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Sparta Summary DocumentThe geographical setting, natural features & resourcesGeographical setting & natural features:In Laconia- a polis in the Peloponnese Height of power in 500-371 In mid 8th century BC conquered Messenia- adding to land and making their slaves (helots)Ideally located between 2 large mountains- no need to build city wallsResources:Crops of barley & wheat, fruitLivestock- sheep, goats, pigs, wild boar Minerals- iron, copper & tin for bronze, lead, marble Significant sitesLittle value on luxurious living and ornate public buildings, used timber Thucydides: “the far future would find it difficult to believe that the power of Sparta had deserved its reputation” Artemis OrthiaStructure w altar & small temple 10th- 2nd century BC Used for religious purposes & assemblies for Greek gods & local diety Rich finds: votive offerings (figurines) & clay masks Acropolis Raised central platform and housed temple of Athena The Menelaion Palatial structure associated with cult activities, votive offerings and shrines Pausanias says its where Helen & Menelaus are buried Finds: Laconian vases, terracotta figures with inscriptions Sanctuary of Apollo at Amyclae Contained large temple to Apollo with big statue The site of the hyakinthia (major religious festival) Social structure & political organisationThe issue of Lycurgus & the Great RhetraLycurgus was a semi-mythical law giver accredited with instituting the Spartan constitutionHistorians today doubt he existed Because of him and his ‘Great Rhetra’ that Sparta developed its constitution and customs the way they did Plutarch records Lycurgus’ achievements in a ‘biography’ but admits that ‘anything we think we know about Lycurgus cannot be said without debate’, but says he travels the ancient world seeking the best elements of government bringing them back to Sparta and then endorsed by Apollo at DelphiCarteldge suggests that he was invented by the Spartans to give legitimacy to their reforms that came laterThe ‘Great Rhetra’ is the essence and focus of the reform ascribed to Lycurgus, it is a saying from contract through an oracle to a law Aristotle dates him at 776BC Roles & privileges of the two kingsHerodotus & Xenephon highlight the tasks and perks of being a king. Xenephon highlights that Lycurgus’ aim was to make sure that the Kings did not live a life of excessive luxury or acquire tyrannical powers. Roles:Religious- occupied priesthoods of Zeus Declare warExchange of oaths with Ephors to rule justly and in return promise to support their ruleLead the armyAppoint 2 individuals to care for foreign visitors Choose 2 messengers who consult Delphi on their behalf Take responsibility for public highways and adoptions Privileges: March front in the army Handpick 100 soldiers as body guards Limitless sacrificial victims on campaign and keep the skinsSeated first at banquets and double portions for honouring others Front rows at athletic displaysGovernment: ephorate, gerousia, ekklesiaSparta had a unique system of government- monarchy, oligarchy and democracy. Gerousia (Council of 30 Elders)- OligarchyPlutarch tells us it was established by Lycurgus in the ‘Great Rhetra’ 28 men and 2 kings over 60- Xenephon tells us the age requirement ensured virtuous behaviour, however, Aristotle criticises this saying ‘many of the elders are well known to have taken bribes and guilty of partiality (one sided) in public affairsElected by the Ekklesia- had judicial powers (judges) in criminal cases, proposed laws, debate legislation to be approved/rejected by Ekklesia Plato says it produced security, made good sense and was a check on the kingTwo Kings- Monarchy Mainly religious and military role (were leaders), also judicial role Supervised by Ephors and consulted with Ekklesia Ephorate- Democracy A later addition- NOT established by Lycurgus in the ‘Great Rhetra’5 elected each year by Ekklesia- a way to keep citizens happy Strong administrative & judicial powers- decided foreign policy, supervised Kings & the Agoge, observe sacrifices Aristotle says they were so influential ‘even the kings have been compelled to court them’, they kept state together as citizens had a chance to reach the highest office Ekklesia (Assembly)- DemocracyEstablished by Lycurgus in the ‘Great Rhetra’ Male citizens over 30Could only vote yes/no (not suggestions), could be ignored by Gerousia, chose king to lead in war, elected Ephors Social structure: spartiates, perioeci, inferiors, helotsSpartiates (citizens)Full male citizens over 30, must have both Spartan parents, privileged class Must complete agoge and then serve in the army- same training & discipline State supported- must be in and meet their contribution to Sysittia (dining club), must have kleros (state owned land in their possession w/ helots working on it) Must adhere to the laws of Lycurgus- forbidden to engange in farming and tradeInferiors (lost citizenship)Reasons for lost citizenship include: cowardice, sons of helots ‘adopted’ as playmates of Spartan boys, illegitimate offspring (Spartan father & Helot mother), helots gained freedom for courageous act No rights, avoided by everyone Helots (captives = slaves)Lowest class- state owned slaves from conquest (e.g Messenians beaten in wars in approx. 