Twenty First Century Science - Nuffield Foundation



TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E Classroom practice for GCSE Science

For teachers

Of all the courses in the Twenty First Century Science suite, GCSE Science calls for most change in classroom teaching approaches. Teachers need to teach the six Ideas about Science described in detail in the OCR specification. With their teacher’s help, students need to develop skills in research and presentation. Students must also learn how to compare and evaluate evidence and argument. Small group discussion plays an essential role in the development of these skills.

This territory may be familiar to teachers of history and of English, but many science teachers will find it challenging. This section contains documents that will help teachers appreciate what needs to be done, why, and how to do it.

Contents

E1 Ppt Ideas about science and Science explanations

E2 Ppt Ideas about Science for foundation level students

E3 Adapting KS3 schemes of work to prepare students for C21 GCSE Science

E4 Activities to review Ideas about Science

E5 Ideas about Science and the OCR specification for GCSE Science

E6 Literacy development

E7 Running small group discussions

E8 Role play

E9 Dealing with controversial issues

E10 Ppt Purposes of small group discussions

E11 C21 pedagogy + KS3/SNS materials

E12 Mobile phone cards

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E1 Ppt Ideas about Science and Science Explanations

This provides a framework for a set of teacher activities based on the OUP iPack.

E2 Ppt Ideas about Science for foundation level students

Download these presentations from

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E3 Adapting KS3 schemes of work to prepare students for C21 GCSE Science

Typical Twenty First Century Science pilot schools found they needed to make two kinds of changes to their KS3 schemes of work, to improve the transition from KS3 to KS4 for their students.

• Introducing some Ideas about Science in KS3 (ideas of how science works)

• Introducing some learning skills for science in KS3: how to research secondary sources, evaluate evidence and argument, communicate, and make presentations.

Within a year or two of starting C21, teachers at pilot schools became familiar with the demands of the C21 GCSE Science assessment and how to develop their students’ skills. By that time they had the confidence to judge what was needed at KS3 and how to go about it.

The Programme of Study for KS3 will be changing in September 2008. The changes planned will bring KS3 into line with the recent changes at KS4. The table below shows the match in knowledge and understanding, and the progression.

|KS3 Programme of Study 2008 |KS4 Programme of Study 2006 |

|Recognising that modern science has its roots in many |1b. how interpretation of data, using creative thought, provides |

|different societies and cultures and draws on a variety of |evidence to test ideas and develop theories |

|valid approaches to scientific practice. | |

|Sharing developments and common understanding across | |

|disciplines and boundaries. | |

|Using ideas and models to explain phenomena and developing |1c. how explanations of many phenomena can be developed using |

|them to generate and test theories. |scientific theories, models and ideas |

| |2a. plan to test a scientific idea, answer a scientific question, |

| |or solve a scientific problem |

| |3a. recall, analyse, interpret, apply and question scientific |

|Critically analysing and evaluating evidence from observations|information or ideas |

|and experiments. |2d. evaluate methods of collection of data and consider their |

| |validity and reliability as evidence |

| |4a. about the use of contemporary scientific and technological |

|Applying scientific ideas brings about technological |developments and their benefits, drawbacks and risks |

|developments and consequent changes in the way people think |4c. how uncertainties in scientific knowledge and scientific ideas |

|and behave. |change over time and about the role of the scientific community in |

| |validating these changes |

| |4b. to consider how and why decisions about science and technology |

| |are made, including those that raise ethical issues, and about the |

| |social, economic and environmental effects of such decisions |

|Exploring the ethical and moral implications of using and | |

|applying science. | |

|use a range of scientific methods and techniques to develop |2a. plan to test a scientific idea, answer a scientific question, |

|and test ideas and explanations |or solve a scientific problem |

| |3b. use both qualitative and quantitative approaches |

| |2c. work accurately and safely, individually and with others, when |

|assess risk and work safely in the laboratory, field and |collecting first-hand data |

|workplace | |

|carry out practical and investigative activities, both | |

|individually and in groups |2b. collect data from primary or secondary sources, including using|

|obtain, record and analyse data from a wide range of primary |ICT sources and tools |

|and secondary sources, including ICT sources, and use their |3c. present information, develop an argument and draw a conclusion,|

|findings to provide evidence for scientific explanations |using scientific, technical and mathematical language, conventions |

| |and symbols and ICT tools |

| |2d. evaluate methods of collection of data and consider their |

| |validity and reliability as evidence |

|evaluate scientific evidence and working methods |3c. present information, develop an argument and draw a conclusion,|

| |using scientific, technical and mathematical language, conventions |

|use appropriate methods, including ICT, to communicate |and symbols and ICT tools. |

|scientific information and contribute to presentations and | |

|discussions about scientific issues. | |

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E4 Activities to review Ideas about Science

Health warning

Teaching Ideas about Science (how science works) cannot be done in a few lessons. The activities listed below are useful for reviewing some key ideas.

1 Data and its limitations

Use the ‘enzyme repeat readings’ activity in the ‘Evaluation mini-booster’ from KS3 National Strategy materials.

Ask students to draw conclusions before introducing repeat readings. Then they are introduced to more data, and asked to rethink their conclusions.

See also ‘Cheese making’, ‘Accuracy and Reliability mini-booster’ where limited range of readings lead to an unreliable conclusion.

2 Cause/correlation

Use Activity AC1.20 ‘When do hay fever symptoms appear?’ from the OUP scheme of work for GCSE Science.

