-Marco Polo
- (1254-1325) Venetian traveled by land to China
Portuguese Exploration-
-Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal
- funded a lot of explorations and was something of a missionary- spread Catholicism to the New World—understood the implications of exploration and understood new technologies
- Diaz (sailed around Cape of Good Hope in Africa)
- DaGama (created alliances and ports of Cape of Good Hope and reached India)
-Shifted trade to Atlantic
-Set up enterprises in Africa
Spanish Exploration-
-Isabella and Ferdinand fund
-Christopher Columbus
-Cortez⋄Aztecs in Mexico (Moctezuma)
-Pizarro ⋄Incas in Peru (Atahualpa)
-Magellan was first to circumnavigate the globe
-Amerigo Vespucci names America (first applied only to South America, but the New World became America by the late 16th century)
English Exploration-
-Cabot
-made voyages in North America and tried to find a northwest passage to Asia
French Exploration-
-Verrazano⋄Italian and first to enter New York Harbor
-Cartier who established France’s claim to Canada, traveled trough Quebec
ENGLISH CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT:
James I- Came into power 1603, succeeded Elizabeth
-believed in divine right and therefore did not want to consult parliament
-levied new ‘custom duties’ which made parliament angry because he chose favorites who also favored him
-Published his own version of the Bible in 1611King James’ Version of the Bible
-lived large, spent a lot of money, and taxed a lot (even though England was in a lot of debt after Elizabeth)
-Puritans (extreme protestants seeking church reform) had been revolting and trying to fix the Church of England, but he refused to reform the church, so Puritans left for the New World and founded Plymouth colony
-He also tried to ally England with Spain which caused tension because of England’s rocky history with Spain and the fact that Spain was Catholic
-Tried to marry his daughter into the Catholic French Monarchy
-Lessened restrictions on Roman Catholics
-^was too accepting of Catholics for the British
Charles I-Came into power 1625-49
- Parliament passed Petition of Right 1628 which stated that the King was subject to the law, could not loan or tax without consent of parliament or reason (must tell people why), could not declare war without consent of Parliament (in times of peace), could not quarter troops in houses of public, or imprison people without fair trials⋄this was made to be signed by him when he was desperate for money (b/c England was at war with Spain) and Parliament refused to give him money unless he signed
-Continued using ship money which was started by England and made it a requirement to be paid by all citizens
-1629 he dissolved Parliament which made the Petition of Right meaningless
-Had an advisor named Thomas Wentworth, he tried to centralize power and raised money for the King, was a good leader and was strict about people paying taxes
-England was at peace with France and Spain
-Wanted religious conformity
-Scotts rebelled because Charles was not being tolerant enough of their religious views. This made him revert back to Parliament in 1640 so he could fund his suppression of the rebels
-This created Short Parliament which lasted 3 weeks and said that the king had to acknowledge that he needed to approval of Parliament to levy taxes and made protestant reforms to the Anglican Church⋄he then dissolved Parliament once again
-later, in the same year (1640), after Charles’ defeat by the Scotts, he called Parliament back into session. This was Long Parliament and it lasted until 1653, moved to impeach Thomas Wentworth and Archbishop Laud (High Church Archbishop who wanted to strictly enforce Protestant doctrine and kick out Puritans). So they were executed by the one part of the Parliament who was divided into two parts:
House of Commons which was comprised of merchants, lawyers, country gentlemen who were Anglican and a growing number of Puritans⋄ New wealth
House of Lords which was the aristocracy⋄Old wealth
Long parliament made sure it met ever three years at least, and could not be dissolved by the king
-Long Parliament passed the Grand Remonstrance 1641 which was political and religious grievances against the king. In 1642, as a response Charles sent hundreds of troops to arrest 5 members of Parliament
-Left London (capital) and went North with his supporters, while his opposition (Parliament) gathered in London and they went war.
Kings supporters(Great noble families, pious Anglicans and peasants of the area) = cavaliers &
Parliament and supporters (lawyers, merchants, [Scotts in 1603 allied] and puritans. Also Cromwell reorganized army into New Model Army) = roundheads
-1646 Scotts took Charles prisoner and executed him in 1649
Cromwell- takes over as head of the Commonwealth, which is the political power, and was balanced with the council of state (which he did not lead) but dealt with day to day matters
-Freedom of Anglicans and Catholics are restricted because he was a Puritan⋄ closing of theaters, prohibiting dancing, public morality, books restrictions, closes coffee shops and pubs because he does not want exchange of ideas, see below
-Controlled Scotland
-Put down revolt in Ireland (which he also controlled)
-Aggressive foreign policy because he wanted to boost economy after the war though trade
-Constant warfare against Dutch over trade and trading routes
-Creates a government based on Calvinists principles and doesn’t want exchange of ideas
-Dissolved current parliament (Rump parliament) because he did not agree with the people which made it up and created Bear Bone Parliament
-Was called Lord Protector (one man and an army), and first time England was not ruled by a monarch
-Died in 1658
-His son tries to rule as he did but is not successful so monarchy is brought back with Charles II as king
Charles II- 1660 (Restoration)
-Avoided problems with Parliament
-Did not reestablish absolutism
-Parliament passed the Clarenden Code reestablished the Church of England as the state Church, it basically only permitted Anglicans to have a say in religious and political life
-Goes to war against the Dutch, but the English navy is defeated because the Dutch send out burning ships which destroy the English ones
-Parliament doesn’t vote in favor of the taxes he requests to pay for the damage and so he asks for money from Louis XIV which in turn makes him an ally of the French and Charles agrees to help him in his war with the Dutch
-Treaty of Dover- 1670, Charles II secretly signed the treaty with France. The treaty stated that, in exchange for military support (against the Dutch) and money, Charles would try to convert England back to Catholicism and convert back to Catholicism himself
-1672 issued Declaration of Indulgences which removed restrictions on the Catholics
-Parliament forced him to withdraw this and pass the Test Act, which stated that all office leaders must swear their allegiance to and receive communion from the Anglican Church
James II-1685
-Lacked moderation and tried to impose absolutism and promote restoration of Roman Catholicism
-Two protestant daughters, one married to William of Orange (Dutch) and another to a Danish Prince
-1688 James has a son, which created a crisis because he would become a catholic successor, the parts of Parliament: Whigs (lesser aristocracies) and Tories (supporters of the King, land owners) joined together in the Glorious Revolution to go against the King, so they offered to crown to the Dutch ruler, William of Orange, who was James II’s son in law, who accepted the offer and invaded England in the same year.
-This impacted the Dutch (cause a decline) because William of Orange was a good leader there and his power was lost to England
William and Mary of Orange-
-James fled to France without abdicating the throne, so Parliament made it vacant and put William of Orange and Mary on the throne, but required them to accept the English Bill of Rights which was a list of grievances with passed Stewart Kings. It was signed by William of Orange and guaranteed members of Parliament:
-freedom of speech
- that the king would not levy taxes without consent of parliament
-that the king could not maintain a standing army or interfere with Parliamentary elections
-trial by jury and frequent parliament meetings
-The Toleration Act (1689) gave some freedom of worship to non-conformists and led to the end of the Test Act, thus allowing non-conformists to hold office positions.
-They died and left the crown to Anne, Mary’s younger sister
Anne- takes over 1702
-Has no heirs so the Act of Settlement is created, which says that no Catholic can be King of England, including the rightful heirs such as James II’s family
Sophia of Hanover –
-takes over throne as a result of the Act of Settlement of 1701, which guaranteed that Catholics could not take over the English throne.
-Gives birth to George I who becomes king when she dies
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY IN FRANCE
Louis XIII (r. 1610-1643):
-came to power in 1610
- Was only 10 years old when he succeeded his father, Henry IV
-Cardinal Richelieu became chief minister 1621-42
-He made policies to reassert control over nobility⋄sent royal officers into the provinces, called Intendents to collect taxes and enforce laws
-Destroy political privileges of Huguenots-Launched a revolt against the Huguenots and took away their right to hold fortified cities which destroyed their political power, but let them practice freedom of religion
-Increase France’s power in Europe
Mazarin (1602-1661):
-Cardinal Richelieu was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin (who remained with Louis until he died in 1661)
-Mazarin kept France at war with Spain/Hapsburgs until 1659 when they came to peace and France got part of the Spanish Netherlands (Alsace Lorraine?)
-The Fronde, 1648-1653, was the rebellion of the nobles against royal power, and the nobles succeeded⋄ greatly shaped Louis XIV childhood because it made him aware of how severe uprisings could be and made him realize that he did not want to be in that kind of a position in his reign (may explain why he kept the court so close in Versailles)
Louis XIV (r. 1661-1715):
- comes to power in 1661 when Mazarin dies
-Bossuet was Louis’ tutor who taught him through biblical examples about people who were above the law because of divine right. These ideas translated into Louis’ absolutism and view that he did not have to consult others about his decisions as king.
-Colbert was a controller general of the finances of France from 1662-1683. He was the son of a merchant which is important because France was not a trading nation and merchant classes had different ideals and strategies from the rest of the French public⋄ this made the French greatly dislike him because they viewed him as a foreigner. This actually made him do his job better to prove them wrong and made him extremely devoted to Louis because he was in a sense his only ally in the court.
- He sent our professional accountants to all the provinces to collect information about the economy.
-He increased the revenue of the crown by enforcing tax payment and collection. His economic policies were based on mercantilism (promotion of nation economic prosperity by maximizing exports and putting high protective tariffs on foreign products to limit imports, building up amount of gold and silver, and asserting a monopoly on the colonies).
- He promoted the building of roads, canals, and increased France’s merchant fleet, which helped him found and fund French commercial trading companies such as the French East India Trading Company
-The only negative part of his policies was that mercantilism limited innovations of industry and trade
-Spent great sums of money on his court at Versailles, which was lavishly decorated with gardens, and located outside of Paris on the countryside
-Was created because he wanted to make the most beautiful palace in Europe.
-Was created out of a hunting lodge which was already built
-Wanted no chance of a Fronde so he built the royal court so that 50% of the court’s activities revolved around him, as did everything else at the palace –Sun King
-He wanted France to be considered a luxurious place, so he did things like create a cookbook of French cuisine, and opened the Royal Academy of Science.
-He was devout in matters of faith but was not tolerant of anything but Catholic teachings which lead to his campaign against the Jansenists (basically Calvinists) and the Huguenots (Protestants).
-Believed that religious unity was important for political unity so he revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685 and set campaigns against the Huguenots who were forced to convert to Catholicism. Many, however, fled to the Netherlands, England, German Protestant States, Switzerland, and South Africa.
-France lost a lot of its knowledge and skill when they were forced out as well as innovation and trade, so the economy suffered.
-War of Spanish Succession 1701-14 occurred after the death of the last Hapsburg king, the Spanish crown was left to Phillip of Anjou who was Louis’ grandson. The HRE, Leopold, challenged Phillip’s succession because it would offset the balance of power in Europe because Spain and France were two of the most powerful countries in Europe, and so it would be awarding the Bourbon family a great amount of power. This worried England, Holland, and the HRE who went to war. The wars ended in the French signing the Peace of Utrecht which recognized Philip of Anjou as ruler of Spain, but prohibited him, or any of his successors to occupy French throne, because they now had claim to the Spanish throne instead. The wars confirmed the power of the English navies, and the Peace of Utrecht gave them land in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the Hudson Bay area. They were also given the Rock of Gibraltar which was a naval base which was also on the Mediterranean and bordered North Africa, making England the protector of the Mediterranean. Austria gained Naples, Milan, and Sardinia. Prussia becomes recognized as a country.
DUTCH COMMERCIAL REPUBLIC:
Became Europe’s leading commercial power in the first half of the seventeenth-century
How:
-Made use of their resources
-land recovered from sea by use of dams and organized into polders for purposes of diverting water
-Moved into the Portuguese markets in the East Indies and South America
-Established themselves as the ‘middlemen of Europe,’ by ignoring mercantilism and using their fleets to trade with European nations as well as their own colonies
-Created a financial and trade center in Amsterdam, which not only served as a port but housed the Bank of Amsterdam and the Stock Exchange
-Practiced religious toleration
-attracted Huguenots, and Jews who were good merchants and businessmen
Golden Age: 1550-1650:
-“embarrassment of riches,” which focused on art, science, and nature, and was lead by the middle class, unlike the other cultural ages in European countries like France
-people like Vermeer, Rembrandt, Descartes, and Spinoza grew out of the Netherlands
-came to an end after the Anglo-Dutch Naval Wars, over the English Navigation Acts (1651-1660), which tried to restrict Dutch trade with English colonies. This seriously undercut their commercial power and set the stage for the conflict with Louis XIV
EMERGANCE OF AUSTRIA
Consolidation:
-Was difficult due to differenced in
-language
-traditions
-nationalities
-Germans
-Magyars (dominated Hungary)
-Czechs
-Slovaks
-Croatians
-Rumanians
-Italians
-Poles
Leopold I (r. 1675-1705):
-Successfully resisted Ottoman Empire and King Louis XIV of France
-marked successfulness of Prince Eugene of Savoy as Hapsburg general
-acquired Hungary and imposed authority over Magyar aristocracy.
Charles VI (r. 1711-1740):
-took over after his brother Joseph I, who ruled after Leopold I
-Pragmatic Sanction- provided for the inheritance of the Hapsburg holdings by daughter Maria Theresa, asking other countries to recognize her legitimacy and go easy on her.
-After his death, however, Fredrick the Great of Prussia invaded Austrian Silesia, which began the War of Austrian Succession.
Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780):
-War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) – successfully defended her right to inherit Austrian Hapsburg domains, but she lost Silesia to Prussia.
-Her husband was titles Holy Roman Emperor, but he was uninvolved in Austrian politics and there is no dispute that she was the true HRE.