8th century), 0 rights, harshly treatedLived on lands owned by Spartiates and main duty was to supply a fixed amount of produce to them so the citizens could devote their time & energy to the state, becoming the huge agricultural resource which supports the Lycurgan system Tyrtaeus says they gave 50% of produce, were free to keep the rest suggesting economically they weren’t badly offOutnumbered Spartiates approx. 20:1 Servants to citizens at war or served as light-armed troops, sometimes hoplites Perioeci (dwellers around)Lived in their own regional settlements in Laconia, not Spartan, largely autonomous (self-governing) except foreign affairs and owed allegiance to SpartaPlayed a significant role in the economic life of Sparta- engaged in trade and industry e.g pottery Fine- “Part of the king’s revenues came from lands assigned to them in perioecic territory Adult males expected to serve as hoplitesthe Spartan army: training (agoge), compositionMost feared state in GreeceEverything was regulated by the state, all men were soldiers and other jobs were forbiddenCompositionKing led the army on campaign Xenephon says Spartans were the ‘masters of war’ and they ‘execute with complete smoothness manoeuvres regarded as difficult’ Were placed in ‘enomotia’ of 36 men, led by an Enomotarch Thucydides tells us they used flutes when marching into battle to maintain formationAll equipped in traditional hoplite panapoly- hoplon, spear, sword, corset, bronze greaves, red tunic symbolises Spartan militarism, Xenephon says wore hair long for fearsome appearanceGenerals = polemarchs Fought in phalanx formation At peak strength were approx. 3400 300 ‘hippeis’ were Spartan king’s body guards The Importance of the Army in Spartan SocietyProtection & expansion (e.g Messian Wars in 8th century) Sole occupationLife was built around/dedicated to service Army is tied to citizenship- service means contribution to the state Important to preserve ‘eunomia’ (good order) e.g Helots Connolly says one of the reasons that made it necessary to run Sparta as a military state was the large number of slaves (helots) Training (Agoge)Plutarch and Xenephon credit Lycurgus, however Cartledge suggests it was a much later reform, possibly 3rd century BC to give legitimacy to the new reform Military focus to produce courageous soldiers and obedient to state Military exercises and dances for footwork in battle- e.g the Pyrrhic dance where young boys performed high jumps and leaps at the Gymnopoedia festival Plutarch says they learnt basic reading and writing, with a focus on music and poetry of Trytaeus to inspire to be brave soldiers Runs from age 7-20. However, men are required to live in the barracks until 30.After completion they are classed as Spartiates Taught bravery is the greatest virtue and cowardice is the worst vice from a young ageKyle tells us they were supervised and punished by a magistrate (paidonomos or boy herd) and placed into herds (agelai) Xenephon and Plutarch tell us they were underfed, learnt survival skills by scrambling for food and avoiding punishments, exercises, contests and violent games to develop discipline and toughnessXenephon says they encouraged theft to be more resourceful and better fighters as prescribed by Lycurgus, only punishment for being caught Plutarch says it was aimed at teaching obedience, perseverance under stress, victory in battle, physical excellence and proficiency in phalanx formation Plutarch tells us it aimed to produce citizens who follow the rules and are good warriors (social conformity) Key Moments:Birth- child is inspected by the elders, Plutarch says weak or crippled were killed Early childhood- children cared for by nurses and mothers, harsh upbringing 7- boys are given to the state, taken from their family and grouped into classes where they live, ate and slept together under discipline 12- became much harsher, fighting encouraged, practiced formations and exercises in hoplite arms 19- Became eirens which were lovers to the younger boys- Xenephon and Plutarch emphasise that they set an example but led to much homosexuality 20- reached manhood and became a soldier, still lived in barracks The Significance of the Educational/Training SystemMilitary- great soldiers, closely watched, severe and harsh, devoted Social- obedient citizens, syssitia, taught deception, shame, food, stealing, Paidonomos, Ephors, Eirenes, discipline, part of country not individuals control of the helots: the military, syssitia, krypteiaThe Spartans were constantly fearful of them overthrowing them and wrestling back control. They did revolt on occasion- in 464 BC The Spartiates introduced several strategies to keep them oppressed and maintain control: MilitaryArmy was a constant and visual reminder to not stay too far from homeArmy used to entice Helots to serve, potentially achieving citizenship for good service Xenephon tells us when deployed, they were closely watched by Spartiates Thucydides gives example of manipulation and beytrayal to Helots Syssitia Helots were tied to the land and held to account to meet kleros food production Plutarch says they were forced to get drunk and do ‘foolish things’- an example to young Spartans how not to behave Krypteia A ‘secret police’ of the elite members of the Agoge Plutarch tells us they went out on occasions and looked for helots to intimidate and murder Cartledge says they targeted troublemakers and generally spread terror role and status of women: land ownership, inheritance, educationEducation Cartledge tells us they were educated at home by their mothers and domestic helotsCartledge strongly believes they could read All women exercised in public like boys, maybe nakedPhysical health = healthy children Land Ownership/Inheritance Cartledge says they could legally own property and manage it Could inherit kleroi Aristotle complains that women owned 2/5 of land and attributed to downfall of Sparta The economy land ownership: agriculture, kleroi, helotsFundamental to Spartan system- was directly linked to citizenship and being able to provide for your Syssitia Plutarch tells us that Lycurgus divided all the land into 9,000 equal lots for Spartans to produce food from. He apparently did this to reduce the ‘dreadful inequality’ which had gripped SpartaHelotsHelots worked this land and paid a tax, which Ducat remarks was fairly low, possibly allowing Helots to accumulate wealth KleroiA lack of kleroi due to greed and less distribution may have been the cause of the citizenship crisis after Leuctra Women are noted as owning land and Aristotle blames them for the citizenship crisis Some Spartans had more land than others, leading to differences in wealth AgricultureCitizens were freed from agricultural life to be soldiers technology: weapons, armour, potteryCartledge questions the legitimacy of the ‘ban’ on crafting and points out how the ‘Spartan mirage’ blinds the reality Brennan tells us that Gitiades, a Spartan, made the bronze statue of Athena for a templePausanias mentions that Telestas, a Spartan citizen, made a bronze statue of Zeus at Olympia- indicates bronze industry in Sparta in late 7th century BC Moulded lead objects were a popular form of votive offerings Weapons & ArmourSpartans dominated original inhabitants of Laconia & Messenia through iron weapons PotteryLaconian pottery was famous in the region Because of the rich soil, it turned a distinctive black when fired which is classic Spartan Evidence of a kiln found in a village close to the city dated approx. 600 BC Laconian pottery depicts scenes from mythology & everyda≥.y life economic roles of the periokoi and helotsPeriokoi Produced weapons and armour for Spartans but also went after their own profits (many were wealthy) Cartledge believes they filled the labour gap as the Spartans were banned from crafting HelotsThe central feature of the Spartan system They played a crucial role in the functioning of the economy, working the state-owned land (kleros), keeping half of what they grew, giving the other to the Syssitia economic exchange: use of iron bars, tradeIron BarsAccording to Plutarch, Lycurgus discouraged trade by forbidding the use of coinage He substituted pelanors (iron bars) that were heavy, brittle and useless outside of Sparta Plutarch is part of the ‘Spartan mirage’ of an ideal, simple Sparta with no wealth or greed However, they probably did use coinage and bartered their goods No sources ever mention a transaction involving pelanors Figeura finds many examples of Spartans using foreign coinage TradeAmple evidence for Spartan trade and culture contact around Europe and MediterraneanEconomy was largely agrarian- wool was a well-known export and flax used in textile production Richly decorated vases found as far as France & Italy Ivory artefacts show contact with Syria The Giglio shipwreck contains Spartan pottery- suggests that items made in Laconia were traded Religion, death and burialgods and goddesses: Artemis Orthia, Poseidon, ApolloApolloBasis of constitution (Great Rhetra) God of youth and divination – no major decision was conducted without consultation of the gods Artemis Orthia Represents fertility and childbirth Popular cult- many votive offerings and lead figurines found at the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia Xenephon tells us the cheese stealing ritual (‘rite of passage’) was a short period of pain endured for a long-lasting prestige, only fittest survive PoseidonHad several cults however little archaeological evidence God of horses and earthquakes myths and legends: Lycurgus and the DioscuriDioscuriLegendary divine twins, supposed brothers of HelenProtectors of two kings- took turns protecting Sparta Associated with athletic contests- ‘starters’ of races Marble reliefs- shows nude signifying heroic stature and athletic festivals: Hyakinthia, Gymnopaedia, KarneiaReinforce Spartan character and community Everything stopped- no war, businesses, assemblyHyakinthia Name from Spartan legend of homosexual relationship between Apollo and Hyakinthos – each spring represents renewal of Spartan life Throne of Apollo at Amyklai – Pausanias says portrayed w/ weapons, little archaeological evidence2 stages of festival- sorrowful stage (process, grief, ban on songs & cake) then joyful stage (song to Apollo, festive meal, dance) Celebration of youth and beauty- endorsement of male relationships Gymnopaedia ‘Festival of Unarmed Dancing’ Athletic war dances under fierce sun – testing ordeal Karneia Concerned with divination – finding