3 Developing explanations

Use the Royal Society of Chemistry Tricky tracks images / photographs. Ask students to come up with an explanation.

(See pdf/LearnNet/rsc/naturess.pdf)

Draw attention to the fact that this is a ‘creative’ process.

Add in extra information after a few minutes – students use their imagination to think of an alternative explanation which matches the new evidence.

4 The scientific community

Use a scientific article from a magazine such as Catalyst, or a website. Students form editorial groups, and decide if the article will be included in their scientific journal – to model the peer assessment process.

5 Risk

Use Activity AP2.14 ‘Weird or wonderful?’ (bottles labelled A and B) from the OUP scheme of work for GCSE Science. This is excellent for introducing or reviewing the idea of risk.

6 Making decisions

Use some of the upd8 materials e.g. ‘The nuclear power debate’ as a class discussion activity.

For more possibilities, see also:

• Lee Y C ‘Teaching the nature of science through practical problem-solving in daily-life contexts’, School Science Review March 2007

• other upd8 resources

• Creativity in explanation: ‘Nucleation in Coke’. Pour a Coke drink into a measuring cylinder. Add e.g. salt, and foam is produced. Possible explanations?

Test each explanation by adding other suitable materials, such as

• sugar

• sand (students think that sand will not chemically react with Coke; however, foam is still produced, therefore the chemical reaction hypothesis is not sustainable)

• talc

• iron filings

• small beads (students can test the hypothesis that added material is pushing (displacing) the CO2. Bigger particles should lead to bigger displacement).

(Carry out a risk assessment and apply normal health & safety rules of course.)

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E5 Ideas about Science and the OCR specification

This item is presented as a training activity to help teachers to engage with Ideas about Science, presented as ‘Appendix F’ in the OCR GCSE Science specification. Note that Ideas about Science is the term used by Twenty First Century Science to describe How Science Works.

Some teachers may be very familiar with the six Ideas about Science. They will quickly be able to identify links with the Ideas in Context exam paper (OCR unit 4) and move on to writing possible questions. For others, it may be the first time they have read this part of the specification.

Ideas about Science

1 Data and their limitations

2 Correlation and cause

3 Developing explanations

4 The scientific community

5 Risk

6 Making decisions about science and technology.

Time required

Half to one hour in a science department meeting, depending on how well teachers already understand Ideas about Science.

Resources

OCR GCSE Science specification, Appendix F ‘Ideas about Science’

Ideas about Science Glossary (download this from the website )

Specimen exam paper for Unit 4 Ideas in Context (downloadable from the OCR website)

Possible department meeting task

Choose one of the three ‘Ideas in Context’ articles. This will enable the plenary discussion to focus on ‘Ideas about Science’ rather than attempting to cover all three ‘Ideas in Context’ articles from the Ideas in Context exam paper.

Members of the department use the template given below to identify:

• required knowledge and understanding to which the article relates

• which of the six Ideas About Science could be assessed

• glossary terms that are used/could be referred to

• strategies to engage pupils with the subject/possible teaching strategies

• possible questions that could be asked based on the article.

• Then they share responses/ideas, focussing on the six Ideas About Science.

• Repeat the process with the other two articles.

C21 GCSE Science Unit 4: Ideas in context

This paper is designed to assess:

• required knowledge and understanding (specification statements)

• application of knowledge and understanding, analysis and evaluation

• Ideas about Science in familiar and unfamiliar contexts

Here are the three articles to be considered using the criteria listed on the previous page.

|Nuclear waste: bury it and forget it? | |

|Leading scientist fakes his results [cloning] | |

|Food additives and obesity | |

|Required knowledge and understanding to which the article relates |

|Unit, lessons, resources |

| |

| |

| |

|Ideas About Science/ Glossary terms |

|Data and their limitations | |The scientific community | |

|Correlation and cause | |Risk | |

|Developing explanations | |Making decisions about science and | |

| | |technology | |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

|Strategies to engage pupils with the subject / possible teaching strategies |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

|Possible questions |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

|Additional notes/ideas |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E6 Literacy development

This item shows how science teachers can use literacy development pedagogy to support students preparing for OCR GCSE Science Assessment Units 4 ‘Ideas in context’ and 5 ‘Practical Data Analysis and Case Study’

|OCR |Literacy skills to develop, and possible strategies|Resources to support |Units/lessons in scheme of|

|Assess-ment |for developing them | |work where these skills |

| | | |can be developed |

|Unit 4 ‘Ideas |Reading text for meaning |LSS* Unit 3 | |

|in context’ |Initial skimming strategies |National Strategy (NS) Ped pack| |

| |Highlighting key words |units? | |

| |Developing profound reading skills |Key Stage 3 National Strategy | |

| |Eliminating the irrelevant |‘Literacy in Science’ CD-ROM | |

| |Summarising key points – Science explanations, Ideas|DfES ‘Literacy across the | |

