Weathering, Soil and Sedimentary Rocks

[Pages:11]9/19/2011

Chapter 6

Weathering, Soil and Sedimentary Rocks

Introduction

Rocks and minerals are disintegrated and decomposed by the processes of mechanical and chemical weathering.

This breakdown occurs because the parent material reacts with its new physical and chemical environment transforming it into a new equilibrium state.

Geo-inSight 4., p. 136

Introduction

How does weathering differ from erosion?

Weathering is the mechanical and chemical alteration of Earth materials at or near the surface

Erosion involves removing weathered materials from their place of origin-by running water or wind, for example.

How Are Earth Materials Altered?

The products of weathering include soluble salts, ions in solution, and solid particles

These products of weathering can be eroded and become sedimentary rock or modified in place to become soils.

Fig. 6.2, p. 135

Fig. 6.1, p. 134

How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Weathering and erosion take place at different rates

This can occur even on the same body of rock because rocks are not compositionally and structurally homogenous throughout, thereby producing uneven surfaces.

Geo-inSight 9., p. 137

How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Mechanical Weathering

Frost action Pressure release Thermal expansion and

contraction Crystal growth Activities of organisms.

The products of mechanical weathering are chemically the same as their parent materials.

Fig. 6.9d, p. 142

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How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Mechanical Weathering

Frost Action

When water freezes in cracks in rocks it expands and then it contracts when it thaws, thus exerting pressure and opening the cracks wider.

Repeated freezing and thawing disaggregates rocks into angular pieces that may tumble downslope and accumulate as talus.

Fig. 6.3a, p. 138

How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Mechanical Weathering

Pressure Release and Sheet Joints

Sheet joints are fractures that more or less parallel exposed rock surfaces, especially rocks now at the surface that formed under great pressure at depth.

These joints form in response to pressure release; that is, when the rocks formed, they contained energy that is released by outward expansion.

Fig. 6.4 a-b, p. 138

How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Mechanical Weathering

Thermal Expansion and Contraction

Volume changes in rocks

and minerals with

temperature changes

Outside expands faster

than inside (poor thermal

conductivity), and/or dark

minerals expand faster

than lighter-colored

minerals.

Over time the stresses

produce fracturing and

eventual mechanical

decomposition.



How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Mechanical Weathering

Salt Crystal Growth

Salt crystals form in fractures.

As they grow, they exert pressure on the rock causing the fractures to grow.

Coastal areas and regions where salt is used on roads are susceptible to weathering through salt action.



How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Mechanical Weathering

How do organisms contribute to mechanical and chemical weathering?

Any organic activity such as tree roots growing in cracks contributes to mechanical weathering

Organic acids and the tendrils of mosses and lichens aid in the chemical alteration of parent material.

Fig. 6.5b, p. 139

How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Chemical weathering

Hydration Solution Oxidation Hydrolysis

Hot and wet environments accelerate chemical weathering. Chemical weathering occurs in all environments, except,

possibly, permanently frozen polar regions.

Fig. 6.7, p. 141

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How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Chemical Weathering

These processes cause a change in the chemical composition.

The parent material is transformed into products including ions in solution, soluble salts and clay minerals.

Fig. 6.6, p. 140

How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Chemical Weathering Hydration ? chemical changes by adding water

Anhydrite and Gypsum are close "cousins"

Anhydrite (CaSO4) has a hardness of 3.5 and density of 3.0 g/cm3.

Gypsum (CaSO4?2H2O) has a hardness of only 2.0 and a density of only 2.3 g/cm3.

Gypsum is softer, less dense and easier to weather.

How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Chemical Weathering Solution ? rocks dissolve

Carbonate Rocks and Evaporites

Rocks such as limestone (CaCO?) are nearly insoluble in neutral or alkaline solutions, but they rapidly dissolve in acidic solutions.

Other minerals, such as halite and gypsum, also readily go into solution.

How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Chemical Weathering Oxidation ? rocks rust

Rocks such as sandstone may contain iron minerals that will breakdown when exposed to the atmosphere

Rocks containing mafic minerals will also alter to oxide and hydroxide minerals

The atoms making up the minerals dissociate, that is, they separate as the rock rusts away.

Geo-inSight 4., p. 136

How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Chemical Weathering Hydrolysis ? breakdown to clays

Potassium Feldspar

During hydrolysis hydrogen ions react with and

replace positive ions in potassium feldspar

The result is clay minerals and substances in

solution such as potassium and silica.

See p.140.

Kaolinite

K-spar



How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Chemical Weathering

Factors That Control the Rate of Chemical Weathering

Mechanical weathering enhances chemical weathering by breaking material into smaller pieces, thereby increasing the surface area for chemical reactions.

