Chapter 13: The Renaissance



Renaissance: cultural achievements of the 14th through 16th centuries that rested on the economic & political developments of earlier centuriesI.Economic Growth in northern Italian cities? Venice, Genoa, and Milan: all profited from overseas trade with Middle East and northern Europe● advancements in shipbuilding allowed ships to sail year round, increased the volume of goods transported, and accelerated the speed of travel ● enormous profits form increased trade were continually reinvested to earn more, becoming the wealthiest states of Europe? Florence: location of the first artistic and literary manifestations of the Italian Renaissance● Florentine merchants acquired control of papal banking allowing them to dominate European banking● banking profits were invested in the urban industries of Florence ? wool industry: resulted in financial expansion and population increase of munes & Republics? Communes : sworn associations of free men seeking complete political and economic independence from local lords●Merchant Guilds – led communes by building city walls regulating trade, raising taxes, keeping civil order● Urban Nobility – noble families attracted by wealth and opportunity in the city married into wealthy urban merchant families? Gained control of communes restricting citizenship and rights of the urban underclass? Popolo: disenfranchised, heavily taxed portion of the population who led armed rebellions to take over city governments establishing republican governments● repeated the same abuses of power as the noble communes, and failed to maintain civil order? Signori & Oligarchies: despots and merchant aristocracies took control of northern Italian cities in the wake of failed popolos ? 15th century political power, and elite culture was centered in the princely courts of despots and oligarchs ○ used to display and assert wealth through patronage of the arts III.Political Systems & Diplomatic Relations b/w City-States? Disunited Italian peninsula: political loyalty towards their individual city-states prevented the development of a unified Italian state.● 15th century: 5 major powers of Italy?northern city-states claimed to be republics but ruled as monarchs i. Venice > sophisticated constitution but ruled by oligarchy ii. Florence > governed by councils of state but real power in the hands of patrician elitist○ Medici family: Cosimo (1434-1464) Lorenzo (1469-1494)iii. Milan > republic dominated by the despots of the Sforza familyiv. Papal States > Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) aided by his son Cesare Borgia, asserted papal authority by military force over papal landsv. Kingdom of Naples > southern Italy & Sicily ruled by the monarch of Aragon, Spain ● The major powers controlled the smaller states and competed for territory? Balance of Power in the Italian Peninsula● Independent city-states joined forces to prevent any one state from gaining a predominant position.? Alliances & Embassies: establishing the modern system of diplomacy, Italian city-states initiated permanent embassies by placing resident ambassadors in capitals where political relations & commercial ties needed continual monitoring? Foreign Invasion● Imperialistic ambitions & the inability to form a common alliance against potential foreign enemies opened Italy for invasion.? Girolamo Savonarola (Dominican friar) – delivered sermons in Florence attacking the moral vice, paganism, and undemocratic rule by the Medici and Papacy. He warned the people of the impending threat of foreign invasion.● Habsburg-Valois Wars: fought between the monarchs of France and the Holy Roman Empire on Italian soil following the invasion of Italy by King Charles VIII of France in 1494.● By the 16th century: Political & social life in Italy was completely disrupted due to foreign wars. Failure of the city-states to form a federal system, or to establish a common foreign policy resulted in the continual occupation and subjugation of foreign powers until its unification in 1870.IV.Intellectual Hallmarks of the Renaissance? 14th & 15th century Italians characterized the Renaissance as a new golden age of intellectual achievement or rebirth of classical civilization.● Francisco Petrarch (1304-1347): known as the father of modern humanism – Petrarch viewed the period b/w the 4th century and the 14th century as the “Dark Ages” ? He spoke contemptuously of his medieval predecessors and identified w/ the thinkers & artist of the Greco-Roman period Themes of the Renaissance? Individualism: stressed personality, uniqueness, genius, and the full development of ones capabilities – quest for glory● Middle Ages: Christian humility discouraged self-absorption● Renaissance Intellectuals: developed a new sense of historical distance from earlier periods? witnessed the emergence of many distinctive personalities who gloried in their uniqueness, aware of their singularity, unafraid to be different, confident in their ability to achieve great things? Humanism: emphasized human beings, their achievements, interest, capabilities● Italian humanist studied the Latin classics to learn what they could