| |about science |curriculum’ Training pack | |

| | |Jiffty Chug’s CD (Barnet LA | |

| | |consultant) | |

| | |Secondary National Strategy | |

| | |Science ‘Group Talk’ Ped Pack | |

| | |Kings IDEAS** project | |

|Unit 5 |Strand I ‘Writing a conclusion’ |National Strategy ‘Literacy in | |

|‘Practical Data|Identify features of a good conclusion |Science’ CD-ROM | |

|Analysis and |Model how to write a good conclusion | | |

|Case Study’ |Ensure key words are embedded in a number of | | |

|Element 1: Data|contexts | | |

|analysis |Strand E ‘Writing an evaluation’ | | |

| |Identify features of a good evaluation | | |

| |Provide a writing frame | | |

| |Model how to write a good evaluation | | |

|Unit 5 |Strand A ‘Quality of selection and use of |LSS Unit 1 | |

|Element 2: |information’ |Mobile phone persuasive card | |

|Case study |Know the range of internet sources to search |sort activity | |

| |Learn how to judge the validity and reliability of |Writing frames from Kings IDEAS| |

| |sources |project | |

| |Select sources of information |Blackpool PowerPoint (unit F3 | |

| | |in this pack) | |

| |Strand B ‘Quality of understanding of the case’ |Debating skills | |

| |Framing questions/arguments about strength of |Persuasive argument frames from| |

| |evidence |‘Literacy across the | |

| |Strand C ‘Quality of conclusions’ |curriculum’ | |

| |Concluding, using rigorous argument |LSS Unit 5 Writing | |

| |Strand D ‘Quality of presentation’ | | |

| |Drafting written account | | |

| |How to structure a report (reorganise a cut-up model| | |

| |Case Study, identify key features of a Study, | | |

| |presentation expectations) | | |

NOTES:

*LSS: Learning skills for science – a Gatsby-Nuffield Curriculum Centre pack, available through courses at Science Learning Centres

**IDEAS project (Ideas, Evidence and Argument in science education) 2004 Kings College London & Institute of Education London. Out of print. If you do not already have this package, see if you can borrow it from a nearby schools or your LA science consultant.

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E7 Running small group discussions

Student discussions feature in the teaching methods proposed for the Twenty First Century Sciences courses. Guidance is given for each particular activity in the OUP Teacher & Technician packs, particularly for GSCE Science.

This document provides general guidance for use in departmental INSET or other CPD.

Objectives

• Awareness of the purpose of, and context for, small group discussion

• Anticipate difficulties in running discussions

• Knowledge of ways of organising group discussions so they run effectively

Purpose

Small group discussion allows for deeper explorations of dilemmas, scientific concepts, or open questions in a way that goes beyond whole class questioning and formal debating. Students should have the opportunity to deliberate among peers in an unthreatening environment, advancing tentative ideas and listening to what others have to say. If the format of the discussion group conveys informality as well as purpose then it is an excellent way of encouraging students to air their thoughts and to respond supportively to what others have to say.

Discussions are also an opportunity to advance students’ communication skills, particularly those related to listening and talking.

Some problems

Without proper planning, and students understanding what is expected of them, small group discussion can quickly descend into chaos. Everyone should be able to contribute, but if the task is not set up properly some students will do all the talking and decision-making, and others will feel excluded. Reaching early consensus can be a problem, so the topic for discussion has to be set in such a way that diverse views or ideas have to be addressed.

If students are used to working in a cooperative manner, then doing group work in science will be part of a process of collaborative work in other areas of the curriculum. If they have not had experience of working in small groups then it will take longer to set up this approach successfully.

Organisation

It is well worth seeking advice from teachers of English, drama, RE, and humanities subjects who often have a lot of experience of using discussion as a learning tool.

You need to plan the make-up of the groups carefully, thinking about who will work together – friendship groups, mixed-sex groups, sensitivity to mixed abilities. Ensure that participants have roles assigned to them.

There are procedures for successful discussion which students need to be taught and to have the opportunity to practise. How to take turns in speaking, listen to another point of view, ask clarifying questions, and work cooperatively are all skills that can be learned and practised. Set up group tasks that make these procedures explicit. For example, listening will improve if you ask one member of the group to read a short passage while others in the group have to prepare questions from the passage for discussion. Small tasks can be set at first where students work in pairs or threes and have to take on certain roles, e.g. presenting, feedback, taking notes.

When you set up a group discussion task it needs to be clear and tightly focused. It could be in the form of a dilemma, such as: ‘Should Marie tell her fiancé that she is a carrier for cystic fibrosis? What are the reasons for telling him? What are the reasons for not telling him? What would you do in her situation?’. Or it could be a question such as: ‘What difference would it make if water boiled at 20°C?’ Stimuli for discussions could be video clips, newspaper headlines or advertisements, a small radio news item, and concept cartoons.

You also need to make it clear to each group what a desirable outcome would look like. An example could be a role-play including two reasons why Marie feels she should tell her boyfriend that she is a CF carrier, two reasons why she does not feel she could tell him, and a final decision. Or it could be a poster showing examples of changes if water did boil at room temperature

To ensure that students remain on task and productive there should be a time limit for outcomes. This will depend on the task and the maturity and attainment level of the class, but students begin to be bored with even the most enthralling activities after about 30 minutes. If you are running group discussions for the first time, keep the time short with focused tasks and simple outcomes.

Each student should be assigned a role. In larger groups:

• someone chairs the discussion and ensures that everyone has an opportunity to speak,

• someone accesses resources for factually correct information

• someone takes notes of what the group wants to say

• someone presents conclusions at the end.

These roles should be changed for the next group discussion, so students experience different ways of working within a group.

Use a framework to structure reasoning and decision-making, as below:

Some people think …is a good idea because . . . Others think it is a good idea because … Further arguments in favour are . . .

But some people think that it is not a good idea because ...

Others say…

Further arguments against are . . .