-Was convinced after the war that she should define her domain more clearly so she:
-stripped the regional diets (made up of local nobility) of their administrative functions
-created a centralized bureaucracy
-made German the administrative language throughout Austria
-imposed taxes on the nobility and clergy
-established state control over the administration of the Roman Catholic Church (after being pushed around by the Pope, despite her devoutness)
Joseph II (r. 1765-1790):
-Governed as an enlightened despot after his mother’s death
-initiated a far reaching program of reforms
-In regards to the Catholic Church:
-granted some toleration of other Christian groups and removed some restrictions on the Jews
-confiscated land from monasteries and liquidated monasteries, justifying this with the fact that they were unproductive uses of the land
-Church revenues were allocated to the state, turning clergymen into state employees (bishops and high-ranking church men were required to swear obedience to the ruler
-Reduced power of papacy be requesting that all communications from Rome be forwarded to the ruler
-Reforms:
-Promoted trade by eliminating international tariffs and encouraging road building and river improvements
-Freed the serfs in early 1780s in Austria, Bohemia, Hungary and Transylvania in the hopes of making them more productive
Leopold II:
-had to deal with the turmoil caused by Joseph II’s reforms, so he repealed most of the reforms
EMERGENCE OF PRUSSIA:
(Hohenzollern family ruled as Electors of Brandenburg in 1415, in Northern Germany, but by the late 17th century their holdings were almost as great as the HRE’s domains, and they wanted to unify their land)
Fredrick William, the Great Elector (r. 1640-1688)
-Reduced the independence of the ‘Junkers,’ or nobility, and the estates.
-Required nobility to pay taxes to support the army which he also created, as well as the civil service
-Also required peasantry to pay taxes, and it was they who were given the heaviest tax burden.
-Created a relationship with the Junkers, who became high-ranking officials in the Prussian army, this relationship came to be the basis of Prussian power
-Adopted a policy of religious toleration and welcomed over 20,000 French Huguenots, as well as the Polish Jews into Prussia.
Fredrick I (r. 1688-1713)
-uncharacteristic of Hohenzollerns, because he was not focused on army and administration, but instead on the arts and learning.
-supported HRE during the War of Spanish Succession, and was titled King of Prussia in return, a title which he passed on to his son Fredrick William I
Fredrick William I (r. 1713-1740)
-Imposed strict economies in order to maximize Prussia’s limited resources
-Known as the ‘Sergeant King,’ because he more than doubled the size of the Prussian army, making it the third or fourth biggest army in Europe.
-Army officers became privileged social class
-However, army was a sign of power, not ‘an instrument of aggression,’ and he did not want war.
Fredrick the Great (Fredrick II) (r. 1740-1786)
-Established Prussia’s positions among the great European powers.
-Invaded Silesia starting the War of Austrian Succession. Kept Silesia during the Seven Years’ War, and participated in the Partition of Poland.
-Enlightened Despot; modernized the government by:
-creating bureaus of commerce and industry
-creating more tolls, mines and forestry
-creating a system of indirect taxed, which was a success thanks to help from French
-directing the codification of Prussian law
-abolishing the legal use of torture
-Economic and religious policies:
-promoted expansion of industry
-tariffs created to protect new industry
-internal barriers reduced
-allowed credit to be granted from banks
-new canals could be built
-introduced new crops:
-potatoes and turnips
-permitted Catholics to settle in Lutheran areas
- respected Catholics ways of Silesia
EMERGENCE OF RUSSIA:
(Ruled by the Romanov Family)
Peter the Great (Peter I) (r.1682-1725):
-Became tsar at 10 after death of sickly brother Ivan V
-Fascinated by Western Europe and traveled to Prussia, Netherlands and England, to study shipbuilding, commerce and finance
-wanted to ‘westernize’ Russia
-Asked the Boyars to accept Western culture
-asked them to be clean shaven and adopt western dress
-asked upper-class women to participate in social functions (something which they did not do)
-made nobility serve in the army
-Table of Ranks 1722, stated that social position was based on bureaucracy ranking, or military ranking, not noble status.
-Economic development
-Made Boyars send their sons to Western Europe to learn technical skills
-Encouraged craftsmen and skilled people to come to Russia
-^^All this was very costly and Peter had to tax heavily, on each person in Russia, calling it a Soul tax (known as the poll tax), as well as a tax on caviar and salt
-Divided Russia, because only the upper classes were able to be part of the modernization, therefore the peasants fell by the waist side, more ignorant and stuck than ever
-Helped build Russia’s first navy and a more efficient army
-Was nearly always at war, mostly with Ottoman Turks and Sweden
-The Great Northern War:
-began in 1700
-was fought to expand Russia, especially to the Baltic
-Swedish King defeated Russians at Battle of Navra
-Peter won most wars after that, such as in the battle of Poltava, in which Russia beat the Swedes and exiled Swedish king to Ottoman Empire
-This created the Treaty of Nested (1721), which gave Russia many Baltic territories. These were called Peter’s “Window on the West,” and he established St. Petersburg on the Gulf of Finland as Russia’s new capital to represent Russia’s western orientation.
Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796):
-Ruled after some problems with Peter the Great’s line of succession
-Admired Enlightenment reforms, and corresponded with Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire
-Did little to modernize Russia
– Established a legislative commission, which represented all classes except for the serfs to propose reforms
-Reduced internal barriers to trade, and exported more
-cracked down on the nobility
-owed her position to the nobility so gave them land
- made them fulfill their obligation to serve the state.
-created the Charter of the Nobility which formally recognized the rights of the nobility and gave them full control over the estates and their serfs.
-Participated in the partitions of Poland
-Gained lands in Ottoman Empire along the Black Sea and Turkish Straits after wars which ended with the Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji
18th CENTURY POWER STRUGGLES:
Great Power Rivalries:
-The Quadruple Alliance
-created after treaties signed following War of Spanish Succession
-made between England, France, the Netherlands and Austria
-remained in effect until 1733
-War of Polish Succession (1733-1735)
-French arranged for French king on throne of Poland, but Russia and Austria, worried about France’s increasing power protested.
-Russians sent army to Poland
- (Stanislas-hopeful for Polish throne of France) France, England and Spain against Russia and Austria (rival king of Poland Augustus III)
-Peace settlement stated that Augustus III was king of Poland, victory to Austria and Russia
-War of Jenkins’s Ear
-Broke out in 1739 between Great Britain and Spain over a trade dispute in the colonies.
-England wanted to trade more with Spanish colonies, (a right which they were technically granted under the Peace of Utrecht), but they resorted to smuggling and the French were angered
-Called this because Robert Jenkins complained to the British that the Spanish had cut off his ear, and the British declared war shortly after in 1739.
-France entered war in support of the British
-War of Austrian Succession (as mentioned above, in section about Maria Theresa)
-Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria and Saxony (anti-Austrian alliance) fought against Britain, Netherlands and Austria
-Colonial War
-Started conflict between Great Britain and France in North America and the Indian Ocean; also called King George’s War
-Ended this in Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)
-Diplomatic Revolution
-King Fredrick the Great, of Prussia sought alliance with Great Britain, and promised he would not move against Hanover in the Convention of Westminster (1756)
-Made Franco-Austrian alliance (ended the traditional Hapsburg-French rivalry), which the Russians soon joined onto.
-Basic antagonisms remained: Prussia vs. Austria, and Great Britain vs. France.
-Seven Years’ War (1756-1763):
-War on the continent:
-Fredrick the Great of Prussia invaded Saxony (Austria’s ally) as a preventative measure, because he thought they would be attacked otherwise.
-Britain helped financially
-France was also fighting a colonial war and could not effectively do both
-Eventually, even Russia was not an effective anti-Prussian member because its ruler Peter III was friends with Fredrick the Great, and dropped out of the war, ending with the Treaty of Huberusburg, which officially recognized Prussian control over Silesia.
-War in the colonies (Also called French and Indian War):
-King Louis XV of France with Spanish support against Great Britain
-British won in North America, the Caribbean, and India thanks to William Pitt the Elder, a brilliant military leader
-Settled by Treaty of Paris (1756)
-Britain gained control of North America east of the Mississippi River, as well as Canada and gained dominant position in India which became the “crown jewel of the British Empire”
-Began English domination in India which greatly impacted both countries
-Set the stage for the French Revolution by increasing monarchy’s debt, and criticism of the monarchy
-British wanted British colonists to pay for the war which was the kind of conflict that would lead to the American Revolution
-colonists were happy to be free of French threats
-confirmed the dualism in Germany of Austria and Prussia
-American Revolution
-Declaration of Independence 1776
-Treaty of Paris (Sept. 1783)
-British formally recognized independence of the thirteen colonies.
-British got Tobago
-Spain got Florida and Mediterranean island of Minorca
-France got Senegal
-Impact on Europe was that other countries realized that they too could revolt
-Partitions of Poland
-Because of their ineffective ruling the rest of Europe intervened regularly
- In 1764 Catherine dictated the election of her friend, Stanislaw August Poniatowski, as king of Poland.
-Fredrick the Great of Prussia intervened to stop Russia from taking over Poland with the First Partition of Poland:
-1772
-Poland lost about half of its population, and a third of its territory
-Prussia acquired most of West Prussia, uniting West and East Prussia under Fredrick the Great.
-Russia got part of Belorussia (White Russia)
-Austrians got province of Galicia
-Second Partition of Poland:
-1793
-Russia got most of Lithuania and Western Ukraine
-Prussia got seaport around Danzig and some territory in West Poland
-Third Partition of Poland:
-1794
-Polish revolt broke out, headed by Thaddeus Kosciuszko
-Poland no longer existed as an independent state
-Prussia took area around Warsaw
-Austria got Cracow region
-Russia got the rest of Lithuania and the Ukraine
-these provided buffer zones against Austrian and Prussian neighbors
PART THREE
Mid 1600s – Late 1700s
Birdsall Chaps. 11-15, AP Achiever Chaps. 7-10
The Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, the French Revolution, Napoleonic Era
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION:
Old Science:
-Aristotle
-Ptolemy
-^Aristotelian-Ptolemaic view
-the ‘logical’ belief that the earth is in the center of the universe, with other planets and sun moving around it in perfect circles
-heavens were made of a different substance than earth, fire, water, and wind
-^humans could employ their logical, rational reasoning to describe nature and determine fact
-Galen
-human body contained four humors:
-blood
-phlegm
-yellow bile
-black bile
-bodily disorders came from an imbalance in these humors
-led to the medical idea of induced vomiting and bleeding out
Revolution in Astronomy:
-Copernicus (1473-1543)
- Heliocentricity: hypothesized that the sun was the center of the universe
- wrote a book called On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres.
-Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
- Used the laboratory to study stars and planets
-was wrong about most things, but his data was on the right path to proving that the earth circled the sun, so it was helpful for future scientists despite the fact that he, himself refused to embrace the heliocentricity of the world
-Codger and lived on an island
-Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
- Developed the three laws of planetary motion:
- planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits,
- the velocity of the planets’ orbits depends on their distance from the sun, -and the third is irrelevant.
-Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
- The first to use the telescope for astronomical observation
-which proved the heliocentricity through visuals.
- He had a book called Dialogue on Two Chief Systems of the World,
-these books were condemned by the Church and he was put in house arrest for the rest of his life.
- developed the theory of the pendulum and the principle of inertia.
-Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
– Discovered gravity, (law of universal gravitation—a mathematical explanation for gravity)
-which was huge because this answered the ‘why’ behind man earlier scientific discoveries.
-He had three laws of motion.
-Proved everything through math,
- was significant because it enabled theories to be widely accepted as people could verify that the math made sense.
Scientific Methodology and the Promotion of Science:
-Frances Bacon (1561-1626)
- (English) created the inductive method
- Involved collecting and analyzing data. The analysis of this data created trends.
-Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
- (French) promoted the deductive method
-involved reasoning out a general law from specific cases and then applying it to cases that have not been observed.
-Believed that all past knowledge should be wiped away and all common knowledge should be doubted
-doubt everything, unless you can prove it for yourself.
-all he could be sure of was his famous conclusion: “I think, therefore I am.”
- Cartesian Duality- things can be divided into the mind,
-uses reason to gain reality or freedom
-the body, which is the material world, is the matter part of duality
- Intangible thinking, is the mind part of duality
Advances in Anatomy and Medicine:
-Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
-The Structure of the Human Body
-The Microscope
-William Harvey (1578-1657)
- First to demonstrate the circulation of the blood and the function the heart.
-Used Vesalius’ work to make his advancements
Despite all of these advancements, few practical changes occurred in medicine until the 19th century
Women and Science:
-Women:
-were excluded from universities and scientific societies and received inferior education to men
-science was used against them, as anatomy was used to prove that through their different body features they were inferior
-however, there were some exceptions, and women made up about 15 percent of German astronomers and the 17th-18th century thanks to the German craft tradition, where daughters could work with their fathers
-Maria Winkelmann (1670-1720)
-discovered the comet
-helped to prepare the astronomical calendar for the Berlin Academy of Sciences, to which she was still never allowed to attend
-Maria Sybille Merian (1647-1717)
-Traveled South America to study insects and wrote Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam, which became standard in the field of epidemiology.
-Dorothea Erxleben (1715-1762)
-One of the first women to earn a medical degree from a university
THE ENLIGHTENMENT:
-leading thinkers were French, which is why the thinkers of the time were called philosophs, the French word for philosophers. Although, they were less philosophers, and more critics of the ‘old regime’
-emphasized rationalism and believed that they could help people work towards a more perfect condition.
- Thomas Hobbes
- Believed in a social contract which the public should enter into willingly in order to achieve a stable society.
-People needed to be ruled because their state of nature was chaotic and caused violence/war (war is the greatest fear of man), so it had to be avoided.
-The people might have to compromise rights in order to serve the majority of the people. -The government should have the people’s interests in mind but are absolute and do have the right to use violence against the people whenever they see fit. Government is meant to control. Wrote the Leviathan]
-John Locke (1632-1704)
- Wrote essays about human understanding and the second treatise.
-He believed that humans were greatly influenced by their surroundings, so they could be badly influenced if the government did not intervene.
-People come together in a social government which creates their natural (and inalienable) rights of life, liberty, and property.
-The authority of the government is derived from the consent of the people (this was what Hobbes believed also), which is why he thought when the government failed the aspects of the social contract- did not uphold the people’s rights, or tried to be too absolute, the people could rebel.
-He also thought government’s power should be checked, and came up with the idea of branches of government. (He also had one of the best arguments for equality because he said that people were influenced by their environments, so they were born with a blank slate—still used in defense of equality today)
-Voltaire (1694-1778)
– Writer of the Old Regime, wrote Candide which attacked superstition, religious prosecution, optimism, and suggested progress and reflection.