reveal about human nature.? unlike the scholars of the middle ages – Italian humanist were skeptical of the authority of pagan and classical authors, aware that classical writers often disagreed among themselves ○ Lorenzo Valla – On the False Donation of Constantine> demonstrated that a 8th cent. document claiming to give the papacy jurisdiction over vast territories in western Europe, was actually a forgery * Impact: weakened papal claims to temporal authority! ? Secularism: a basic concern w/ the material world instead of w/ the eternal world of spirit ● economic changes and rising prosperity beginning in the 13th century stimulated a fundamental change in social & intellectual attitudes and values? greater material wealth allowed for greater material pleasures, a comfortable life, and leisure time to appreciate and patronize the arts ○ Giovanni Boccacio (1313-1375): The Decameron > portrayed an acquisitive, sensual, worldly society, without the contempt the existed in medieval literature● Leaders of the Church embraced the secular spirit of the Renaissance patronizing the arts to beautify the property of the church and their personal households. V.Art & the Artist? Artistic masterpieces in sculpture, painting, and architecture of the Quattro cento (1440’s) & cinquecento (1500’s)? In all arts, the city of Florence led the way● Early Renaissance: Art manifested corporate power (Guilds and religious confederations) commissioned works of art for the city of Florence ? Ghiberti’s bronze doors of the Baptistry & Michelangelo’s statue of David? art themes > overwhelmingly religious – used to educate, spread a particular doctrine, act as a profession of faith, or recall sinners to a moral way of living ● Late 15th century: Individuals and Oligarchs sponsored works of art more than corporate groups? supported arts as a means of glorifying themselves & their family ○ family chapel, frescoes, religious panels, tombs? art themes > subject matter became increasingly secular○ classical themes (lives of loves of gods & goddesses)○ self portraits, or scenes depicting themselves and family members to immortalize themselves and display their great wealth & power? Styles of Renaissance Art● Giotto (1276-1337): led the way in the use of realism where his portraits mirrored reality in their treatment of the human body & face● Donatello (1386-1466): sculptor who expressed a variety of human nature & revived the classical figure (balance and self awareness)● Masaccio (1401-1428): father of modern painting – inspired a new style characterized by great realism, narrative power, and effective use of light and dark● Brunelleschi & Francesca: both pioneered the use of perspective in painting? The linear representation of distance and space on a flat surface● International Style: created by the commissioning of artist all over Europe from different countries.? use of rich color, decorative detail, curvilinear rhythms, and swaying forms● Status of Artist: determined by support of powerful patrons? artist only did commissioned work – unsolicited work for the general public would lower the status of an artist? The culture of the Renaissance was that of a small mercantile elite and did NOT directly affect the broad middle classes and urban proletariat. VI.Social Change of the Renaissance Era? Education & Political Thought● Humanist were preoccupied with education & moral behavior, with the goal of educating and training to be rulers.? Baldassare Castiglione: The Courtier (1528) ○ a treaties that sought to train, discipline, and fashion the young man into the courtly ideal, the gentleman? Niccolo Machiavelli: The Prince (1513) ○ a treaties on political power and how the ruler should gain, maintain, and increase it.“the prince should combine the cunning of a fox w/ the ferocity of a lion to achieve his goals”“is it better for a ruler to be loved or feared” answer: both – but it is safer to be feared than loved“the prince should be concerned not with the way things ought to be, but with the way things actually are”“the sole test of a good government is whether it is effective, whether the ruler increases his power”? Women● The status of upper-class women declined during the Renaissance? a woman’s type of work, access to property, and political power declined from that of the feudal age? upper-class women received an education for the purpose bringing culture to their home and children? women were viewed as property of their husband● Ordinary women received little or no education, but continued to play a significant role in the work place and in the home● Rape was not considered a particularly serious crime against either the victim or society Some women made up a small minority of humanists who acquired great learning & fame:Christine de Pisan (pg. 410-411)Sofonisba Anguissola (1530-1625) – paintingsArtemisia Gentileschi (1593-1653) – paintings- Judith Slaying Holofernes (pg. 434)Isabella Andreini (1562-1604) – actressLaura Cereta (1469-1499) – humanisteducated in philosophy, theology, and mathematics married at 15 – widowed at 18 (spent rest of her life in study)“empty women, who strive for no good but exist to adorn