Having looked at the arguments for and against I think…

Where students need to access information, the resources should be readily available and at the right level. Students will go off-task if they can’t quickly find what they need. These could be a useful website, newspaper cutting, books, or periodicals.

Finally, make sure students understand your instructions. Keep them short and to the point and ask students to explain to you what they have to do.

Teacher’s role during the activity

Your role will be to facilitate group work; to praise and motivate with comments such as ‘That’s a good question, Harjit, it shows you’ve listened very carefully’, to ensure students are on task, that all are involved and, if discussion is flagging, to intervene with a question to get the discussion back on track. If a group seems lost, ask them to review what they have already discussed so you can tease out relevant questions.

Teacher intervention should be neutral. Avoid expressing any view about the matter under discussion.

At the end of the lesson

Make explicit and highlight the learning skills which students have achieved through the lesson, as well as well gains in conceptual understandings.

Evaluation

What evidence did I have to show that group outcomes were achieved?

Did the students have enough background information to address the task?

Were students given an equal chance to participate in the group discussions?

Further reading

Staples, R. and Heselden, R. (2002) ‘Science teaching and literacy, part 3: Speaking and listening, spelling and vocabulary’, School Science Review, 84 (306), pp 83-96.

Wellington, J. and Osborne, J. (2001) Language and Literacy in Science Education, Buckingham and Philadelphia: Open University Press. Chapter 6 is particularly useful for this section.

Key Stage 3 Literacy Strategy ‘How to plan and manage group work’, a chapter of the April 2001 handbook, available on the DfES Standards website:

Author of this unit: Ralph Levinson

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E8 Role play

Role play is a one of the teaching methods proposed for the GCSE Science course. Guidance is given for each particular activity in the OUP Teacher & Technician packs, particularly for GSCE Science.

This document provides general guidance for use in departmental INSET or other CPD.

Objectives

• Awareness of the purpose of role-play

• Anticipate difficulties in running role-play

• Skills of organising and writing role-play activities

Purpose

Role-play is not acting out a play, even though the students do take on new identities. It is closer to group discussion than to theatre.

Role play is used when we want to feel what it is like to be in a certain situation. It is played by a whole class to show a variety of perspectives on the situation, as different people take on different roles. Role-play can also show, if we want it to, how certain democratic procedures work out – in a law court or a public inquiry. Both of these could be very valuable for looking at scientific issues.

Problems

As with any small group discussion activity, students need to understand clearly what is expected of them. If the task is not organised, some students will monopolise the activity and others will feel excluded, lapsing off task.

If students have not had experience of working in small groups then it will take longer to set up this approach successfully. Whilst role-play may be relatively unusual within a science lesson, students will undoubtedly have used these techniques in English, drama, and/or humanities classes.

Valuable lessons can be learnt from teachers in these subject areas, and it may help students to appreciate the transferability of their skills if one such colleague can be encouraged to work with you on a science role-play activity. It is certainly reassuring to adopt this approach for your first role-play.

Organisation

The following stages are common to most role-play activities.

1 Introduce the class to the situation in much the same way as for a small group discussion, with some stimulus material. At best this might be done by a video or some slides, or alternatively, but this is not so good, by means of printed information sheets.

2 Arrange the students in small groups of three or four, and give each one a role card telling them what character they will be. The role card may also suggest some questions for which they need to prepare answers for the plenary session.

3 The groups discuss together the answers they would give, while getting into role. Students may need 15 minutes for this part of their work. At the end they decide which one of them will take on the role in the plenary session.

4 Now the plenary session is set up. There may be a judge and jury, or some journalists and TV camera crew, or just the classroom with chairs and tables rearranged. There needs to be someone – it could be the teacher – who calls for each character in turn to come to the front to answer questions.

In the plenary session it may be the teacher who asks the first questions. That helps everyone else to see what kind of person the character-in-role represents. Then other members of the class are allowed to ask their questions.

5 At the end there is usually a vote that may decide who is guilty in the court of law, or who is right as far as the class thinks, or what the consensus is about a moral issue. An outcome where the class remains divided in its views is perfectly acceptable.

Constructing your own role-play

To construct a new role-play for a current issue, begin by thinking of an issue that includes ethical positions about which people hold a number of different views. Try not to line the characters up as ‘for’ or ‘against’ in a very simplistic way.

You could begin by getting some good information from the Internet. With eight characters you can divide the class into small groups of three or four to discuss their way into the characters. This is ‘getting into role’ and is better done in small groups, who then cope with the kind of question they may be asked at the end in the plenary session.

An example

Role play is suggested in several Twenty First Century Science modules, and advice on how to run the role play is given.

There is a version of the well-known ‘Limestone inquiry’ on the National Stone Centre website

Evaluation

Did students have enough background information to address the task?

Did students have an equal opportunity to participate in the group discussions?

Did the teacher feel confident in handling the plenary session?

Further reading

McSharry, G. and Jones, S. (2000)’Role-play in science teaching and learning’. School Science Review, 82(298); 73-82. See also the ASE Science Year CD-ROM or online at

This resource was adapted from material written by Professor Joan Solomon for the ASE/Wellcome Citizenship Project resources, published on the ASE Science Year CD-ROM, Who am I? (ASE, 2001).

The original materials are available in full from the CD-ROM, or at .

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E9 Dealing with controversial issues

Discussion of controversial issues features in the OCR specification for the GCSE Science course. Guidance is given for each particular activity in the OUP Teacher & Technician packs, particularly for GSCE Science.