-Voltaire was an advocate of Deism, which believed in a creator God, who set the world in motion to operate in accordance with natural laws (this idea was caused by Newton’s mechanistic cosmology). This God did not interfere with the operation of his created. He was not involved with people’s daily lives and did not respond to prayer.
-He was French but admired English toleration of religion and politics. He admired their constitutional government and criticized France’s absolutism.
-a proponent of Enlightened Despotism
- Involved the idea that an absolute ruler would use his power to promote enlightened reform, but they remained absolute.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
– Urged reforms in education and government.
- Believed that people had been corrupted by civilization, so they needed a natural education free of corruption and artificiality of society—people need experience.
-Wrote Social Contract, which was a treatise on politics and government, although government restricted freedom it was a necessary evil. Creating a balance between government and individual liberty would be ideal.
-“All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains.”
-Stressed the role of an individual as a member of society (his contract said members of society agreed to be ruled by their general will- which was to be ruled, therefore obedience with the general will was an act of freedom.
-This helped promoted Democratic ideals because it promoted that sovereignty resides with the people.
-emphasized the importance of emotion and passion
-Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
– Did not believe in an ideal political system; thought that there were different systems for different countries are necessary (so did Baruch Spinoza), depending on the size of the area, the population, the economic system and social/religious traditions.
-Admired constitutional monarchy of Britain and advocated it for France. Wrote The Spirit of the Laws, which set forth separation of power between executive, judicial and legislative branches of government—places limits on the executive power and protected citizen’s rights.
-Denis Diderot (1713-1748)
-edited the Encyclopedia
-a compendium of knowledge
-a means for spreading philosophies
-Adam Smith (1723-1790)
– Wrote the Wealth of Nations, which attacked mercantilism and rallied for consumption to stimulate the economy.
-Mercantilism also only benefitted one country which proved a problem ex: America
-He had to get past the Church instated morals which went against indulging in products—buying, selling, and lending were the basis of national wealth along with production, all of which enabled countries to have stable national economies, unlike those created in mercantilism.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION:
Causes (Summary):
-Failure of Enlightenment despots in France to satisfy all social classes.
-Dissatisfaction with the Ancient Regime.
-High taxation of the poor to support the luxurious lifestyle at Versailles and of the upper clergy.
-Social class unrest ⋄ vast social inequality (Three Estates); no real social mobility.
-The government isolates itself from the problems of the poor.
- War debts ⋄ eventual financial collapse.
-Ideas of the Enlightenment.
Causes (Expanded):
-The Estates General
-The three estates of the Estates General
-The First Estate was the clergy
-Although they were a small group (numbering about 100,000), they owned 10% of all the land in France
-They did not pay regular taxes, although they were expected to make a "voluntary gift" to the Crown every three years
-The Second Estate was the nobility
-They numbered about 400,000, but owned 25% of the land
-They were very lightly taxed, and enjoyed age-old legal privileges
-The Third Estate included everyone else--about some 25 million commoners
-The Third Estate was comprised chiefly of peasants and the urban poor, but there were a growing number of prosperous, educated members of the middle class (the bourgeoisie)
-This bourgeoisie would become the leaders of the Third Estate and drive much of the French Revolution.
-There was a rift between the people who wanted to stay with the Old Regime (first and second estate), and those who wanted to change the role of government (third estate and sometimes second estate)
-The nobles did things like assert the power of Parlement to check the King’s ability to tax, to which King Louis XV responded by Dissolving the Parlement of Paris.
-The third estate hated the arbitrary power of the monarch, like the letters de cachet, which allowed the monarch to arrest and imprison people with no judicial procedures. People passed on stories of innocents rotting in Bastille which angered the public
-Marie Antoinette was considered impure, and was misunderstood by the French, while her husband was an unsuccessful ruler, which cause deeper resentment of the government by the Third Estate
-The enlightenment provided ideas of expressing grievances, which influenced the nature of the French Revolution
-France faced a huge amount of debt and an economic crisis, which Louis XVI tried to rectify with a myriad of finance ministers:
-Turgot- attacked privilege, and wanted the peasantry to be paid in cash rather than by the corvee system
-Necker-completed and accounting of the state budget and revealed incredible problems, so he tried to reform the economy. He was originally dismissed, but brought back by the king in the early revolutionary stages in 1789
-Calonne- picked an Assembly of Notables in 1787 to approve new taxes
-Brienne- convinced Louis temporarily to play hard ball and intimidate the parlements, who would not consent to a new financial system, but this made I. Causes of the Revolution:
Phases of the Revolution (Summary):
-absolutism ⋄ Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (1774-1789)
-limited constitutional monarchy ⋄Legislative Assembly (middle class is in charge) (1790-1791)
-Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
-Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
-Constitution of 1791.
-First French Republic ⋄ National Convention (1791-1792)
-Monarchy tries to flee the country
-King and Queen executed.
-France engaged in foreign wars against the First Coalition.
-Radical phase ⋄ "Reign of Terror" under Robespierre 1792-1795
-Committee of Public Safety.
-Jacobins.
-Sans-culottes and the revolt of the lower classes in the cities (Paris Commune)
-Thermidorean Reaction ⋄ Directory (1795-1799)
- weak, with little support outside of the military.
- government in the hands of the property owners who did nothing to relieve the problems of the lower classes (conservative reaction to the radicalism of the Terror).
-The Consulate ⋄ “enlightened despotism” of Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1801)
The Liberal Phase (1789-1791):
-Money Troubles caused by a poor harvests leave tax revenues low, many rebellions needed quashing, so in 1789 Louis tried to tax the nobles
-He calls the first Estates General (their congress) since 1607 (that’s 182 years!)
-King Louis has the French people write down their grievances in notebooks called the cahiers de doleances, where they talk about wanting tax equality and gradual abolition of serfdom—the people gathered to discuss these ideas
-The first and second estates dominated the talks, were given an uneven vote and advantage
-The third estate urged reform, relief for the poor, and an equal voice
After weeks of arguing, the Third Estate leaves the talks and convenes on the King’s Tennis court
-The Tennis Court Oath (1789) – a vow to save France from her ruin
-Conservatives gather on the right, liberals on the left
-They call themselves “The National Assembly” and pledge not to disband without writing a new constitution for France in the name of the French people
-July 14, 1789: Known as Bastille Day (France’s 4th of July)
-Random riots throughout the streets of Paris by people rearing the King’s military power
-A mob showed up at the King’s prison – la Bastille, they were looking for guns
- The guards gave up voluntarily, but history recorded it as a massive rush for the gates.
-Word of the success caused riots in other cities
-In the country, landlords were attacked by peasants: Food stores were looted.
-In the weeks that followed, the king acted indecisively
-Sentiment for his removal began to grow
-August 4, 1789
-National Assembly passed laws ending serfdom and feudalism – all class privilege
-“Liberty, equality, fraternity” became the slogan of the times
-Wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
-Very much like our Declaration of Independence
- Called for the creation of a limited power monarchy – like that of Britain
-1789-1792 –
-Royal family caught during an escape in 1790 – they are kept under constant watch
-Church lands confiscated and sold to pay extraordinary public debt
-Radicals called for death of the king and nobles – moderates tried for calm
-Ideas were discussed in political clubs like Paris’ Jacobin Club
-Many parts of country periodically erupt into chaos
-The National Assembly gave up the idea of limited monarchy and dissolved the legislature
-abolished all feudal institutions, parlements, estates, provincial law codes etc. and replaced them with 83 equal departments, giving France a centralized government centered in Paris
-Renamed themselves the National Convention and depose the king
-The National Assembly attacked the privilege of the Catholic Church
-confiscated lands owned by the Church
-issued paper currency, assignats
-diminished papal control over the clergy after Church was brought under the control of the state
-Civil constitution of the Clergy requires priests to swear an oath of loyalty to the revolution
-those who don’t are called nonjuring clergy, and they served as a rallying point for the counter revolution
-The National Assembly completes the Constitution of 1791,
-conservative
-created a single legislative body with a constitutional monarchy possessing power to delay the legislature
-separates “active citizens” (those owning land), from “passive citizens”
-The King tries to flee, but he is caught which causes the Champs de Mars Massacre, a crowd gathers and demands to dissolve the monarchy, so the National guard intervenes and kills 50. This radicalizes the revolution
- Upper class people being targeted by mobs in random violence
Thousands of nobles killed by government decree
-Edmund Burke, English conservative condemns the destruction of France
-The radical group Jacobins gains power
The Radical Phase (1792-1794):
-Summer of 1792 – Austria (then led by Marie Antoinette’s brother) threatens war with France
-France declares war on Austria
-and provokes Prussian declaration
-Paris Commune forms under George Danton, which tries to radicalize the moderates, and is assisted by journalist Paul Marat
- National Convention forms after a storming of the palace, and arresting the king
-formally abolishes monarchy
-they revoke the Constitution of 1791
-this is known as the “Second Revolution”
-September Massacres
-Austrian-Prussian revolutionaries break into French prisons and kill all in their path
-National convention wins a battle at Valmy, and declares that France is a Republic
- Execution of Louis XVI by guillotine which starts the Reign of Terror:
-Robespierre (1758-1794) comes to dominate the Convention with pressure from the Sans-culottes (working people of Paris), representing the Jacobin party
-Passes the Constitution of 1793
-is never put into effect
-democratic
-Levee en Masse
-Law of General Maximum – taxes heavily necessities and severely punishes non compliers
-Abolishes slavery
-Revolutionary calendar is created as a part of de-Christianization
-De-Christianization continues with the abolition of saints-days with the Festival of Supreme being
-Weight and measure are standardized
-Invades the Netherlands and creates a Batavian Republic to replaces old Dutch provinces
-For the next year France is ruled by the Committee of Public Safety
-12-member executive body elected each month by the National Convention
-aided by the Committee of General Safety, police arm of the revolution
-Robespierre is arrested and guillotined, end of reign of terror
Thermidor and the Directory (1795-1799):
-Constitution of Year III is instated by the Convention
-all males can vote, but their votes are filtered through well-to-do electors who choose representatives for the two-chamber assembly
-this period was ruled by the Directory
-A socialist government attempts to take over, with the Conspiracy of Equals, but they are stopped and killed
-Directory is led by Napoleon Bonaparte
Results:
-Democratic ideals established in France ⋄ Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite!
-Intensified French nationalism.
-The French Revolution influenced peoples throughout the world.
-A society and a political structure based on rank and birth had given way to one based on civil equality.
-Representation of the people was established as a principle of practical politics.
-Eliminated feudal obligations of peasants, destroyed guilds, and other obstacles to the growth of French industry and agriculture.
THE NAPOLIONIC ERA (1799-1814):
Rise of Napoleon:
-Out of the instability and uncertainty of the Directory years (1794-99) rose Napoleon Bonaparte, who had distinguished himself in French military campaigns against the Austrians in northern Italy
-Although a minor nobleman from Corsica, Napoleon had embraced some of the ideals of the French Revolution
-With the government in disarray, Napoleon launched a successful coup d'etat on November 9, 1799
Napoleon becomes Emperor:
-He proclaimed himself "First Consul" (Caesar's title) and did away with the elected Assembly (appointing a Senate instead)
-In 1802, he made himself sole "Consul for Life," and two years later proclaimed himself "Emperor”
-Each such increase in power was ratified by a vote of the people, known as a plebiscite, (a favorite tool of modern dictators including the 20th century's Adolf Hitler)
-Thus Napoleon had established the same sort of royal centralization (really a dictatorship) that public opinion had so roundly condemned at the start of the French Revolution in 1789
-His government permitted no organized opposition
-The number of newspapers was reduced, and remaining newspapers were heavily censored
-A secret police perfected suppression and surveillance techniques to silence liberal intellectuals and former political activists
-Napoleon and the Catholic Church
-Through an 1801 Concordat with the Vatican, Napoleon sought to heal the divisions with the Catholic Church that had developed after the confiscation of church property and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy
-But Napoleon's clear intent was to use the clergy to prop up his regime
-The pulpit and the primary school both became instruments of social control "to bind the religious conscience of the people to the august person of the emperor"
-Eventually, Pope Pius VII renounced the Concordat and Napoleon had him brought to France and placed under house arrest
-The Napoleonic Code
-To Napoleon, civil equality and the abolition of the remaining vestiges of feudalism were more important than popular control, freedom, or democracy
-Thus a Napoleonic Code (legal system) would be his most lasting legacy
-Wherever it was implemented (in France and conquered territories) the Code swept away feudal property relations
-It established the right to choose one's occupation, to receive equal treatment under the law, and to enjoy religious freedom
-But the Code also allowed employers to dominate their workers by prohibiting strikes and trade unions
-Napoleon also reversed some of the Revolutionary legislation that had established civil rights for women and children
-The Napoleonic Code curtailed the right of divorce, and deprived wives of the property rights established by the National Assembly and National Convention during the 1790's
-"A wife owes obedience to her husband," declared Napoleon
-Napoleon as Commander-in-Chief
-By 1808, every major European power except Great Britain had been defeated by the French on the battlefield
-Napoleon's control extended over most of western and central Europe
-He created Republics in Italy, the Low Countries and Switzerland, usually appointing his relatives to ruling positions
-Abolished feudalism in the places he conquered
-Abolished the HRE when he conquered it, creating 35 states with the Confederation of the Rhine
-The most important element in Napoleon's military success was conscription (drafting) and France's large population
-In 1793, the National Convention had passed a law drafting (levee en masse) all able-bodied unmarried men between 18 and 25
-But this was meant to be a one-time-only emergency measure against the Prussians, who had gone to war with France in 1792 -Napoleon made the conscription permanent, did away with the marriage exemption, and created an elaborate system in which local governments were responsible for supplying a yearly quota of French troops
-By 1810, that quota had risen to 120,000 (remember, France's population on the eve of the Revolution was about 25 million)
-The Continental System
-After defeating his enemies on the continent of Europe, Napoleon sought to gain economic control of Europe
-He established the "Continental System" by which the French basically controlled all foreign trade on the continent
-In addition to increasing the wealth of France, this system also sought to basically starve his only remaining enemy, Great Britain, into submission
-Although it had some success, the British were able to remain standing because of their colonial empire
-Also, many countries, such as Prussia and Russia, wanted British manufactured goods--smuggling became the way of beating the system
-Eventually, Napoleon returned to war because the Continental System failed in its goals
-Peninsula War occurred when Napoleon replaced the Bourbon king with his brother. The British helped the Spanish take down Napoleon with Guerilla warfare.