themselves …These women of majestic pride, fantastic coiffures, outlandish ornament, and necks bound with gold or pearls bear glittering symbols of their captivity to men.”to Laura, women’s inferiority was derived not from the divine order of things but from women themselves “for knowledge is not given as a gift, but through study…The free mind, not afraid of labor, presses on to attain the good.” ? Technology● The printing press: Johann Gutenberg (1455) – experimenting in Mainz, developed movable type in a machine called the printing press? transformed both private and public lives of Europeans, allowing silent individuals to join causes and peoples separated by geography to form common identities○ Gutenberg’s Bible (1456) ● The Mechanical Clock: The ability to quantify or measure time with a mechanical clock was first introduced in Europe during the 10th century ? By the 14th & 15th century clocks became a major feature of urban life. The buying and selling of goods required a more precise measurement of the day’s hours.○ the clock gave Europeans a technological advantage over other peoples ? Women & WorkDomestic work as well as outside the householdVenetian sail makersFlorentine textile industryMidwives, maids, cooks, laundresses, household servantsGeneral male perception: women should be homemakers VII.The Renaissance in the North? The Renaissance of northern Italy spread into northern Europe via students who traveled to study in Italy during the 15th century.● The “new learning” of the Renaissance made its way into the cultures of France, the Low Countries, Germany, and England? Northern Humanist: interpreted Italian ideas about & attitudes toward classical antiquity, individualism, and humanism in terms of their own traditions ● The northern Renaissance had a distinctly religious character where humanist stressed biblical and early Christian themes? focus: broad social reform based on Christian idealsdevelopment of an ethical way of life to be achieved by combining the best elements of classical and Christian culturesstressed the use of reason, rather than acceptance of dogma, as a foundation for an ethical way of lifehaving faith in the human intellect to bring about moral and institutional reformalthough human nature had been corrupted by sin, it was fundamentally good and capable of improvement through education, which would lead to piety and an ethical way of life● Thomas More (1478-1535): Utopia (1516) – a book with a revolutionary view of society which describes an ideal socialistic community located on a fictional island? More blames the problems with society on greed and the obsession with private property. Therefore societies flawed institutions were responsible for corruption and war.? according to More, the key to improvement and reform of the individual was reform of the social institutions that molded the individual.● Desiderius Erasmus (1466?-1536): ? Two themes of his work:education is the means to reform, the key to moral & intellectual improvement“The philosophy of Christ” Christianity is an inner attitude of the heart or spirit. Christianity is Christ – his life and what he said & did, not what theologians have writtenWorks:1) The Education of a Christian Prince (1504) - combined idealistic & practical suggestions for the formation of a ruler’s character through the careful study of Plutarch, Aristotle, Cicero, and Plato 2) The Praise of Folly (1509) - satire of worldly wisdom & a plea for the simple spontaneous Christian faith of children. 3) Greek New Testament (1516) ● Francis Rabelais (1490?-1553): Gargantua & Pantagruel? Comedy that uses satire to discuss the disorders of contemporary religious and secular lifeRabelais believed that institutions molded individuals and that education was the key to a moral and healthy life ? Northern Art Rogier van der Weyden (1399/1400-1464) work titles: Deposition (pg. 440 in text) ● Jan van Eyck (1366-1441) work titles: Ghent Alterpiece, portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride? One of the first to use oil paints successfully ○ great realism in his paintings along with attention to human personality ● Jerome Bosch (1450?-1516) work: Death and the Miser? used religious themes in combination w/ grotesque fantasies, colorful imagery, and peasant folk legendsVIII.New Monarchs (Politics & the State in the Renaissance 1450-1521)? Monarchs who invested kingship with a strong sense of royal authority and national purpose, stressing that the monarchy was the one institution that linked all classes and peoples within definite territorial boundaries. emphasized royal majesty & royal sovereignty, and insisted on the respect and loyalty of all subjects ? FranceCharles VII (r. 1422-1461) – ended the Hundred Years’ War in 1453 & consolidated the authority of the French crownreorganized the royal council (increased influence of middle-class men)strengthened royal finances through taxes: gabelle (on salt) & taille (land tax) established the first permanent royal armypublished the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438) – asserting the superiority of a general council over the papacy, giving the