This document provides general guidance for use in departmental INSET or other CPD.

Objectives

• Awareness of the potential of controversy as a teaching resource

• Anticipating problems of polarised viewpoints and ways of addressing them

• Gaining confidence in the teacher’s role in discussion.

Purpose

Controversial issues draw students into thinking about a scientific issue or concept – controversy invites consideration of new facts and opinions, which may influence students’ thinking.

Science provides a good base for teaching students how to approach thinking about controversial issues in two ways. First, developments in science and technology raise contentious social, ethical, and legal issues. Examples are nuclear power, cloning, and environmental concerns. Secondly, differences arise within the practice of science. There may be disagreement about the way data should be interpreted, or the validity of a new theory.

Controversy arises in the public domain when:

• Substantial sections of the population disagree over an issue.

• Both sides draw on good reasons to support their positions.

• Value judgements prevent the differences being resolved by evidence alone.

This definition of controversy may be in itself controversial, but it will suffice for most cases.

Problems

Although discussion of a controversial issue can be stimulating and thought-provoking; it also generates problems. Do not be surprised if students are not initially excited by the prospect of discussing something controversial. Students sometimes do not see discussion of controversial issues as ‘real science’, and it may take them time to become accustomed to this way of working in science.

There is always the danger of bias when discussing a controversial issue. This is not always a bad thing – for some topics there are so many points of view that it is impossible to represent every perspective. Nonetheless, different viewpoints and the evidence supporting them should be considered.

Students may have very strong feelings about an issue such as abortion or animal rights. This can result in hectoring and refusal to listen to alternative arguments. Students may come from families with strong views, and questioning a firmly held position may be considered an insult to family members. Sensitivity is needed. Seek advice from experienced teachers who have dealt with these issues before.

Framing the discussion

Some aspects of scientific controversies may involve ideas where certain viewpoints are deemed offensive, for instance discussions about race. Controversy involves values. Frame the discussion in the context of respect for one other, acting in the interests of everybody, and listening properly. Remarks which cause offence to people are prohibited. Anyone who infringes the rules will be excluded from the discussion and the reason made explicit. If students espouse antisocial viewpoints because their parents hold them, do not excuse the comment on these grounds – follow it up sensitively with the student individually later on.

The teacher’s role

Dealing with controversial issues can place the teacher in a difficult position. Students may want to find out what the teacher’s position is. There may be consequences if a teacher makes their position clear. Students may feel restrained from giving a counter-position, or they may feel offended by what the teacher has to say. But taking a neutral stance may give the impression that the teacher has no thoughts of their own. Or students may feel that this is a dishonest stance and probe the teacher all the more.

Sometimes teachers tackle this problem by acting as a devil’s advocate to stimulate discussion. In this case teachers should make it clear that they are taking a contrary position deliberately, and that this does not necessarily represent their own opinion.

Thinking ahead

Given the feelings that can be aroused by controversial issues, it is a good idea to prepare students so that they are accustomed to discussing differences. For example, if students are aware that data and its interpretation are tentative and uncertain, and that a lot of work needs to be done to establish a concept or generally held idea, then it becomes more acceptable for students to probe grey areas and not necessarily opt for one camp or another.

The study of some of the main ideas in science, and interpreting classroom data, can help to establish that not all scientific facts are certain.

Opportunities for discussion

Opportunities arise in areas such as the theory of evolution, the Earth-centred versus Sun-centred universe, the oxygen theory of combustion versus the phlogiston theory, and Pasteur’s challenge to the theory of the spontaneous generation of life. Students could be given simplified readings supporting contending positions and asked to pick out the facts which support each position, and why. Illustrative experiments could be done where possible. An example, in the oxygen theory of combustion would be an experiment showing that a material does gain mass when it burns. Readily available data in modern medicine is another good way to look at the nature of evidence.

An example of looking at the nature of evidence is Activity sheet AC1.24 ‘What caused the extra deaths?’ in module C1 ‘Air quality’. In this activity, students consider different pieces of evidence to explain a peak in asthma hospital admissions.

Examining data from experiments will also show students that theory is needed to help draw conclusions, and that there is always a chance that data can be interpreted in different ways. If students have an opportunity to engage in this kind of activity, then they will gradually become aware of the tentative nature of contemporary science. This will make them more circumspect about forming hasty conclusions in other areas.

Frameworks for thinking about issues

Many of the issues arising from scientific and technological developments involve consideration of ethical, moral, legal, and often political aspects. Small group discussion is a helpful way to organise this in its early stages.

Quotations from the OCR specification

The OCR GCSE Science specification states in Appendix F ‘Ideas about Science’:

6 Making decisions about science and technology

In a particular context, [candidates] can identify the groups affected and the main benefits and costs of a course of action for each group.

[Candidates] can distinguish questions which could be addressed using a scientific approach, from questions which could not.

In a particular context, [candidates] can identify, and develop, arguments based on the ideas that:

• the right decision is the one which leads to the best outcome for the majority of people involved

• certain actions are never justified because they are unnatural or wrong.

[Higher tier only] In a particular context, [candidates] can distinguish what can be done (technical feasibility), from what should be done (values). [Candidates] can explain why different courses of action may be taken in different social and economic contexts.

You can download the OCR specification here



Students can consider such questions as:

• What facts support this position?

• If there are not sufficient facts, what do I still need to find out?

• What could be possible objections to my position?

• Are the intentions behind this position good, bad, or indifferent? How could I find out?