The Defeat of Napoleon:
-Allied armies invaded Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate his throne
-He is sent off into exile to the island of Elba (of palindrome fame), off the coast of Italy
PART FOUR
1800s
Birdsall Chaps. 16--22, AP Achiever Chaps 11
First Industrial Revolution, Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe, the ISMs, Reform and Revolution (including Revolutions of 1848)
FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:
CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND CONCERT OF EUROPE
The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815):
-Guided by legitimacy, compensation and the balance of power
-With Napoleon's final defeat, the victorious members of the Quadruple Alliance set out to restore European monarchies and suppress the liberalism and nationalism of the French Revolution
-The leading architect of this conservative response was an Austrian aristocrat named Clemens von Metternich (1773-1859)
- Metternich and others redrew the map of Europe and created a system of alliances meant to stop further revolutionary movements and maintain a balance of power among the great nations of Europe
-France’s Goals: (Under Talleyrand)
-Wanted to be readmitted as one of the great powers
-Won over Metternich by exposing the secret plan of Prussia and Russia to take Poland and Saxony for themselves
-Britain’s Goals: (Under Castlereagh)
-Did not want to be in the business of crushing revolutions, only wanted to stabilize the balance of power in Europe
-Prussia’s Goals: (Under Prince von Hardenberg)
-Least influential
-Followed the lead of Austria
-Wanted Saxony
-Russia’s Goals: (Under Alexander I)
-Wanted Poland
-Wanted to stop “godless revolutions”
Results:
-Territorial Adjustments:
-Prussia gained 40% of Saxony
-Alexander I named king of Poland (though in reality rules the Congress of Poland)
-39-state German Confederation was created, headed by Austria
-France had to give back any conquests made by Napoleon
-Alliances:
-Holly Alliance: Austria, Prussia and Russia
-Quadruple Alliance: Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia
-Quintuple Alliance: Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia + France
-Indemnities:
-France had to return the art stolen during the Napoleonic era, and France was occupied by an army until 1818
-Collective Security:
-The powers agreed to meet periodically to discuss concerns etc. to maintain stability this was called the Concert of Europe
Concert of Europe:
-Congress of Aix-La-Chapelle, (1818): army of occupation was removed from France, which was allowed into the Quintuple Alliance because of their ‘good behavior’
-Congress of Troppau, (1820): Revolutions in Spain and Naples forced their kings to admit constitutional limits on royal power. Austria also subdued revolution in Italy
-Congress of Verona, (1822): America Issued the Monroe Doctrine, warning against colonial efforts. French were authorized to subdue Spanish threats to the monarchy and punished revolutionaries
The concert of Europe never met after this, Conservatives held the most power, but where hanging from a thread
Reaction to Concert of Europe and Congress of Vienna:
-Great Britain:
-Conservative Tories controlled politics
-cleared away radicalism, usually with censorship
-Corn Laws: protected British grain from competition, and harming consumers with higher prices
-Democratic movements asked for reform but where often treated violently by the government such as in the Peterloo Massacre
-However, there was a gradual loosing of repression in the 1820s, leading to the Liberal reforms of 1830
-Germany:
-Metternich censored the press and made government officials supervise universities with the Carlsbad Decrees (1819)
- Russia:
-Decembrist Revolt occurred because the people desired a more liberal leader that Nicholas I, who crushed the revolt and created a motto “Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationality” as he relied on the secret police, religious uniformity, and imposition of Russian language and culture.
THE ISMs:
Conservatism:
-disagreed with the enlightenment theories that humans were rational; they believed that human nature was driven by passion. Edmund Burke became the leading advocate for change through adaptation, not revolutions. He believed humans were capable of reason, but often used at an excuse for selfish actions. He believed traditions and culture were important and should not be taken lightly. Conservative philosophy supported the restoration governments which took over post-1815.
Liberalism:
-was based on enlightenment and revolutionary ideals of reason, progress, and individual rights. Economically, Liberals embraced laissez-fare (from Adam Smith) capitalism, and strong protection of private property. The favored the social contract theory of limited and supported John Locke’s theories and as the best guarantee of religious toleration and individual rights. Liberals came from the middle class and supported a more supported and more representative government, as well as more suffrage, for people other than land-holders. British philosopher Jeremy Bentham advocated for Utilitarianism, which distinguished between the ideas of “good,” and “bad,” and proposed to make a government that promoted what would be “good for the greatest number.” He wanted a separation of Church and state, women’s rights, and an abolition of slavery. John Stuart Mill continued with Utilitarianism and gave an eloquent defense of freedom of expression in On Liberty, and also advocated for female suffrage in Parliament.
Socialism:
-began with Republicanism and radicalism, supported by people who came from the working class. They wanted equality and universal male suffrage. They hated the capitalist system, calling it unjust and unequal, and supported social and economic planning instead. Other supports were: Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, Henri de Saint- Simon etc.
-Branched off into Utopian Socialism and Marxism (led by Karl Marx and Robert Engle, who preached that everything was based on class conflict, which would eventually lead to a revolution of the proletariat, or working people)
Feminism:
-Supported by famous people like Jane Austin, Mary Wollenstonecraft, and Mills etc.
-They wanted more education for women and more legal, property, and political rights
Nationalism:
-Was the most combustible idea of the 19th century, self explanatory but arrived out of the French Revolution, cause the revolutions of 1848, the Pan-Slavic movement, and even partially the World Wars
Romanticism:
-a literary, musical, and artistic movement which rejected the Enlightenment ideas of reason and science, and instead stressed
-emotion (which they got from Rousseau, expressed passion and creativity)
-intuition (science alone is not the full truth, there is imagination and the “mind’s eye”)
-nature (drew inspiration from nature’s awe, mysteries and power)
-nationalism (connections to culture, and history)
-religion (spirituality, mysticism, and emotions became more influential in religion)
-the unique individual (all humans, not those with talent, but the idea of humanity as a whole, almost like humanism)
REFORM AND REVOLTION (including Revolutions of 1848):
Revolutions of 1830-1831:
Revolutions of 1848:
-France:
-Caused by Louis Philippe’s cancellation of the banquet campaign, an effort of liberals to get more suffrage, caused Paris revolts
-Leaders throughout the period include: Louis Philippe, Louis Blanc, and Louis Napoleon
-Results Second Republic, lead by Napoleon, who exploits fear of a socialist government in order to create authoritarian rule
-Prussia:
-Inspired by French example, liberals revolted against Prussian monarch in Berlin
-under Fredrick William IV
-Liberals failed to overthrow government, but did get the 1850 Constitution passed, which provided representation in government of the three-tiered class voters
-Frankfurt:
-Inspired by Prussian liberals in Berlin, liberals overthrew the government and delegates were elected to discuss German Unification
-Fredrick William IV rejected the “crown from the gutter” and German ` Unification
-Austria:
-Caused by a worker/student rebellion in Vienna, causing Metternich to flee to Britain
-Franz Joseph II came to throne and reestablished control, rejected the constitution of 1851, and worked toward re-centralization
-Prague:
-Slavs wanted unification after seeing the turmoil in the Austrian Empire
-Their attempts were futile but Slavic nationalism prevailed, and eventually was a major factor of WWI
-Budapest:
-Paris riots influenced the Hungarian Diet to proclaim liberty for the Magyars (an ethnic minority in Austria)
-Russians helped the Austrians to crush the revolution, but the restlessness of the Magyars has not faded
-Italy:
-revolted against Austrian control over Italy
-serfdom is abolished in some states
-Piedmont got a constitution and freedom
-set stage for Italian unification
How Britain Avoided Revolutions of 1848:
-Adapted to the challenge of liberalism
-Incorporated new industrial bourgeoisie and provided orderly representation for new cities
-Passed the Reform Act of 1832, which doubled the number of males who could vote, but retained the property requirement
-Abolished slavery in 1833
-Poor Law of 1834 (which later punished the poor by forcing them into work houses, acting as if they were poor because of laziness not bad fortune, but at this time, was thought of as a good thing)
-Repealed the Corn Laws, which made people happy, because Liberals supported free- trade which was severely restricted by these laws
-Factory Act of 1833, Mines Act (banned women and children from mines), and Ten Hours Act, (which limited hours in textile mills)
PART FIVE
Mid 1800s-Early 1900s
Birdsall Chaps. 23-26, AP Achiever Chaps 12-13
Italian and German Unification, Second Industrial Revolution, 19th -20th Century Europe (Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary)
ITALIAN AND GERMAN UNIFICATION:
Italian Unification:
-After failed revolutions of 1848 there was a period called the Resurgence in Italy, and Italy was divided into the Kingdom of Two Sicilies (ruled by Bourbon, in South), The Papal States (ruled by Pope, in center), and Tuscany, Medina and Parma (Austrian rule and in North) [rest of Italy became part of the Austrian Empire]
-Italy still wanted unification, and matters were taken into more capable hands; Camillo Cavour
-He was the unifier of Italy, lived from 1810-1861. He admired Britain and France’s constitutional governments and progressiveness. He was made Finance minister in 1851. He was from Piedmont.
- 1861, established United Kingdom of Italy, he was a liberalist and nationalist and made Italy a liberal constitutional state.
- Helped Piedmont become part of Italy, which it did through a mix of voting and war⇓he provoked Austria to start this war, and other states saw the independence of Piedmont and wanted to join it.
-In Sicily, in 1860, people revolted against Bourbon ruler Francis II, so Garibaldi intervened, king of Piedmont, Manuel II helped Garibaldi, and so Cavour had possession of Papal States besides Rome.
-Then, with the help of Garibaldi and the Red Shirts, and Napoleon III, he got control of the Papal States, aka, Rome, and pushed the Pope to only control the Vatican City.
-He also fought against Austria, with the help of Napoleon III, eventually acquired Lombardi and Venetia (the parts of Italy under Austrian rule), as well as Tuscany, Medina and Parma.
-He had to give up Savoy and Niece to France in return for Napoleon’s help.
-Cavour died 2 years after unifying Italy, and because no one could continue his legacy, Italy went back to a weak government.
-Italy was basically unified by 1870
- New state is corrupt and dos not function well under parliament. It is a Parliamentary state, not a democratic one. ⇓Becomes a ‘wannabe’ great power
-There are still tensions between North and South because they have different language, culture and lands so transition is hard
-Papacy did not recognize the New State; people also were conflicted about whether they could be anti-clerical and good Catholics.
German Unification:
-After 1848, German confederation was just a loose group of states and Austria was the most powerful (Hapsburgs), and after them were the Prussians (Hohenzollern)
-Prussia wanted to unify Germany and knew there were two ways of doing so, Large Germany, and Small Germany. They decided to go for the small Germany which would cut out Austria, as they were Catholics, unlike the mostly Protestant Germany. Prussia was also in control of great armies, had control of the Rhine, and had a steady ruling family. The small Germany idea would create a country centered around Prussia. The only problem was that this required a constitution, something that the Prussian King would not do (then came the crazy Fredrick William IV, and finally William I was willing).
-the liberal nationalists were weakened and Bismarck (1815-1898) came about.
-He originally represented Prussia at the Diet of the German Confederation in 1851, while Fredrick William IV was king.
-Was a Realpolitik (ends justify means)
-won over the working class by passing a retirement pension for people over 65 (even though it was not helpful because no one lived to that age)
-Realized that German rule could not be shared between Prussia and Austria, so he decided to build up Prussia before taking on the Austrians as well as ally with France, Russia and Italy
-Fredrick William IV was crazy, so his brother, William I, who took over in 1861. He followed Napoleon III’s ideas of distractions and creating parks etc.
- William named Bismarck Prussia’s Minister President
- Denmark angered German nationalists so Bismarck proposed and alliance with Austria against Denmark. In 1864 they went to war, Denmark was defeated and they got the Schleswig and Austria got Holstein.
-Spring of 1866 Prussia defeated Austrians in Bohemia which created the Treaty of Prague, (1866), made peace with Bismarck and Austria. Prussia got Schleswig and Holstein, and Austria was kicked out of da ill gang posy yo.
-North German Confederation united the German states under Prussia; there were four independent states some of which were Bavaria and Wurttemberg.
-Bismarck believed it was necessary to go to war against France to gain control of the Southern German states (because France also wanted these territories)
-Spain needed a new ruler because Queen Isabella was being overthrown so Leopold Hohenzollern was wanted but French opposed this because it would create alliance between Spain and Prussia. So William I understands and withdraws this idea, but Bismarck made it look like King William insulted the French Ambassador, which angers Napoleon III (King of France), which begins the Franco-German war ^ explains above
-Napoleon surrenders to Germans at Sedan, and Third Republic begins in Paris.
(-FRANCE- this Lasts from 1870-1914, and is called La Belle Époque, or
the Beautiful Era (this is the only Republic in Europe at the time) ⇓this
is after the horrible events of the Commune and the genocide of
Parisians. They have a multiple party system which means it is hard to please anyone and very little gets done. Most power resides with the Prime Minister. Napoleon III supports entrepreneurship and industrialization which is beneficial for France. Napoleon recognizes unions and gives education back to the Church, builds hospitals, develops infrastructure and makes Paris revolution-proof, housing for
middle class)
-1871, France and Germany sign Treaty of Frankfurt, French were forced to give up Alsace Lorraine to Germany, which caused a strain in the two countries’ relationship (France hates Germany and plots for revenge…the cloth covered statue of Alsace Lorraine)⋄ Germany was most powerful state on European continent.
SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1850-1900):
New Technologies and Methods:
-Henry Ford, idea of mass production, assembly line, which reduced costs for level of production, and cheaper products
-Bessemer process, steel replaced iron as the essential metal in construction, railways, and military use
-Reinforced concrete and steel grinders allowed the development of sky scrapers
-Germany, the dominant producer of chemicals and pharmaceuticals, led the world in advances in theoretical chemistry
-electricity
-petroleum
-refrigeration, photography, elevators, kitchen appliances, motion pictures, synthetic fabrics, TNT, x-rays were all improved
Transportation and Communication:
-Steamships
-Suez Canal (1869), Panama Canal (1914)
-airplanes
-telephone
-standardized time zones
-radio waves
Business Cycles and Managing Markets:
-Boom-bust cycles: overproduction and unpredictable commodity prices plunged Europe into routine recessions between 1873 and 1896
-modern corporation: complex administrative structures, accounting procedures, stocks etc.