Because chemical weathering is a surface process, the more surface exposed, the faster the weathering.

Fig. 6.8 a-c, p. 141

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How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Chemical Weathering

Factors That Control the Rate of Chemical Weathering

All chemical weathering processes are enhanced by the presence of water.

Climates that have more rainfall are more likely to produce faster weathering rates.



How Are Earth Materials Altered?

Chemical Weathering

Factors That Control the Rate of Chemical Weathering

The type of material is very important, since certain minerals weather faster at the Earth's surface than others.

Silicate minerals that form at lower temperatures, such as quartz, are more stable than higher temperature minerals such as olivine. Also, the products of weathering ? clay minerals and oxides ? are more stable. Highly soluble minerals ? such as halite and gypsum ? are highly unstable.

Therefore, the mineral content of the rock helps determine the rate of weathering.

Soils

Soils ? Definitions

According to soil scientists, a soil is a mixture of weathered materials, air, water and organic matter capable of supporting plant growth.

According to an engineer, a soil is any loose material at the Earth's surface removable without blasting.

Regolith is a term geologists use for any unconsolidated material.

How Does Soil Form and Deteriorate?

Soil Composition

Soils consist of weathered materials, air, water, humus and also the plants which they support.

Fig. 6.10a, p. 143

How Does Soil Form and Deteriorate?

The Soil Profile

Soil formation produces horizons that are known in descending order as O, A, B, and C.

These horizons differ from one another in texture, structure, composition and color.

Fig. 6.10b, p. 143

Soil Production

Soil is produced at a rate of 2.5 cm per century

Therefore, soil is a non-renewable resource. We can improve the soil with fertilizer, but the

upper portion, the topsoil, is critically important to the future.

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How Does Soil Form and Deteriorate?

Factors That Control Soil Formation

Climate - Certainly climate is the most important factor because chemical processes operate faster where it is warm and wet.

Soils known as pedalfers develop in humid climates such as that of the eastern United States and much of Canada.

Soils of arid and semiarid regions are known as pedocals, and may contain hard, irregular masses of caliche (calcium carbonate) in horizon B.

Fig. 6.11, 6.12, p. 144-145

How Does Soil Form and Deteriorate?

Factors that Control Soil Formation

Laterite is a deep red soil typical of the tropics where chemical weathering is intense.

Laterites are made up of clays and the most insoluble compounds that were present in the parent material.

Fig. 6.12, p. 145

How Does Soil Form and Deteriorate?

Other Factors That Control Soil Formation

Parent material Organic activity Relief and slope Time

Fig. 6.7, p. 141

Types of Soil

Soils can be divided into Residual and Transported soils.

Residual Soils form in place directly on bedrock; the resulting soil is greatly influenced by the parent bedrock.

Transported Soils form on materials that have been transported to their destination via various agents of transportation, such as gravity, wind or water.

Types of Soil

Residual Soils depend on rock type and climate:

Granite ? formed by mechanical and chemical processes with a mixture of sand and clays; deep in humid regions and thin in arid regions.

Other igneous and metamorphic rocks ? composition of soil depends on parent material ? could contain more clays or oxides than quartz.

Sandstone ? thin, sandy soils. Shale ? thicker, clay-rich soils. Some clays are

expansive, and this can lead to major problems with building foundations. Limestone ? leftover materials after calcite dissolution (chert, sand, clay) gives thicker soils (humid) and thinner soils (arid)

Types of Soil

Transported Soil types depend on material, which depends on agent of transportation:

Colluvial soils are formed on the remnants of material moved downslope by gravity. These would be closely associated with their residual counterparts.

Alluvial soils are formed on all sediment deposited by streams (flowing water). These would tend to be a good mixture of sand, silt, clay and organic matter.

Glacial soils are formed on sediment deposited by ice. Soil quality would depend on deposited material.

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Types of Soil

Transported Soils (cont.):

Lacustrine and marine soils are those formed on sediment deposited in lakes or the oceans. Deep water deposits tend to be very clay-rich, whereas nearshore deposits are sandier.

Eolian soils are formed on sediment deposited by wind. Fine silt and clay transported by wind (loess) makes some of the world's best and most fertile soils.

Types of Soils

Soils can also be classified by grain size using percent sand, silt and clay.



How Does Soil Form and Deteriorate?

Soil Degradation - Any soil losses, physical

changes, or chemical alteration is called soil degradation, and all lead to reduced soil productivity.

Causes include erosion, compaction, and any kind of chemical pollution that inhibits plant growth.