French crown major control over the appointment of bishops, and depriving the pope of French ecclesiastical revenueLouis XI “Spider King” (r. 1461-1483) – son of Charles VIIFaced with feudal disorder (opposition of the aristocracy to a centralized state)Louis promoted new industries (silk weaving) & welcomed foreign craftsmen as well as entered into commercial treaties with England, Portugal, & the Hanseatic League – to raise revenue through royal taxes Used his improved army to stop aristocratic brigandage & to cut into urban independence.Louis XII (r. 1498-1515) – marriage to Anne of Brittany added the duchy of Brittany to the monarchs state.Francis I & Pope Leo X – Concordat of Bologna, rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges returning papal authority over the church in France, but allowed for the Monarchs appointment of French bishops & abbots effectively giving French kings control of appointments & policies of the church in France.? England- Monarchy vs. Parliament (House of Lords & House of Commons)Monarchs were dependent on Parliament for revenueEdward IV & Tudor monarchs avoided this relationship by following a policy of diplomacy with foreign states rather than costly wars.thereby undercutting the source of aristocratic influenceEdward IV (r. 1461-1483) – defeated the Lancastrian forces in the War of the Roses (York – white Rose / Lancaster – Red Rose) winning control of the crownRichard III (r. 1483-1485) Welsh house of Tudor – brother of Edward IVHenry VII (r. 1485-1509) Royal Council: became the center of royal authority to govern at the national levelvery few great lords were allowed to serve as advisors to the kingmajority of the 12-15 members of the council were of the middle class (lesser landowners who had primarily studied law)court of Star Chamber: royal court who applied principles of Roman law(accused not entitled to see evidence against them, trials held in secret, torture was commonly used, juries were not called) primarily used to reduce aristocratic opposition to the monarchyheld executive, legislative, and judicial power under the monarchy - justices of the peace: unpaid local officials (influential landowners in the shires who handled all the work of local government)took the place of a standing army or professional service bureaucracy which the Tudor’s did not have & could not affordthey apprehended & punished criminals, enforced parliamentary statues, fixed wages & prices, maintained weights and measuresTudor monarchs were successful because they were supported by the upper middle-class who wanted to maintain peace in the wake of years of anarchy.- Henry VII rebuilt the monarchy by:encouraging the cloth industry & building up the English merchant marinethereby increasing government revenue through the taxation of the wool industry.crushing the invasion from Ireland & securing peace with Scotland through the marriage of his daughter Margaret to the Scottish king ? SpainReconquista – the wars of northern Christian kingdoms in Spain to recapture control of the Iberian peninsula from the Muslims (Moores)military & religious objective was to expel the Muslims & Jews and gain political control of the south.1469 – Marriage of Isabella of Castile to Ferdinand of Aragon: constituted a dynastic union of two royal houses, not a political union of two states.- Spain existed as a loose confederation of separate kingdoms until 1700Ferdinand & Isabella (r. 1474-1516) Hermandades: “brotherhoods” popular groups in towns given authority to act as local police forces and as judicial tribunes. Used by Ferdinand & Isabella to curb rebellions and warring aristocracyTo curb aristocratic powers – Ferdinand & Isabella restructured the royal council to exclude Aristocrats & powerful landowners – reducing the influence of the nobility on state policythe council held full executive, judicial, and legislative powers under the monarchy & supervised local authoritiesmembers of the council were of middle-class background and were trained in Roman Law – which exalted the power of the Crown as the embodiment of the state.Establishment of a national church through a diplomatic alliance made b/w the Spanish pope Alexander VI & the Spanish monarchy creating the “Catholic Kings of Spain”allowed the monarch to raise revenues from ecclesiastical estates to create an army capable of continuing the reconquista- which concluded in 1492 with the conquest of Granadaanti-Semitism: Jewish persecutions due to economic dislocation, anti-Jewish preaching, and the plague (14th- 15th cen.)- New Christians – converses & Maranos: Jews & Moores who converted to Christianity under duress. - Inquisition – used by Ferdinand to punish converts who secretly continued to practice their religion (mostly used as a way to deflect popular demands on the state to persecute converses) - Absolute religious orthodoxy and purity of blood served as the theoretical foundation of the Spanish national state.○ following the fall of Granada – Ferdinand & Isabella issued an edict expelling Jews from Spain (approx. 150,000 of 200,000 fled) ................
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