-gold standard
-consumerism
19th-20th CENTURY EUROPE:
France under the Third Republic:
- The French Third Republic rose out of the ashes of Napoleon III's Second Empire after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.
-The Third Republic was a parliamentary republic, often unstable and constantly seeking legitimacy. By the end of the 1870s, the Third Republic found its home in the center of the French revolutionary and democratic tradition.
-The government enacted legislation aimed at solidifying the common identity of all Frenchmen:
- Compulsory schooling
- centralized curricula
-civics education
- Mandatory military service
-1905: secularization of state education after the separation of Church and State
- The central control of all media and government information was in Paris.
-The Dreyfus Affair –A Jewish army general was accused of and tried for being a spy. After finding that the whole thing was a set-up he was still looked down upon until a French author: Emile Zola wrote a book called J’Accuse, condemning the anti-Semitic behavior of the French.
Parliamentary Democracy in Britain:
-By mid-century, the government of Great Britain had become the envy of many around the world
-Liberal and Conservative Parties
-A clear two-party system, Liberal and Conservative, emerged
-The Liberal party tended to be more open to changes, while the Conservatives sought to preserve traditional practices and values
-Both parties had able leadership-William Gladstone led the Liberals and Benjamin Disraeli the Conservatives
-Second Reform Bill (1867)
-In 1867, the competition for power between the two parties led to the Second Reform Bill which extended suffrage through a lowering of the property ownership requirements for voting
-This increased the number of eligible voters from 1.4 to 2.5 million males
-Although some traditionalists in Parliament worried about letting the masses vote, no radical changes occurred
-There was a bolstering of the British political system because now more people felt they had a stake in the system
-Although the immediate gains to the wider population of Britain were moderate (the first two working-class members of Parliament were elected in 1874), the reforms showed the promise of the democratic turn Great Britain was taking
-In the 20th century the Liberal Party passed the National Insurance Act, 1911, after they abandoned the lasses-fare approach to combat the Labour Party
PART SIX
Mid 1800s – Early 191
Birdsall Chaps. 27-29, AP Achiever Chaps 12-14
Age of Imperialism, European Modernism 1850-1914, Coming of the First World War, The First World War
AGE OF IMPERIALISM:
During most of the nineteenth century the European powers had little interest in overseas expansion because they were either too preoccupied with domestic affairs or continental expansion.
Motivations:
-Economic:
-needed more access to raw materials because countries were industrializing
-such as rubber, oil, copper and diamonds
- found in Asia, Africa and Latin America
-did not want to rely on European nations for these materials because there was a lot of tension in Europe, and all nations were potential enemies
-colonies were great places to create markets now that production was so high thanks to the second industrial revolution
-Political:
-wanted places for strategic reasons
-ex: England buying shares in the Suez Canal so Egypt could not do so
-ex: America’s pursuit of Pacific Islands and Philippians for military bases
-balance of power shifted to the colonies as a result of imperialism
-an outlet for surplus population
-Cultural:
-Hopes to Christianize colonies
-Hopes, or religious duty to civilize colonial people
-Social Darwinism/ Racial Darwinism
Successfulness:
-can be blamed on their superior technology thanks the Second Industrial Revolution
-steam power
-telegraphs
-medical advancements
-quinine for malaria
-can be blamed on their military superiority
-battleships
-machine guns
-can be blamed on their complex and organized capitalistic governing
-made long term presence easy
-allowed systematic exploitation of resources
Africa:
-Berlin Confrence 1885-1885, as ordered by Bismarck, gave King Leopold II the Congo Free State (which he ruled incredibly harshly), and stated that the other European countries, which already had many costal colonies would orderly figure out a way to partition Africa.
-This did not work, however, and Africa was split up furiously by drawing lines on maps, which left no concern for cultural divisions of the continent.
-by 1900 all but Ethiopia and Liberia were under European control.
-Boer War (1899-1902)
-Dutch against English, where English was condemned for its cruel concentration camps. The lack of allies in this war led England to realize that it should find an ally (for WWI)
Asia:
-China:
-Was taken advantage of by Europeans who wanted Opium (cause Opium wars) and who were not subject to Chinese law, and therefore so no problem with
violating it.
-was forced to surrender Hong Kong and create free-trade ports after the Treaty of Nanking (1842)
-Japan:
-resisted imperialism and established itself as an industrial, military and imperialist power in its own right
-Britain allied with Japan
-had conflict with Russia over Manchuria which led to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
-Japan shocked world by defeating Russians on land and sea (first time Asian power defeated European power)
-This made Russia turn back to Balkan expansion (a cause of WWI)
-Caused Russian Revolution of 1905 which would cause Russia Revolution if 1917
-Showed Europe that they were not the only powers who could use their weapons to destroy
Critics of Imperialism:
-V.I. Lenin (1870-1924)
-contributed to Marxism, and explained that imperialism showed the flaws with Capitalism
-J. A. Hobson
-thought imperialism was done to increase capital, so if workers were invested in by the government and there was some distribution of wealth the capital would be sufficient and there would be no need for imperialism
Conquests of Imperialist Nations:
-Great Britain
-Canada, India, Hong Kong, Rock of Gibraltar, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, East Africa, Zanzibar, Kenya, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Nigeria etc.
-France
-Senegal, Guinea, Madagascar, Morocco, Burma
-Belgium
-Congo
-Germany
-West Africa, Southwest Africa, East Africa
-Italy
-Tripoli
-Lost Ethiopia to independence
-Portugal/ Spain
-Guinea, Angola, West Africa, Rio de Oro, Rio Muni
-America
-Alaska, South Pacific, Puerto Rico, Guam ⇓ protectorates
EUROPEAN MODERNISM 1850-1914:
An age of technical and scientific advancements called la belle époque, or the European Golden Age
Demographic Trends:
-Industrialization and improved health made growing population in Europe
-growing population from less death rates not larger birth rates
-smaller families with increasing life expectancy
-France first had leveling off of population
-Germany and Britain grew
-Increased urban population
Medicine:
-Heroic Age of Medicine
-Louis Pastor (1822-1895)
-discovered bacteria
-microorganisms cause disease
-found he could kill them with liquid called this pasteurization
-advanced the field of vaccination which created the modern field of immunology
-rabbis vaccine
-Joseph Lister (1827-1912)
-developed first antiseptic (treatment for wounds)
-made surgery cleaner
-William Morton
-developed anesthetics
-John Hopkins’s University and other German universities started to focus on scientific research
Solving problems that developed at the time:
-Baron von Haussmann (1809-1891)
-Helped to rebuild Paris to include modern sewage and sanitation and more shopping centers, poor people lost their homes
-Other cities followed suit, called it Haussmannization ex: Vienna
-Displacement or poor created a social reform push for public housing and other charity
-Increase in leisure time; sports etc.
-Increase in literacy, almost universal literacy throughout Europe
-ex: Education Act of 1870, compulsory elementary education in England
-governments thought it was essential to their national interests; educated citizens were better industrial workers, and better for service economy
Family and Childhood:
-Victorian ideal of distinct roles:
-men managed the public sphere, business, politics and war
-women managed the domestic sphere
-Better child rearing throughout classes because of Enlightenment ideas of importance of childhood in development, and because of lower birth-rate
-increasing restriction on child labor
-Feminism:
-after 2nd Industrial Rev. women got some autonomy
-demanded legal reforms and recognition
-gained right to control property, to divorce in some places, and Annie Besant and Margaret Sanger fought for birth control
-white collar jobs provided women with more money and better working conditions
-repealed Contagious Diseases Acts in 1886 which required prostitutes to be tested for VD and jailed if found to be positive ex: Josephine Butler
-Suffrage
-Led by Pankhurst family in Britain and Women’s Social and Political Union ⇓referred to as the New Women.
-Henrik Ibson’s “A Doll House,” controversial because it brought to light the double standard of the Victorian placement for women (they should work and fulfill their lives, but stay in the home)
Mass Politics:
-Mass communication:
-telegraph, telephone, radio, cheap newspapers responded to and manipulated public opinion
-literate citizens had opinions about politics and wanted their ideas to be reflected upon in these communications
-Democracy and Authoritarianism
-elections, constitutions were balanced by ruling dynasties, bureaucracy, and militaries
-Increase in Conflict
-Public opinion sharpened ethnic and class conflict ⋄ ‘outsiders’ wanted to be included in political sphere while demagogs promoted hatred. (Anti-Semitism)
Liberalism:
-Achieved:
-Constitutional government
-representative assemblies
-free trade
-expansion of suffrage
-guarantees of rights
-middle class role in government
-spread of education/literacy
-weakening of established churches
-self determination for nations
-despite all this it was weakening
-because authoritarian leaders manipulated public sentiments because public were easily influenced in big groups
-the idea of laissez-faire which they supported was problematic because it ignored crime and things that were caused by free-trade which told people to look elsewhere for their political orientation
- had to abandon idea of pure capitalism because they wanted social welfare benefits for those in need
Jews:
-A race or a religion? Theodor Herzl founded Zionism (want for a Jewish state)
-Russia and other nations created Pogroms which persecuted the Jews (people already started to leave Europe or immigrate to other parts of Europe, like Poland)
Darwinian Evolution:
-Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
-On the Origin of Species (1859)
-through random variations individuals gained survival advantage, called ` this natural selection and later called survival of the fittest
-led to racial and social Darwinism
-condemned by religious people who believed in bible’s literalism, which created Darwin vs. Creationists
-T.H Huxley came to Darwin’s defense
-applied his theory of evolution to people after publishing his book
-Gregor Mendel provided additional support to Darwin by articulating the gene theory of reproduction
Physics:
-Quantum mechanics and relativity theory build on Newtonian science
-New theory of the atom, mostly empty space with subatomic particles
-Max Plunk (1858-1947) articulated quantum theory, explained that energy was emitted and absorbed in bundles not direct streams, light can be a particle or a wave ⇓things are expressed by probability not certainty, so went against Newton again
-Madame Curie –atoms emitted radioactive energy as they disintegrated
-Einstein theory of relativity, changed view of time and space, added them as a dimension; beginning of atomic theories which would lead to the atomic bomb
-development of the X-Ray
^ all of this, the x-ray, space and time, and going against Newton as well as evolution scared people
Social Science:
-further explanation for human behavior, as continued from Enlightenment
-Psychology, political science, anthropology, sociology, criminology
-Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
-developed theory and practice of psychoanalysis, beginning of therapy
-id, ego, superego, subconscious
-blamed thing on neuroses (unresolved conflict), interpreted dreams, used the Oedipus complex, dealt with how family influenced emotional problems, subliminal messaging, sexual
-Sociology:
-Max Weber explored influences of crowd mentalities and impersonal bureaucratic structures on individual
-borrowed scientific ideas such as Darwinism to get social Darwinism
-Eugenics and Racial Darwinism
Philosophy:
-long upheld reason but turned to the importance of irrationality in this time
-Fredrick Nietzsche (1844-1900):
-German philosopher
-embraced chaos and flux are inherent parts of nature
-Christianity has taught people to suppress their natural state which is to want power
-caused a decline in support of Christianity because the philosophy stressed secular approaches to knowledge
-Catholic Church continued to thrive under a more liberal Pope, Leo III, who was willing to consider Modernism
-Morality is personal and beyond ‘good and evil,’ and could not be defined
THE COMING OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR:
European powers wanted to uphold a balance of power after the Concert of Europe, but they all expected conflict so it created a naval and arms race throughout the continent
Causes:
-Imperialism increased tensions and pitted countries against each other and drew attention to the Balkan region, which was a major contributor to WWI
-Domestic issues swarmed the countries and the governments dealt with them by supporting imperialism and nationalism; when the war actually broke out citizens were happy because it brought tension away from internal issues.
-War was sensed all around; it was only a matter of time
-Nationalism
-made it difficult for nations tom compromise because they had so much pride and honor
-fed into ethnic conflicts in the Balkans, pitting Austria and Russia against one another
-The destruction of the Concert of Europe, which allowed for the Crimean War and the unifications, all of which caused more tensions and rivalries, such as that of the French and Germans
-Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), which ended in the Treaty of San Stefano, which granted independence to Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania from the Ottoman Empire, these were considered Bulgaria.
-Russia was supposed to dominate this area, but it would give them access to the Mediterranean, which made Britain nervous because they controlled the Suez Canal.
-Bismarck wanted to avoid conflict here, so he called the Congress of Berlin (1878), which divided Bulgaria, somehow this was seen as a loss for the Russians, which gave them an anti-German sentiment.
Germany:
-was the first to upset the balance of power by wanting to build a world-class fleet of battleships and develop a commercial empire as powerful as Britain’s
-this made Britain nervous
-under Otto Von Bismarck made many alliances, as he believed war could, and should be avoided, calling the unified Germany a ‘Happy Giant,’ implying that it wanted no more territory
-However, when he was dismissed from his position as Chancellor by Kaiser Wilhelm in 1890, these alliances were undone. He did not even renew his alliance with Russia, giving Russia the opportunity to create the Franco-Russian Alliance.
-The Triple Alliance, however, with Austria and Italy still survived, but was countered by the Triple Entente between Britain, France and Russia.
-began working on the Schlieffen Plan after the Franco-Russian alliance in 1894, which was a plan to fight a two front war against Russia and France. They mobilized troops in accordance with this plan in 1914, in hopes of avoiding war, but it caused the opposite.
July Crisis of 1914:
-Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914), heir to the Austrian throne visited Bosnia with the hopes of building an alliance, but he happened to come on the day of their independence, and the Black hands, Serbian pan-Slav terrorists who did not want an Austrian presence in the Balkans killed the Austrian and his wife.
-Austrian government believed the Serbian government was behind this assassination and gave the Serbians an ultimatum.
-The Serbians were not cooperative enough and the Austrians declared war, which made Russia, the Serbs’ ally, declare war on Austria. Germany, Austria’s ally, then declared war on Russia. France joined in because the Schlieffen plan, which had been carried through defied Belgian neutrality and Britain declared war on Germany.