How Does Soil Form and Deteriorate?

Soil Degradation

Soil erosion is caused mostly by sheet and rill erosion.

It is a problem in some areas, especially where accelerated by human activities such as construction, agriculture, ranching, and deforestation.

Fig. 6.14, p. 147

Fig. 6.13, p. 146

The Dust Bowl ? An American Tragedy

How Does Soil Form and Deteriorate?

Soil Degradation

Nutrient depletion

Loss of nutrients is most prevalent in areas of land overuse. Improper disposal of chemicals and concentrations of insecticides can destroy soil.

Geo-Focus Fig. 1 a-c, p. 149

Fig. 6.14, p. 147

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Weathering and Resources

Intense chemical weathering causes the concentration of valuable mineral resources

Residual concentrations ? bauxite and other valuable minerals are concentrated by selective removal of soluble substances during chemical weathering

Bauxite, which forms in lateritic soils in the tropics, occurs in areas where chemical weathering is so intense that only the most insoluble compounds accumulate in the soil.

Aluminum is just such an insoluble compound. Laterites are the primary source of aluminum oxide, called bauxite. It is the main source of aluminum ore.

Gossans - hydrated iron oxides formed on the earth's surface by oxidation of iron. Sulfide minerals leach out and concentrate as deposits of iron ore, copper ore, lead and zinc ore beneath the gossan.

Sediment and Sedimentary Rock

The two primary types of sediment are detrital and chemical. Sedimentary rock is simply rock made up of consolidated sediments.

Detrital sediment consists of solid particles, products of mechanical weathering.

Chemical sediments consist of minerals precipitated from solution by inorganic processes and by the activities of organisms thru chemical weathering.

Fig. 6.15, p. 150

Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks

Sediment Transport and Deposition

Sedimentary material weathers, undergoes erosion and transport to a new location.

Transportation of sediment results in rounding and sorting.

Why are rounding and sorting important in sediments and sedimentary rocks?

Both are important in determining how fluids move through sediments and sedimentary rocks

The amount of rounding and sorting depends on particle size, distance of transportation, and depositional processes.

Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks

Sediment Transport and Deposition

Eventually the sediment comes to rest in a depositional environment.

Depositional environments are areas of sediment deposition that can be defined by their physical characteristics (topography, climate, wave and current strength, salinity, etc.).

They provide geologist with clues as to how the rock formed and what the geologic past was like.

Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks

Sediment Transport and Deposition

Major depositional settings are continental, transitional, and marine.

Each of these depositional settings includes several specific subenvironments.

Fig. 6.17, p. 151

Sediment and Sedimentary Rock

How Does Sediment Become Sedimentary Rock? Thru the process of lithification of sediment is converted into sedimentary rock.

Lithification involves two processes

1. Compaction - The volume of a deposit of sediment decreases as the weight of overlying sediment causes a reduction in pore space (open space) as particles pack more closely together.

Compaction alone is sufficient for lithification of mud into shale.

Fig. 6.19c, p. 153

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Sediment and Sedimentary Rock

How Does Sediment Become Sedimentary Rock?

Lithification involves two processes

2. Cementation is a process that glues the sediments together.

The most common cements are calcium carbonate and silica, but iron oxide and iron hydroxide are important in some rocks.

Compaction alone will not form rocks from sand and gravel. Cementation is necessary to glue the particles together into rocks.

Fig. 6.18, p. 152

Types of Sedimentary Rock

Detrital Sedimentary Rocks are made of solid

particles of pre-existing rocks.

Detrital sedimentary particles are classified according to

grain (particle) sizes, in decreasing diameter:

Gravel (including boulders, cobbles and pebbles) Sand Silt Clay (or mud).

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Detrital sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of

particle size.

Examples include conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, and shale.

How do conglomerate and sedimentary breccia differ? Both begin as detrital gravel. Conglomerate consists of rounded gravel, breccia consists of gravel with sharp edges.

Fig. 6.19 a and b , p. 153

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks are substances derived from solution by inorganic or biochemical processes.

Some have a crystalline texture, meaning they are composed of a mosaic of interlocking crystals

Others have a clastic texture, meaning that they are made of fragments, like shells that are glued together.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of composition.

Carbonate rocks consist primarily of minerals

containing the carbonate ion, such as limestone and dolostone. Dolostone forms when magnesium replaces calcium in limestone.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Evaporites Bedded rock salt (halite) and

rock gypsum are chemical evaporite sediments formed by precipitation of minerals during the evaporation of water.

Fig. 6.20b-d, p. 154

Fig. 6.21a-b, p. 155

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