• Are the actual consequences good or bad? How would I tell?

Organising the discussion

When framing a controversial issue, ensure that the dilemma is focused and, if possible, that students can relate it to their own personal lives. Although students may want to have a vote on a decision, it should be pointed out that a majority decision is not necessarily right or wrong. We are all reluctant to change our minds, even in the face of persuasive evidence, and that needs time. At the beginning of consideration of a dilemma, a line can be drawn across the class from ‘strong agreement’ to ‘strong disagreement’, and students asked to position themselves. After the topic has been discussed students can position themselves again, with some students explaining why they have or have not moved.

Controversy can touch unknown sensitivities in students, and there may be questions they want to ask but feel ashamed of asking in front of the whole class. The ‘message box’ method can solve this problem. The teacher has a box in which students can post anonymous questions on slips of paper. At a later time the teacher can answer any questions generally without causing embarrassment to a particular student.

Before a lesson, anticipate the kinds of questions that may arise, so you can address them confidently (this does not mean saying they are right or wrong). Again, where appropriate, talk this through with teachers who have handled this kind of discussion before.

Finally, teachers can run a discussion without feeling under pressure from a class that is trying to find out their point of view. One way is to be pragmatic, so that when proposing a point of view students have not considered, the teacher might say that there are some different possible viewpoints she would like to share with the class. This deflects focus away from the teacher’s own viewpoint. The tone of voice and timing are crucial for this strategy, and should suggest a possibly helpful addition to an interesting discussion.

Evaluation

Were students able to give reasons for their viewpoints despite differences?

Did students make progress towards the learning outcomes assessed by OCR (see above)?

Did any students appear to be excluded by the nature of the controversy?

Did the teacher feel confident in handling the discussion without compromising her viewpoint?

Further reading

Ralph Levinson ‘Teaching bioethics to young people’ in Levinson, R. and Reiss, M. (eds) Key Issues in Bioethics, London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2003

Teachers’ notes for Year 9, Unit 10 ‘Dilemmas’ in The Non-fiction book published by English and Media Centre, 2001

Author of this unit: Ralph Levinson

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E9 Dealing with controversial issues

Discussion of controversial issues features in the OCR specification for the GCSE Science course. Guidance is given for each particular activity in the OUP Teacher & Technician packs, particularly for GSCE Science.

This document provides general guidance for use in departmental INSET or other CPD.

Objectives

• Awareness of the potential of controversy as a teaching resource

• Anticipating problems of polarised viewpoints and ways of addressing them

• Gaining confidence in the teacher’s role in discussion.

Purpose

Controversial issues draw students into thinking about a scientific issue or concept – controversy invites consideration of new facts and opinions, which may influence students’ thinking.

Science provides a good base for teaching students how to approach thinking about controversial issues in two ways. First, developments in science and technology raise contentious social, ethical, and legal issues. Examples are nuclear power, cloning, and environmental concerns. Secondly, differences arise within the practice of science. There may be disagreement about the way data should be interpreted, or the validity of a new theory.

Controversy arises in the public domain when:

• Substantial sections of the population disagree over an issue.

• Both sides draw on good reasons to support their positions.

• Value judgements prevent the differences being resolved by evidence alone.

This definition of controversy may be in itself controversial, but it will suffice for most cases.

Problems

Although discussion of a controversial issue can be stimulating and thought-provoking; it also generates problems. Do not be surprised if students are not initially excited by the prospect of discussing something controversial. Students sometimes do not see discussion of controversial issues as ‘real science’, and it may take them time to become accustomed to this way of working in science.

There is always the danger of bias when discussing a controversial issue. This is not always a bad thing – for some topics there are so many points of view that it is impossible to represent every perspective. Nonetheless, different viewpoints and the evidence supporting them should be considered.

Students may have very strong feelings about an issue such as abortion or animal rights. This can result in hectoring and refusal to listen to alternative arguments. Students may come from families with strong views, and questioning a firmly held position may be considered an insult to family members. Sensitivity is needed. Seek advice from experienced teachers who have dealt with these issues before.

Framing the discussion

Some aspects of scientific controversies may involve ideas where certain viewpoints are deemed offensive, for instance discussions about race. Controversy involves values. Frame the discussion in the context of respect for one other, acting in the interests of everybody, and listening properly. Remarks which cause offence to people are prohibited. Anyone who infringes the rules will be excluded from the discussion and the reason made explicit. If students espouse antisocial viewpoints because their parents hold them, do not excuse the comment on these grounds – follow it up sensitively with the student individually later on.

The teacher’s role

Dealing with controversial issues can place the teacher in a difficult position. Students may want to find out what the teacher’s position is. There may be consequences if a teacher makes their position clear. Students may feel restrained from giving a counter-position, or they may feel offended by what the teacher has to say. But taking a neutral stance may give the impression that the teacher has no thoughts of their own. Or students may feel that this is a dishonest stance and probe the teacher all the more.

Sometimes teachers tackle this problem by acting as a devil’s advocate to stimulate discussion. In this case teachers should make it clear that they are taking a contrary position deliberately, and that this does not necessarily represent their own opinion.

Thinking ahead

Given the feelings that can be aroused by controversial issues, it is a good idea to prepare students so that they are accustomed to discussing differences. For example, if students are aware that data and its interpretation are tentative and uncertain, and that a lot of work needs to be done to establish a concept or generally held idea, then it becomes more acceptable for students to probe grey areas and not necessarily opt for one camp or another.