THE FIRST WORLD WAR:
Nature of the War:
-Trench Warfare:
- entrench positions fortified with barbed wire, in between which stood ‘no man’s land,’
-was also used in the Crimean War but was used especially extensively in this war
-served as a dehumanizing and absurd symbol of the futility of WWI
-Technological breakthroughs gave soldiers:
-tanks, airplanes, submarines (U-Boats), high powered artillery, grenades, poison gas, barbed wire, zeppelins, and aerial bombardment
Battles:
-the Schlieffen Plan was supposed to defeat France before Russia could mobilize, avoiding a two front war, so they had to go through Belgium, but Belgium put up unexpected resistance to German forces, and the Germans committed atrocities to the Belgian people (this would provide the allies with a propaganda tool against the Germans).
-The Germans were able to defeat the French, but when the crossed the Marne River, at a point very close the Paris, they could not take the capital, which was called the Miracle of Marne
-A stalemate occurred in 1915, as Germany controlled much of Belgium and France and the French fought back. They resorted to Trench Warfare, but neither the chlorine gas, employed by the Germans nor the heavy artillery employed by the French could create a winner.
-Central Powers (Austria-Hungary and Germany) and the Allies (Russia, France, Britain and Belgium), looked for more allies to break the stalemate
-such as Turkey, who allied with the Central powers, hoping to get back its territories
- and Italy, who allied with the Allies as a result of a bribe laid out in the Treaty of London, which said Italy would get some Austrian land.
-This led to the Battles of Verdun, Somme and Brusilov
- Great Britain plays the Arabs off against the Turks. Britain promises support for Arab independence movements.
-Britain issues the Balfour Declaration.
-Rumania is promised Transylvania in return for its support of the Allies.
-In the Far East, the Allies make no fuss about Japan’s 21 Demands on China, allowing Japan to take Manchuria.
On the Home front:
-Rationing went too far
-ex: Germans were eating a miniscule amount of calories, and making ‘sawdust bread’
-Women were employed to the workforce because of a lack of men
-they made TNT and shells
-they did not work in safe conditions and many became infertile because of the poisonous emissions in the workplace
-showed the world the potential of women
-helped them gain rights later
-Women’s Battalion of Death was a military unit they formed in Russia
-were called “women with yellow hands”
Propaganda:
- was used to rally the people toward nationalism, or simply away from a certain group/idea
The Treaty of Versailles:
-Ended WWI
-Represents a very important diplomatic event
-How to create new states out of Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.
-Differing goals:
-American President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1923)
-A hero in Europe, he authored the Fourteen Points
- is designed to create a peace without vengeance and a new world order that would avoid the problems that created the war The Fourteen Points asserts:
*Principles of Self-Determination
*Principles of Open Diplomacy
*Freedom of the Seas
*A League of Nation—an international peace keeping organization
-French Premier George Clemenceau (1841-1929)
-nicknamed “the tiger”
-considered Wilson’s vision idealist and wanted security for France which he achieved by emasculating Germany’s military and economy
-British Prime Minister David Lloyd George
-was in between the two above; wanted to push Germany but no destroy it, remarked “I had God on one side and the devil on the other.”
-Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando (1860-1952)
-walked out of the negotiations in protest of the fact that Italy would not get the land it was promised in the Treaty of London
-Russian Bolshevik Leader Lenin denounced the gathering as a capitalist plot
^no nation was satisfied by this treaty
Final Product:
-Territorial Losses
-Germany lost 13% of its territory
-Poland corridor was created, cutting off East Prussia from Germany
-Alsace Lorraine was restored to France from Germany
-Demilitarization
-forced on the Germans, including the Rhineland
War Guilt
-Germany was forced to accept full responsibility of the war in Article 231.
Reparations
-33 billion dollars = how much Germans had to pay
League of Nations
-Allies agreed to Wilson’s idea, Soviet Union and Germany were excluded and America could not join because the senate would not ratify the treaty
How the World Changed DURING the War
1. American intervention is done under the banner “To make the world safe for democracy.” Clearly there will be a new world order after the shooting stops.
2. America’s position as a great military power is established
3. The Russian Revolution (February, 1917) and the Bolshevik coup d’état (October 1917) put a state predicated on a new ideology on the map
4. When America enters the conflict, the American president, Woodrow Wilson becomes the spokesman for Allied peace aim with his Fourteen Points.
PART SEVEN
1917 – 1945
Birdsall Chaps. 30-35, AP Achiever Chaps 14-15
Russian Revolution, Soviet Russia under Lenin and Stalin, Fascist Italy, Germany Weimar-Hitler, Inter-War Period, Coming of the Second World War, The Second World War
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION:
The Russians left WWI after 1917 due to the domestic issue of a Revolution
Causes:
-A drastic solution to the following two problems
-1. Its technological and economic backwardness in comparison to other European powers
-2. Its inability to develop a form of government that successfully harnessed the will of the people
-The loss in the Russo-Japanese War over Manchuria emphasized the weakness of the Russian government
-The fact that the Russian population was divided between Slavophiles, who embraced Russia’s Slavic culture, and the Westernizes, who wanted Russia to become more like the West in order to survive as a great power.
-Freed Serfs were forced to live on mirs, which were government allocated rural communities, while gentry lived on the best land, which created overpopulation and rural unrest, making the serfs a great target for revolutionary groups
Revolution of 1905:
-Bloody Sunday:
- Russian students and workers in St. Petersburg chose New Year’s Day to present the Tsar at the Winter Palace with a list of reforms they would like to see take place in Russia. The Tsar is at his country home and does not appear on the palace balcony. When the crowd seems to become restless, soldiers fire shots. A peaceful demonstration turns into a riot. Violent strikes and political protests break out throughout Russia.
-The Tsar, Nicholas II, promises the creation of Russia’s equivalent of a legislative council in the October Manifesto. He asks those who will attend to present their grievances and ideas for solutions to Russia’s problems. When the Duma meets in 1906-7, the Tsar thanks them for coming, says he will consider their advice but states that they will be an advisory body rather than a legislative authority. ⇓basically gave them false hope, and explains that what they have drafted up will not be taken into account
-Tsar Nicholas’ Prime Minister, Peter Stolypin made some last attempts at reform that might have saved Russia from its fate, but, his efforts are thwarted by the Tsar.
March Revolution:
-Russia had a lack of materials and morale and too many casualties in WWI, which showed the people how behind Russia was in comparison to the rest of Europe, which deepened their anger toward Tsar Nicholas II, and the Romanov regime
-Tsar Nicholas II dissolved the Duma
-Tsar went abroad, leaving his wife in control, who was really controlled by Rasputin, but court nobles were worried about him so the assassinated him in 1916.
-March 8th, 1917, a food riot broke out about the high cost of bread. When the military refused to fire on the crowd, the Romanovs new their reign was over.
-Provisional Government:
-made of constitutional democrats and moderate socialists, and the radical group, the soviets.
- (Petersburg’s name was changed to Petrograd because it sounded less German)
- lacks faith in its own authority and seems to be unable to deal with the problems at hand. Strikes continue in the city. Does nothing about taking Russia out of WWI
-Led by Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970)
-Vladimir Lenin, led the Bolsheviks to try and take over the government, but the effort failed and he is banished
The Bolshevik Revolution:
-Lenin, with the help of the Germans, who he promises to take Russia out of the WW
-Lenin:
-Hated capitalism and believed imperialism was the height of capitalism
-led the Vanguard Party, and believed only a small group of revolutionaries should be in charge
-Believed that Russia was the weakest link in the powers of Europe and could house a revolution that would encourage other revolutions in Europe
-Said he would industrialize Russia
-“Peace, Bread, and Land,” and “All power to the Soviets,” represented his Bolshevik message to stir the mass
-November 1917, led by Leon Trotsky the Bolsheviks unseat the Provisional Government in a coup d’état.
-Lenin made it seem like a government decision rather than a dictatorship by having himself elected head of the Council of People’s Commissars.
Lenin consolidated government by:
- disbanding the excessively Menshevik Constituent Assembly
-claiming to speak for the Proletariat
-Lenin gave Germany Poland and the Ukraine in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Russian Civil War:
-1918-20. Russia involved in a brutal and bloody civil war.
-The Bolsheviks (Reds) won over the opposition made up of Tsarist supporters (Whites). The Bolsheviks become known as the Communist Party. Russia becomes known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. They are able to win because:
-Bolsheviks stood in union with a clear and organized vision while their enemies who had very different ideas and could almost only agree on the fact that they did not want the Bolsheviks.
-The Bolsheviks were much more cruel and ruthless
-Once in power they engaged in Red Terror, designed to eliminate “class enemies”
-empowered a new secret police called the CHEKA (later KGB) to get rid of enemies of the state
-War Communism:
-put industry and agriculture under government control
-banks and insurance were nationalized
-private trade was prohibited
-food was taken from peasants to feed the cities
SOVIET RUSSIA:
Lenin got sick soon after the Russian Revolution and died soon after (1929)
Under Lenin:
-by 1922, the Bolsheviks felt safe enough to create the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or the Soviet Union
-Only half of the population in Russia claimed Russian ethnicity and language
-introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921
-peasants could sell their grain themselves
-middlemen in cities could exchange food for profit ⋄ created wealthy peasant class called Kulaks
-helped revive production
-brought economy to pre-war state
-provoked a split in the Politburo (policy bureau in gov’nt) between those who supported NEP, and those who didn’t
-Women got the vote in 1918, the right to divorce, and access to birth control/abortion
-they were sometime subjected to violence by people who did not like these reforms and
-Promoted literacy, which was supported by the artists and intellectuals
Trotsky vs. Stalin:
-Trotsky thinks the NEP is a sellout and wants “permanent revolution,” and does not want a bureacrazation of the Communist Party.
-Stalin is ruthless and slyly gets Trotsky ousted from government
Under Stalin:
-Stalin makes Russia a totalitarian state. The State and the Party are one and the people who run each are the same.
- Stalin embarks on a program of forced industrialization with a series of five year plans
-The goal is to develop heavy industry.
-Agriculture is nationalized into a system known as collective farming
-The State sets goals for industrial and agricultural output.
-1932-33: A severe famine strikes Russia as a result of Stalin’s mismanagement of agriculture. Grain is used for export and millions of Russians, deprived of a staple product, many die.
-1936 – Stalin inaugurates a series of brutal purges of those whom he believes to be his personal political enemies or the enemies of the state. The late 1930s witness a reign of terror in the Soviet Union.
FASCIST ITALY:
Occurred as a branch of totalitarianism, it was a ‘third way,’ between liberal democracies and revolutionary obsessed Marxism. Its roots were in 19th century irrational ideologies and feeding on unstable conditions of the 1920s and 30s.
Nature of Fascism:
-Militarism
-admire war as the proving ground of national identity and sorting out the hierarchy of nations
-Glorification of the State
-state seen as all powerful
-Fuhrer Principle
-German for leader, it meant that the voice of the people reached its highest expression in the leader, for example Hitler or Mussolini
-Antidemocracy
-fascists though democracy was weak, and argued that national spirit could not be captured by specific institutions
-Anticommunism
-fascists condemned class warfare and placed importance on race and nationality, both of which were rejected by communists
-One-party rule
-elections, multiparty systems and free press were suppressed
Rise of Fascism in Italy:
-Right winged Italians were angered by the fact that they did not get the land they were promised in Austria by the Allies under the Treaty of London.
-Italian economy suffered from inflation and high budget deficits.
-This gave Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) the perfect window to take power
-he was influenced by the writings of Nietzsche, and glorified the state as well as warfare
-he gained power through a paramilitary group called the Blackshirts, or squadristi, and built up a following until 1922, when he and his fascist supporters intimidated the Italian king, into appointing Mussolini as head of the government. This is known as the March on Rome.
Under Mussolini:
-Parliament passed the Acerbo Law, which granted 2/3 of the seats in Parliament to the party that won the most votes.
-Mussolini took advantage of that and secured fascists as the majority in the Italian Parliament
-He censored the press, eliminated all opposing parties, and employed a secret police: the OVRA to hunt dissenters,
-He condemned laissez-faire, and democracy and Marxism
-He nicknamed himself Il Duce
-Introduced a corporate state, where the economy was run as 22 separate corporations, with business, labor union, and state representatives
-He worked to orient Italian life around the state
-He made peace with the Church in signing The Lateran Accord in 1929, which gave the Church power over the Vatican in return for not interfering with the Italian state
-He provided incentives for larger families
-made the role of women clearly that of the household
-wanted a healthy race, so encouraged fitness in schools and created government sponsored recreational activities through a program called Dopolavoro
-He created a program of public works to employ the people, which did things like clear swamps and build roads. This is where the idea that he “made trains run on time,” came from
-^this was not enough to make Italy economically sound, however and he was increasingly forced to support imperialistic endeavors after 1935.
THE INTER-WAR PERIOD
Great Depression:
-caused by:
-inflation⋄due to all the rationing and borrowing done during WWI, and the fact that many countries depreciated their currencies
-disrupted markets⋄competitors moved in as economic powers while Europe was distracted with the war; India, for example, and North America and Australia
-Agricultural depression⋄excess grain drove down prices and destroyed agricultural based economies
-Economic nationalism⋄to protect domestic markets countries created tariff barriers, so there was no trade going on, which is a huge blow to a countries economy
-Reparations⋄paid at first by America to Germany, then Germany to France and Britain, then back to America made world economy too reliant on American economy
-Credit financing⋄installment plans for paying allowed people to defer payments, and American stock market borrowed 90 percent of the stocks’ value (which eventually caused the stock market crash in 1929 in the US)
-results:
-unemployment
-plummet of world trade
-plummet of stock values
-Democratic Response:
-British economist Keynes introduced a new theory to economic stimulation of using tax and budget policies to promote growth and cushion recessions and spend more money government programs and aiding the needy
-Great Britain:
-depended very much on trade, so took the hardest blow
-General Strike pursued, which the government put down
-The Labour Party replaced the Liberal Party, and worked to give workers more rights
-Former Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald (1866-1937) joined with the conservative National Government which wanted to fix the economic problems through traditional methods
-Provided autonomy for Egypt and Ireland in 1922
-Repaired relationship with its former colonies such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.