the will of Apollo Held over 9 days ‘Catch the runner’ race for divination Endorses military life, athletic training and hunting Everything stops- e.g Second Persian War in 480 BC religious role of the kingsoccupied priesthoods of Zeus Limitless sacrificial victims on campaign and keep the skinsfunerary customs and ritualsPlutarch records what Lycurgus suggested: Burials within city (remove fear of death)No/limited grave goods No grave markers except if died in war Herodotus records that for kings they were public affairs, many attended, businesses closed for 10 daysCultural and everyday lifeart: sculpture, painted vases, bone and ivory carvingPainted Vases7th century- basic pottery with geometrical designs depicting gods, myth, human figures, scenes, Lycurgus ban on art and trade for citizens 6th century- depict scenes and stories that record banquets, riding, hunting and fighting End of 6th century was a stagnation of culture and art heavily impacted by lack of raw materials e.g ivory and bronze 5th century- designs more centred on animals & warriors E.g The Arkesilas CupBone & Ivory CarvingIvory was imported, suggesting trade and artistic influences from the east Ivory faded out by end of 6th century E.g ivory combs found at the shrine of Artemis Orthia depicting animals as an offeringSculptureBronze statues and figures Symbolises wealth and a certain skillset was required Stone sculpture is less commonarchitecture: Amyklaion, Menelaion, the Sanctuary of ArtemisThe Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia First temple (700BC) was small and simple- bricks and wood with a stone foundationSecond temple (580BC) used sturdy foundations successive in rebuilding for a long timeMenelaionThis shrine was small but still monumental- the earliest of its kind in Laconia Pedimental roof and was tiled with terracotta’sAmyklaionPausanias tells us it was both a shrine to Apollo (primary function) and the tomb of Hyakinthos Spartans made sacrifices to Apollo and offerings to Hyakinthos Limited archaeological & written evidence on what building looked like writing and literature: Alcman and TyrtaeusTyrtaeus Lived around 7th century BC Poems promote courage & importance of fighting Supports diarchy and the elders and the common soldier Connects divine law with human law through Eunomia “Rise up warriors… you were born from the blood of Heracles… the god of gods has never turned his back on you” – suggests military strength and mythical beliefs are connected through depending on divine favour, values of strength and comradery, an expectation to serve AlcmanLived around 7th century BC Poems and songs centred on leisure activities, love, legendsGreek writers’ views of Sparta: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle, Pausanias, PlutarchAlmost all written sources come from non-Spartans perspectives and opinions Herodotus (440 BC) – The Histories Athens centric Covers Spartan events (e.g Plataea) Thucydides (420 BC) – Peloponnesian War Athenian general later exiled, knowledge from battles against Sparta Xenephon (400 BC) – Hellenica, etc Athenian aristocrat Personal with how Sparta works, sometimes bias as he admires Sparta Aristotle (340 BC) – Politics, etc Athenian, praises and criticises Sparta Pausanias (2nd Century AD) – Description of GreeceGreek geographerPlutarch (2nd Century AD) – Lives of Spartans Moral biographer leisure activitiesAthletics Range of field sports including running, discus, javelin, jumping and wrestling Spartan athletes famous for running and rigorous training Girls known for running and jumping Pausanias writes about famous athletes and says they practiced naked Hunting Hunted rabbits, wolves, deer, boar and even an annual hunting of helotsUsed a javelin and spearKilling a boar in a boar hunt was a ‘rite of passage’ for a young man and confirmed his manliness Xenephon tells us that hunting makes a man healthy, improves eyesight, hearing and accustoms them to the hardships of the wild to be ready for war Equestrian Sports Brennan tells us horse racing and chariot races was both the demonstration of a rider’s skill and endurance as well as the competitive display of wealth invested in the horseSpartans achieved great equestrian success at the Olympics which carried enormous prestige and the glory reflected on both the victor and their city-stateLakonian pottery and votive offerings depicting horses and riders CockfightingStrong cocks that were aggressive were symbolic of maleness value in society Plutarch tells us the cocks fought to the death Attic vase compares hoplite soldiers to fighting cocks BoarfightingPausanias tells us that young men had to fight a boar then fight each other in teams in a contest marriage customsWas not monogamous According to Xenephon, husband may ‘lend’ wife to another for the purpose of creating offspring – Sparta committed to making strong healthy children – ideals of state over individual Only legal between 2 Spartans Fathers approached husbands Plutarch tells us the marriage began with a ritualised rapeIf husband was under 30, would sneak out of barracks to see his wife Lycurgus supposedly advised the boys not to go too often to inhibit their ‘passion for love’ ................
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