The study of some of the main ideas in science, and interpreting classroom data, can help to establish that not all scientific facts are certain.

Opportunities for discussion

Opportunities arise in areas such as the theory of evolution, the Earth-centred versus Sun-centred universe, the oxygen theory of combustion versus the phlogiston theory, and Pasteur’s challenge to the theory of the spontaneous generation of life. Students could be given simplified readings supporting contending positions and asked to pick out the facts which support each position, and why. Illustrative experiments could be done where possible. An example, in the oxygen theory of combustion would be an experiment showing that a material does gain mass when it burns. Readily available data in modern medicine is another good way to look at the nature of evidence.

An example of looking at the nature of evidence is Activity sheet AC1.24 ‘What caused the extra deaths?’ in module C1 ‘Air quality’. In this activity, students consider different pieces of evidence to explain a peak in asthma hospital admissions.

Examining data from experiments will also show students that theory is needed to help draw conclusions, and that there is always a chance that data can be interpreted in different ways. If students have an opportunity to engage in this kind of activity, then they will gradually become aware of the tentative nature of contemporary science. This will make them more circumspect about forming hasty conclusions in other areas.

Frameworks for thinking about issues

Many of the issues arising from scientific and technological developments involve consideration of ethical, moral, legal, and often political aspects. Small group discussion is a helpful way to organise this in its early stages.

Quotations from the OCR specification

The OCR GCSE Science specification states in Appendix F ‘Ideas about Science’:

6 Making decisions about science and technology

In a particular context, [candidates] can identify the groups affected and the main benefits and costs of a course of action for each group.

[Candidates] can distinguish questions which could be addressed using a scientific approach, from questions which could not.

In a particular context, [candidates] can identify, and develop, arguments based on the ideas that:

• the right decision is the one which leads to the best outcome for the majority of people involved

• certain actions are never justified because they are unnatural or wrong.

[Higher tier only] In a particular context, [candidates] can distinguish what can be done (technical feasibility), from what should be done (values). [Candidates] can explain why different courses of action may be taken in different social and economic contexts.

You can download the OCR specification here



Students can consider such questions as:

• What facts support this position?

• If there are not sufficient facts, what do I still need to find out?

• What could be possible objections to my position?

• Are the intentions behind this position good, bad, or indifferent? How could I find out?

• Are the actual consequences good or bad? How would I tell?

Organising the discussion

When framing a controversial issue, ensure that the dilemma is focused and, if possible, that students can relate it to their own personal lives. Although students may want to have a vote on a decision, it should be pointed out that a majority decision is not necessarily right or wrong. We are all reluctant to change our minds, even in the face of persuasive evidence, and that needs time. At the beginning of consideration of a dilemma, a line can be drawn across the class from ‘strong agreement’ to ‘strong disagreement’, and students asked to position themselves. After the topic has been discussed students can position themselves again, with some students explaining why they have or have not moved.

Controversy can touch unknown sensitivities in students, and there may be questions they want to ask but feel ashamed of asking in front of the whole class. The ‘message box’ method can solve this problem. The teacher has a box in which students can post anonymous questions on slips of paper. At a later time the teacher can answer any questions generally without causing embarrassment to a particular student.

Before a lesson, anticipate the kinds of questions that may arise, so you can address them confidently (this does not mean saying they are right or wrong). Again, where appropriate, talk this through with teachers who have handled this kind of discussion before.

Finally, teachers can run a discussion without feeling under pressure from a class that is trying to find out their point of view. One way is to be pragmatic, so that when proposing a point of view students have not considered, the teacher might say that there are some different possible viewpoints she would like to share with the class. This deflects focus away from the teacher’s own viewpoint. The tone of voice and timing are crucial for this strategy, and should suggest a possibly helpful addition to an interesting discussion.

Evaluation

Were students able to give reasons for their viewpoints despite differences?

Did students make progress towards the learning outcomes assessed by OCR (see above)?

Did any students appear to be excluded by the nature of the controversy?

Did the teacher feel confident in handling the discussion without compromising her viewpoint?

Further reading

Ralph Levinson ‘Teaching bioethics to young people’ in Levinson, R. and Reiss, M. (eds) Key Issues in Bioethics, London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2003

Teachers’ notes for Year 9, Unit 10 ‘Dilemmas’ in The Non-fiction book published by English and Media Centre, 2001

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E10 Ppt Purposes of small group discussions

Download this presentation from

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E11 Pedagogy, KS3 and the Secondary National Strategy

This chart shows Secondary National Strategy (SNS) publications which can be used to help develop skills important in GCSE Science.

|Writing in science |Effective Teaching and Learning in Science CPD unit session 2 (Developing pupils’ writing in science) |

| |ref 05/03 |

| |Literacy in Science CPD unit ref 09/02 |

| |Literacy across the curriculum Session 2 (Writing non-fiction) ref DfEE 0235/2001 |

| |Pedagogy and Practice Pack unit 14 (Developing writing) ref DfES 0437-2004 G |

| |Better Writing in Science - poster ref DfES 0178/2005 |

| |Better Writing in Science -10 steps ref DfES 0179/2005 |

|Reading for meaning |Literacy in Science CPD unit Session 2 (Reading for meaning) ref 09/02 |

| |Literacy across the curriculum Session 6 (Reading for information) ref DfEE 0235/2001 |

| |Literacy across the curriculum Session 5 (Active reading strategies) ref DfEE 0235/2001 |