-was weakened and in no position to confront Nazi aggression
-France:
-less dependent on trade so was not horribly impacted
-Pinacare stabilized the franc and made French exports cheaper
-the Popular Front came to power and made reforms:
-40 hour workweek
-paid vacation
-stronger collective bargaining rights for unions
-Preserved its Republic under Leon Blum
-United States:
-New Deal under Franklin Roosevelt
-The Social Security Act
GERMANY FROM WEIMAR REPUBLIC TO HITLER
Weimar Republic:
-Problems:
-faced a myriad of economic and political problems
-was formed by two parties: the Social Democratic Party and the Catholic Center Party, so nothing could get done, because there was no majority
-Coup d’état attempts:
-Soviet Communists called the Spartaists tried to overthrow government in Berlin but were killed by the Freikorps, a right wing parliamentary group
-The Freikorps then tried to take over, called the Kapp putsch
-Organization:
-Headed by a president (with a 7 year term), who oversaw the country but relied on a Chancellor (elected from the majority party in the Reichstag (parliament)) to run the day-to-day affairs.
-Reparations, the Ruhr and Hyperinflation:
-Hyperinflation caused by the French occupation of the Ruhr (industrial heartland) due to Germany’s inability to pay French Reparations
-when they did pay the French back the money was worthless
- From 1925 to 1925, though, the Republic does really well! The economy is OK, led by Gustav Stresemann (foreign minister) Germany gets admitted into the League of Nations under the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, and is back in the international community.
-Germany signs the Locarno Pact, which states that they will not go to war and instead will pursue diplomacy
- But then in 1929 w/the Great Depression everything collapses. Since Germany is dependent on US economy, when the US economy crashes so does the German, only worse
Hitler:
-Joined the military style political group called the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or the Nazis
-He was soon made their leader after they recognized his ability to orate and claim an audience
-Led a failed attempt to take over the Weimar Republic called the Beer-Hall putsch 1923
-Supported the message that the Weimar Republic represented rule by the worst kinds of people- democrats, socialists and Jews.
-He believed instead that Germany needed a strong national state based on race, which he explained in his book Mein Kampf
-Blamed German problems on the Treaty of Versailles, and pledged to restore German honor
-At first he was not popular but after giving many speeches and employing a lot of propaganda as well as his “Hitler over Germany” campaign where he traveled to parts of Germany by plane, the Nazis gained the majority in Reichstag, he was soon elected chancellor of Germany.
-He consolidated his power by blaming a fire (Reichstag Fire) on the Communist Party and arresting its members
-created the Enabling Act, which made Hitler Dictator, followed by Civil Service Act in 1933, which made all government employees swear an oath to the Fuhrer
-in 1934 he made all other parties besides the Nazi party illegal
-^he continued in this manner by instituting the Blood Purge, where he executed all of his opponents
-When President Hindenburg died he took over as President
-Used terror and a secret police called the Gestapo to arrest all ‘opponents,’ putting them in concentrations camps
-He then began his campaign of the “Aryan” racial elite, with the hopes of sterilization of the “mentally unfit” which killed people who terminally ill, insane, or physically deformed
-Developed a Four-Year plan to promote self-sufficiency
-Created the National Labor Front, a state-run union requiring workers to carry a booklet in order to be able to work
-Created Hitler Youth and the League of German Maidens to reinforce tradition gender roles and pit his elite group against other racer
-Women were supposed to be concerned with church, kitchen and children
-Jews were excluded from the civil service and army and were stripped of their citizenship, and were not allowed to have sex with Aryans in the Nuremberg Laws of 1935
-Many Jews thought they would wait out the Nazi regime, but things turned violent with the Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass), November 1938, where synagogues, business and homes were destroyed while hundred of Jews were arrested and killed.
THE COMING OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR
Appeasement:
-Hitler wanted a New European Order which would revolve around race, but western democracies wanted to avoid war so they tried to meet Hitler’s demands through diplomacy
-1931: -Japan invades Chinese providence Manchuria to get natural resources, and with pressure from the League of Nations, Japan withdraws there
-1933: -Hitler takes Germany out of the League of Nations and the Geneva Disarmament Conference to show that he does not listen to anyone
-1934: -Nazi attempt to overthrow Austria fails because Mussolini intervenes because Austria is a buffer state between Italy and Germany
-1935: -Great Britain gives Germany an Anglo-German Naval Agreement, which allowed Hitler to build a navy
-Mussolini invades Ethiopia unprovoked to get back at them for winning their independence during the imperial partitions of Africa
-1936: -Hitler remilitarizes the Rhine land which goes against the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Pact
-The fact that France and England do nothing in response convinces Hitler if their weakness
-Spanish civil war ensues under Franco, and ends in Franco’s fascist control over Spain, as well as the Rome –Berlin Axis, which Hitler signs with Mussolini and the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Hitler signs with Japan. (this was is called the warm up for WWII)
-1937:-Hitler outlines his future plans for the absorption of Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland in secret
-Japan invades China and gets the coastal cities. They get to Nanking, where the Rape of Nanking occurs
-1938:-Hitler marches into Austria, with the approval of Mussolini and the Austrians vote for this annexation into the German Reich.
-Hitler then requests the incorporation of 3 million Germans living in Czechoslovakia be annexed to Germany. Britain, France, Italy and Germany get together to discuss this in the Munich Conference, where this annexation is approved. The Czechoslovakian government is excluded from this meeting depute the fact that they are a stable democracy capable of making their own treaties.
1939:-Hitler violates the Munich Agreement, he takes more of Czechoslovakia, establishing a protectorate and making it a puppet government
-Mussolini establishes a foothold in Albania to control the Mediterranean
-Britain and France are angered by this but the Soviet Union will not enter into an anti-Nazi alliance with them
-Stalin and Hitler conclude the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, giving Hitler the freedom to invade Poland and get back the Danzig corridor. A week later Hitler invades Poland and begins WWII
THE SECOND WORLD WAR (1939-1945):
Marks the most destructive conflict in history, killing an estimated 50 million, especially because the soldier-civilian line was very blurred
Phases:
-Blitzkrieg (1939-1941)
-launched a new form of warfare called the "blitzkrieg" (or lightning war)
-combined air power with tanks and mechanized troops to strike swiftly before defenders could react
-within a few weeks, Germany had taken control of the western half of Poland
- Soviet Union receives the eastern half of Poland after Soviet troops moved into Finland and eventually beat them
-France and England did declare war on Germany but little fighting took place for six months
-Nazis defeat Low Countries and France with the help of Mussolini, and create the Vichy government in South of France, while the Free French forces under Charles de Gaulle continue resistance
-Japanese capture French colonies in Indo-china so the US cuts off their oil and scrap metal shipments, so Japan launches a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, bringing the US into the war
-Hitler’s invasion of the USSR is surprising and allows him to begin the systematic genocide of the Slavs, Gypsies and Jews there.
-Churchill and Roosevelt agree to concentrate in war in Europe
-Nazis dominate Europe and want a joint strategy with Japan to take Central Asia
-By the spring of 1940, Hitler had established his preferred pattern for taking territory
-invade a country every six months
-March and September were the optimum starting dates because of weather conditions
-Hitler invaded both Denmark and Norway
-he invaded Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg
-The same month, he started air strikes against England in preparation for taking that country (called the Blitz)
-Turning of the Tide (1942-1944)
-the Big Three (Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt) met up at the Teheran Conference, and agreed to unconditional surrender of the Axis-powers
-American troops ‘island hop’ to gain leverage against Japanese
-Anglo-American invasion of Sicily
-American win at Midway and Guadalcanal are blows to the Japanese
-In North Africa, British forces held the Italians and their German reinforcements back from the Suez Canal
-U.S. soldiers landed west of the Axis forces, which were then squeezed into surrender
-Endgame (1944-1945)
-To relieve German pressure on the Russians, the Allied forces (predominantly consisting if U.S. forces) opened a second front in Italy
About the time Rome was taken, Allied forces established a beachhead at Normandy in northern France on 6 June 1944 (D-Day)
-Caught in the giant pincher consisting of Allied forces pushing westward from France, northward from Italy, and eastward from Russia, Germany was forced to surrender
-The war ended in Europe on May 8, 1945 (V-E Day)
-The end in the Pacific
The war in the Pacific continued until late summer of 1945
-The United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan on August 6th; a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9th
-Fearing further massive destruction, Japan asked for terms of surrender--they surrendered on August 14th, 1945 (V-J Day).
-Japan signed the surrender on September 2, 1945
-Israel is created as a sort of pay back for the treatment of the Jews in WWII
-The Holocaust and the Atomic Bomb
-Hitler's anti-Semitism was a product of 19th century racial theories, rather than a result of Christian antagonism to the Jews
-The deportation of Jews began only in 1941, when the six killing camps were started, all of them in Poland
-Before that, many German Jews had fled Germany, some 50,000 in 1935 alone
-By 1938, 1.3 million German Jews had immigrated, most to neighboring countries, meaning that by the start of the war, there were only 200,000 Jews left in Germany
-Of the six million Jews who died in the Holocaust
-some 3.5 million were Russian
-1.5 million were Polish
-200,000 were German
-the remaining 800,000 killed were throughout Western Europe (many were Jews who had earlier fled Germany)
-Most camps in Germany were labor camps, like Dachau, where conditions were so appalling that thousands died of starvation and disease, but none of these concentration camps were designed specifically to exterminate large numbers of people
-The death factories were all in Poland, and even then, the largest number of Jews were killed by mobile SS killing operations launched by Himmler in the Soviet Union
-In addition to the murder of 6 million Jews, the Germans also exterminated other undesirables--Gypsies, Jehovah's Witnesses, Gays and Lesbians, and those deemed mentally unfit
-The Atomic Bomb
-Initially created to defeat Germany--but Germany surrendered before bomb was completed
-An invasion of Japan was expected to cost the lives of millions, including estimated 300-500,000 American soldiers
-The human costs of dropping the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were tremendous
-The moral issues were numerous as well
Results:
-40 to50 mil. Dead; mostly civilians
-Widespread destruction of infrastructure
-30 to 50 mil. Displaced persons wondering the continent
-Europe lost most of its colonial holds
-Traditional values were questioned in Postwar Europe
-Economic activity broke down
-Stage was set for the Cold War
The war did not make Europe feel like a safer (especially with the creation of the atomic bomb), and people were not optimistic that this would be the last World War.
PART EIGHT
1945 – 1980s
Birdsall Chaps. 36-40, AP Achiever Chaps 16- 17
Cold War, International Conflict since 1990, Soviet Union and Eastern Europe after 1945, Western Europe after 1945, Twentieth-Century European Civilization
COLD WAR:
After the war Europe was in ruins. It suffered one of the coldest winters in history from 1945-1946, and a power vacuum was created in which the United State and Soviet Union were able to take control. These two superpowers became locked in a Cold War which divided Western Europe from Eastern Europe, and shaped their development: West moved toward economic recovery and integration, while East made the full change into communism and Soviet domination.
Causes:
-The US and USSR alliances were always made out of necessity and there was constant tension between the two powers
-At Yalta, a conference that took place just before the end of WWII, where the Big Three hoped to reach an agreement about how to divide Europe.
-Here the parties agreed to Declaration on Liberated Europe, where they said that Eastern Europe would have national self-determination and free elections
-Later it was clear that there was a difference in interpretation of this idea of ‘free elections’
-Roosevelt’s agreement was also later thought of as selling out Eastern Europe for Soviet support for continuing the war against Japan.
-Poland was moved 300 miles west, for Stalin at the expense of the Germans
-Germany was to be de-Nazified, but Stalin wanted the country to be dismembered and forced to pay 20 billion in reparations
-They created the United Nations to solving Europe’s future problems
-Allies met again at Potsdam in July 1945, once the war had ended.
-Roosevelt had died and Harry Truman (1884-1972) was more suspicious of Stalin
-Churchill was replaced by Labor Party leader Clement Atlee
-The three decided to hold war trials for Nazi leaders at Nuremberg, and divide Germany into four occupation zones, and give their own reparations for the rebuilding of the Soviet Union.
-Disagreements between US and USSR deepened over Poland and Eastern Europe
-US decided to stop aiding USSR but not Britain in order to develop its atomic weapon monopoly, which made Stalin suspicious of American intentions
-by 1947 there were a series of disagreements which fractured the former Allies alliance causing war
Nature of the War:
-Political:
-Both powers wanted to spread their influence throughout other parts of the world
-Cold War spread to Asia and the Middle East, Latin America and Africa
-^These places were controlled in a number of ways,
-Soviets exercised direct control over Eastern Europe
-the US exercised indirect economic control in Latin America
-Types of rule became characterized in three ways:
-First World – system of Liberal democracy and free markets
-Second World – system of planned economies and one-party rule
-Third World – nonaligned nations which refused to chose sides (later became the name for underdeveloped nations)
-In response the Berlin Blockade 1948-1949 the United States created a peacetime alliance North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), (included US, Canada, Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Italy, Portugal, Greece, Turkey West Germany etc.) which was followed by CENTO in the Middle East and SEATO in Southeast Asia. Soviets responded with the Warsaw Pact.
-US President appointed George Kennan who created a plan called Containment.
-It employed war diplomacy, aid, intelligence, and the funding of rebel groups to stop the spread of communism
-US Congress created National Security Act, National Security, and Central Intelligence Agency
-Military:
-Arms race egged by nuclear weapons technology
-Soviets dropped first Atomic weapon in 1949
-Both nations developed the Hydrogen Bomb
-Under Nikita Khrushchev Soviet launched the first satellite, Sputnik
-US made ICBMs which were Missiles capable of reaching the USSR from the US or Britain
-Each side had a “nuclear triad,” meaning they could fire missiles on land, in the air and under the ocean.
-Doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD), ensured that the nuclear weapons would not be released as “missiles that kill people,” which led the war to be based on “missiles that kill other missiles,” such as Anti-Ballistic Missiles, ABMs.
-Economic:
-80 percent of world trade passed through America at the end of WWII, so the US aided Europe with the Marshall Plan (1947), which the Soviets would not accept in Eastern Europe, seeing it as a capitalist plot aimed at the Soviets.
-to counter this, the Soviet Union established the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON)
-the US exploited the power of its multinational corporations in underdeveloped nations
-ex: US got rid of a socialist government in Guatemala with the CIA
-Ideological:
- Cold War represented a battle over rival views
-Both sides used propaganda,
-starting with Churchill’s statement of an “Iron Curtain,” dividing free people of Western Europe from oppressed people of East Europe
-the US established the Voice of America and the Radio Free Europe, to broadcast messages from the “free and prosperous citizens.”
-US during the 1950s plunged into the Red Scare, or McCarthyism, aimed at communist enemies, which used Hollywood to get across ideas
-Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) was created to control public opinion with heavy handed propaganda.
-Each side believed they were fighting for the future of civilization
Development of the Cold War:
-Beginning (1945-1953):
-1945:-Germany was divided into four zones of occupation- British, American, Soviet, and French
-Berlin (despite being entirely in the Soviet zone) was divided into four occupation zones as well, beginning its role as the epicenter of the Cold War
-1946:-Winston Churchill delivers his Iron Curtain speech
-1947:-US extends Marshall Plan and creates Office of European Cooperation (OEEC), to distribute the money through rather than giving it out to each nation separately
-Truman Doctrine offers financial aid to any nation facing insurgencies by armed minorities in the hopes of stopping the spread of communism to places like Greece and Turkey ⇓this and the Marshall plan establish Americas Interventionist Approach
-1948:-US, Britain and France merge their portion of Germany, and the Soviet Union imposes the Berlin Blockade, cutting the West Berlin from railroads etc. in hopes of starving the people there. Truman beings the Berlin Airlift
-The noncommunists were kicked out of the Czechoslovakian government in a coup
-1949:-Stalin ends Berlin Blockade in defeat
-German division is formalized
-Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany or FRG)
-German Democratic Republic (East Germany or GDR)
-Communists under Moa Zedong (1890-1979) take control of Chinese mainland, driving nationalists into Taiwan
-Soviets drop first atomic bomb
-Red Scare is egged on by the above
-1950:-Communists North Korea invades the Western-backed government of South Korea.
-Truman builds as UN coalition which starts the Korean War
-fought between the US and China for 3 years
-1953:-Stalin dies
-Korean war ends with division into South Korea and North Korea at the 38th parallel
Coexistence and Confrontation:
-1954:-Vietnamese resistance fighters under Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) defeat French in Indo-China
-1955:-NATO lets Germany rearm so Soviet Union creates Warsaw Pact
-1956:-Kruschzchev wants to de-Stalinize the USSR and discusses the possible “peaceful coexistence” with West
-Hungary is given the okay from USSR to liberalize economic and intellectual life, but they go too far and are crushed by Soviets
-1957:-Soviets launch Sputnik, US creates NASA, which starts the space race
-1959:- Cuban dictator Fidel Castro takes over from America and creates ties with Soviets
-1960:-Soviets shoot down a U-2 spy plane, forcing the US to take back times when they denied that such planes existed
-1961:-US backs an invasion of Cuba by exiled Cubans but it fails with the Bay of Pigs
-Second Berlin crisis leads to the errection of the Berlin Wall by East Germany to prevent Easterners from escaping west
-1962:- President Kennedy tells Soviets he will not invade Cuba, which stops Soviets from installing missiles in Cuba, which ends the Cuban Missile Crisis
-1963:-US and USSR create Hot Line which establishes direct contact in times of crisis, and along with Britain agree not to test nuclear weapons underground, in the ocean, or in space under the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
-1964:-America is committed to War in Vietnam between communist North Vietnam and US backed South Vietnam. The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution allows President Johnson become even more involved in the war
-1967:-Israel attacks Arabs and seizes West Bank etc. beginning the Six-Day War
-US backs Israel
-Soviets back Arabs
-1968:-Soviets crush Czechoslovakian reform movement (“Prague Spring”), and creates the Brezhnev Doctrine, which says that a threat to socialism anywhere is a threat to socialism everywhere
-Détente (1970-1978)
-1970:-Treaty of Moscow between West Germany and the Soviet Union established a diplomatic relationship between the two (also officially recognized the split between East and West Germany)
-Both nations were admitted into the UN
-1972:- President Nixon visits Communist China and begins what will become an alliance
-1973:-North Vietnam gets control over Saigon, South Korea’s capital
marking a victory for communism and the United States remove their last troops
-1975:-Helsinki Accords officially recognized the boundaries set up by
WWII, such as the fact that the Baltic was under Soviet control, which
made most countries happy. But also began to recognize the idea of
human rights which would be a huge cause of dissent for the Soviet
Union.
-Revival and End (1979-1991)
-1979:-Soviets invade Afghanistan and US helps them
-1983:-President Reagan calls Soviet Union the “evil empire,” and wants to install nuclear weapons in Europe to prepare for Soviet destruction
-1985:- Mikhail Gorbachev = new soviet leader
-begins internal reform of soviet system
-1987:-Reagan on Gorbachev agree to Intermediate Range Nuclear Force Treaty (INF) which illuminates an entire class of nuclear weapons
-1988:-Gorbachev withdraws last Soviet troops from Afghanistan, and Reagan and he sign Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), which reduced the number of long range missiles
-1989:-Fall of communism in Eastern Europe
-Gorbachev refused to send in troops to squash the people’s revolutions of communist countries in Eastern Europe, different from the Soviet leaders before him
-Wall of Berlin collapses
-1990:-Germany is reunited
-1991:-USSR officially ends after a failed coup, Gorbachev resigns
INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT SINCE 1990:
Gulf War:
-1990, Iraq under Saddam Hussein tries to take over Kuwait, George Bush Sr. compelled the Soviet Union and China, under the UN Security Council to send in a multinational force to liberate Kuwait. US’s effort, called Desert Storm, freed Kuwait but left Hussein in power
-set the stage for War in Iraq under George W. Bush
Presence in the Middle East:
-Competing US interest in securing oil and supporting Israel
-1970s Groups like Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) developed to counter the US support of Israel and to lay claim for a Palestinian homeland
-Caused terrorist groups to arise, but nothing happened on US soil until Al-Qaeda
-Caused War on Terror 2001
-Caused War in Iraq 2003
SOVIET UNION AFTER 1945:
(v during Cold War)
Cold War Repression under Stalin:
-Controlled economic and intellectual life
-KGB increased in power
-Forced labor camps called Gulag (for anyone arrested) (Solzhenitsyn wrote about this)
Under Khrushchev:
-Came to power, initiates de-Stalinization
-tried to pass US economy by de-centralizing the economy focused on consumer goods, not particularly successful because blocked by bureaucrats called Apparatchiki
-incomplete reforms led to downfall 1964
Leonid Brezhnev:
-Selected by the Soviet party from his goal of “no experimentation,” he will not make changes, although he did oversee one of the SALT treaties
-Space programs and scientific communities thrived under him
-Economy failed under him because lack of consumer goods
-Increased infant mortality and decreased life expectancy
Mikhail Gorbachev:
-considered one of the key figures in the 20th century for ending the Cold War
-he tried to create socialism with a human face, called Perestroika, or restructuring of the central economy but the bureaucracy was still very strong
-his attempts to get around them ended in his reform of ‘openness,’ or Glasnost (more ability to express views, less restrictions in communication)
-promoted religious freedom
-struggled because he was between the defenders of the old system and advocates of free market capitalism—to moderate because by trying to do a little bit of everything, no one was pleased with him
-Allowed the revolts in Eastern Europe, did not intervene militarily, after Perestroika and Glasnost inadvertently sparked independence movements in Eastern Europe
-Reformer who gained control:
-Boris Yeltsin
- outlawed communist party in Russia and Soviet Union was voted out of existence
Since 1991:
-12 of the former USSR Republics formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), headed by Yeltsin
-Yeltsin, like Gorbachev found trouble between reform and repression but pushed for a strong presidential republic
-1993-dissolved legislature and called for new elections and a new constitution
-there was still push toward going back to communism
-resigned 1999 and replaced by Vladimir Putin
-Putin:
-promoted economic development and central state authority
-increased state control of media and repression of internal opponents
EASTERN EUROPE AFTER 1945 (THE FALL OF COMMUNISM):
Between WWI and WWII Stalin wanted to consolidate his power over Eastern Europe and spread his communist ideals. He created COMECON, and imposed Stalinist regimes by creating one-party states, planned economies (had each part of the Soviet Union focus on production of one thing, to benefit them all), collectivization of agriculture
Poland:
-Fall of Communism occurred under Lech Walesa, who was a member of an independent labor Union called Solidarity, and wanted free elections
-He led the party to gain all but one seat in legislature and was elected President
-1989 repudiated communist rule (and won peace pride)
Hungary:
-Also moved from communism to more of a social democratic economy, and most significantly and took down the barbed wire around its borders (also known as the Iron Curtain), allowing the immigration of a flood of East Germans (1989)
East Germany:
-Had the strongest economy in Eastern Europe but was very defensive about West Germany, which made them very repressive
-Once Hungary opened it borders, and the fact that Gorbachev visited, people were riled up, and pulled down the Berlin Wall in 1989
Czechoslovakia:
-Inspired by Poland, Hungary and East Germany there were many demonstrations in Prague
-Vaclav Havel helped lead Charter 77, a group of intellectuals against Stalinist regime
-the Soviet Union did not challenge them and this led to the Velvet Revolution, after which Havel was elected President
-Had a free market economy and is very successful
-Czech and Slovakia are created in 1993, called Velvet Divorce
Yugoslavia:
-Most violent break from communism because of multi-ethnic tensions
-Marshall Tito, the ruler had brought together Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia, Serbia and Montenegro, but they were not a happy union; however communism allowed them to stay in his control; with the fall of communism things started to fall apart because the states were either western oriented, or Russian oriented
-Western Oriented Republics were:
-Croatia
-Slovenia
-Bosnia (Muslim)
-The Russian Oriented Republic was Serbia.
-In 1991 Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia (Muslim) voted for independence.
- Yugoslavia now consisted of Serbia and Montenegro,
-Under Slobodan Milosevic, Yugoslavia attached Bosnia to recapture Serbian territory. In the process, Serbian troops engaged in “ethnic cleansing” campaigns against Bosnian Muslims. Croatian armies responded with their own atrocities against the Serbs. Western countries stood by in horror. When Milosevic turned to Kosovo, President Clinton led a NATO bombing operation. By 2001 Milosevic was voted out of office.
End of communism also occurred in Romania
WESTERN EUROPE AFTER 1945:
Began a remarkable recovery by mid-50s, decolonization which gave them more money for their own countries, and they were pushed away from extreme nationalism following the terror of the two world wars, began to realize the importance of Western European Unity
Recovery and Reconstruction:
-US offered Marshall Pan financial aid to Europe as funneled through OEEC, this allied US with Western Europe
-Allied countries created international economic institutions:
- Even before WWII ended, the International Monetary Fund, (IMF)
-ensured currency stabilization, World Bank provided loans for modernization of infrastructure
- World Trade Organization, regulated
-British economist Keynes introduced a new theory to economic stimulation of using tax and budget policies to promote growth and cushion recessions and spend more money government programs and aiding the needy
-Several states nationalized key industries such as utilities and transport to support national economy, but these mixed economy of free-market and high government regulation—Social Welfare States-- did not come close to the authoritarian style of planned economy the Soviet Union
Decolonization:
-Most European countries did not have the means or power to control colonies after WWII, and did not even have an interest in these colonies
-Great Britain:
-“Partition and Run” policy
-ex: Palestine, partitioned into Israel, which caused many wars, but British avoided this conflict
-ex: Britain left India by partitioning the country between the Muslim East and West Pakistan divided, with Hindu India in between
-this border conflict has created a stream of conflict between the countries
-End of England’s position as World Power is marked by Egyptian usurpation of Suez Canal
-Low Countries:
-Dutch left Indonesia, after they were liberated by the Japanese
-Belgians planned to grant Congo its independence, but just pulled out instead
-France:
-was determined to hold on to its colonial empire because of its poor showing in WWII, but they faced a nationalist and communist insurgencies led by Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam (shows how communism and anti-colonialism were often fused)
-was forced to withdraw from Indochina, and US took over the war, starting War in Vietnam
-France would also not give up colony in Algeria which led to the end of the 4th Republic, and the return of Charles De Gaulle who ended the war in 1962 and granted Algerian independence
-When he took over he got rid of the coalition governments, made a new constitution and gave himself more power than any other president
-Western and central Europe moved toward economic and political integration, especially France and Germany, and created the EEC European Economic Community, or Common Market, which worked toward abolishing trade barriers to allow the free-flow of capital and common economic policies. It included France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg
-British, Denmark and Ireland eventually joined as well
-After Oil Shock of 1970s, EEC moved toward stronger integration
-1991 members signed the Maastricht Treaty, aimed at creating a “single Europe,” and created the EU, or European Union, which was governed by an elected European parliament and centralized decision making by the European Commission
-Now there are 25 participating nations
-National currencies were given up and replaced by the Euro (by 12 of the 25 nation)
CONTEMPORARY EUROPEAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE:
Post WWII there was a higher standard of living, and increased life expectancy, also negative effects
Baby Boom:
-Steady increase in birth rate
-state policies of neonatalism improved infant nutrition and daycare
-population increase of 25% due to influx of immigrants
-greater ethnic diversity has led to anti-immigrant political parties, growth of nationalism and tension
-birth control pill led to a slowing down of the birth rate in the mid 60s
-since 1990 birth rate has stagnated
-Demographers project negative population growth for Italy and France
-effects politics because generous retirement benefits are funded by taxation of young workers
-It it expected the Muslims will outnumber Christians in Europe by 2025 because of the decline in religious observance in Europe
Growth of and Challenge to the Welfare State:
-Welfare benefits were expanded after WWII, East: through socialism and Marxism, and in the West: through Keynesian economic theory
-Western nations provided old-age pensions, unemployment, disability insurance, socialized health care and progressive taxation
-For the most part the social safety net was popular, but the economic stagnation in the ‘80s, it came under attack
-70s and 80s = a resurgence of conservatism with Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan
-criticized over-regulation and bloated bureaucracy
-shift in Europe to more conservative policies, cutting back on safety net, moving from Keynesian economic theory to supply-side economic theory (reduce taxes, reduce regulation, reduce government spending)
Consumerism and Its Critics:
-Flood of new consumer goods (kitchen appliances, automobiles, fashion)
-Shift away from heavy industry toward services and information processing
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