| |Pedagogy and Practice Pack unit 13 (Developing reading) ref DfES 0436-2004 G |

|Group work/group |Literacy across the curriculum Session 7 (The management of group talk) ref DfEE 0235/2001 |

|talk |Effective teaching and learning CPD unit Session 5 (Group work in science) ref 05/03 |

| |Pedagogy and Practice Pack unit 10 (Group work) ref DfES 0433-2004 G |

| |Science Pedagogy and Practice Pack unit 1 ref DfES 0697-2004 G |

| |Grouping pupils for success ref DfES 03945-2006DWO-EN |

|Note making |Literacy across the curriculum Session 9 (Making notes) ref DfEE 0235/2001 |

|Research skills |Literacy across the curriculum Session 10 (Using the library/learning centre) ref DfEE 0235/2001 |

|Scientific enquiry |Effective teaching and learning CPD unit ref 05/03 |

| |Session 4 (Practical work in science) ref 2002 |

| |Scientific enquiry CPD unit ref 0349-2006DVD-EN |

| |Enhancing teaching and learning in secondary science DVD-ROM ref 2042-2005DOC-EN |

| |Subject leader development materials, Spring 2006 (session 4) ref 0274-2006DOC-EN |

| |Subject leader development materials, Summer 2006 (session 3) and |

| |Subject leader development materials, Autumn 2006 (session 3) ref DfES 00266-2006DOC-EN |

|Scientific modelling|Misconceptions CPD unit (session 2) ref 2002 |

|and teaching models |Pedagogy and Practice Pack unit 2 (Teaching models) ref DfES 0425-2004 G |

| |Science Pedagogy and Practice Pack unit 4 ref DfES 0700-2004 G |

| |Enhancing teaching and learning in secondary science DVD-ROM ref 0349-2006DVD-EN |

|Thinking Skills |Pedagogy and Practice Pack unit 16 (Leading in Learning) ref DfES 0439-2004 G |

| |Leading in learning whole school materials |

|Contemp-orary |Science Pedagogy and Practice Pack unit 5 ref DfES 0701-2004 G |

|science | |

|ICT and IWB |Using whiteboard technology in science DVD-ROM ref DfES 0408-2006DVD-EN |

|Interactive |Strengthening pedagogy with ICT - Management guide ref DfES ref 0240-2006DOC-EN |

|Whiteboard |Subject leader development materials, Spring 2007 Session 4) ref 00011-2007DOM-EN |

|technology | |

TWENTY FIRST CENTURY SCIENCE TRAINING PACK 2

E12 Mobile phone cards

These cards are for use in an activity described in the Powerpoint presentation E1 ‘Ideas about Science and Science Explanations’.

Cut them out and distribute them to those present.

|A study from the Institute of Environmental Medicine at Karolinska | |Scientists from the Institute of Cancer Research published findings of a study |

|Institutet, Sweden, found that 10 or more years of mobile phone use | |in British Journal of Cancer suggesting that there is no substantial risk of |

|increases the risk of acoustic neuroma, and that the risk increase was | |acoustic neuroma (benign brain tumour that grows in the nerve that connects the|

|confined to the side of the head where the phone was usually held. No | |ear and inner ear to the brain). |

|indications of an increased risk for less that 10 years of mobile phone| |(British Journal of Cancer, 30 August 2005) |

|use were found. (Swedish Research Council, 2004). The study was funded | | |

|by the EU, the Swedish Research Council, and the International Union | | |

|against Cancer (UICC). The UICC received funds for this purpose from | | |

|the Mobile Manufacturers’ Forum. | | |

| | | |

|Scientific evidence on the distribution of cancer in the population can| |A television production company put ten students in a house for ten days and |

|be obtained through carefully planned and executed epidemiological | |erected a mobile phone mast in the garden. The students were told that the mast|

|studies. Over the past fifteen years, studies examining a potential | |was on at the start of the experiment and off at the end. In fact the reverse |

|relationship between RF transmitters and cancer have been published. | |was true – it was off at the start of the experiment and on at the end. The |

|These studies have not provided evidence that RF exposure from | |only time any of the students felt ill was when the mast was off but they |

|transmitters increases the risk of cancer. Likewise, long-term animal | |thought it was on. |

|studies have not established an increased risk of cancer from exposure | |( |

|to RF field, even at levels that are much higher than produced by base | |programmes/shouldiworryabout/mobiles.shtml |

|stations and wireless networks. | | |

|(WHO | | |

|factsheets/fs304/en/index.html May 2006) | | |

|Radiation emitted by base stations is emitted continuously and is much | |“After 21 years, scientists say, mobiles don’t cause cancer” In December |

|more powerful than radiation from mobile phones. A 2002 survey study by | |2006 a 21-year Danish study with 420,000 participants published in the |

|Santini et al. found a variety of health effects for people living within | |Journal of the National Cancer Institute ruled out any causal link between |

|300m of base stations. | |cell phones and cancer. |

|(Wikipedia | |(Mark Henderson, The Times, 6 Dec 2006, |

|Mobile_phone_radiation_and_health) | | |

| | |0,,135092488946,00.html) |

| | | |

|Professor Peter Rigby, Chief Executive of The Institute of Cancer Research| |

|says, “Mobile phones have only been used widely over the past decade so we| |

|won’t know the long term effects for many years.” | |

|(The Institute of Cancer Research website, August 2005) | |

Twenty First Century Science Training pack 2

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