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Unit 4 – Section B – Psychology in Action5579110-251460PACK 300PACK 3Anomalistic Psychology.Specification:The study of anomalous experience? Pseudoscience and the scientific status of parapsychology? Methodological issues related to the study of paranormal cognition (ESP, including Ganzfeld) and paranormal action (psychokinesis)Explanations for anomalous experience? The role of coincidence and probability judgements in anomalous experience? Explanations for superstitious behaviour and magical thinking? Personality factors underlying anomalous experienceResearch into exceptional experience? Psychological research into and explanations for psychic healing, near death and out of body experiences, and psychic mediumshipThis pack will cover the following part of the specification:Research into exceptional experience.Psychological research into and explanations for: Psychic healing, Near death experiences, Out of body experiencesPsychic mediumshipIn the exam this area is usually assessed through a 10 mark question such asOutline and evaluate explanations for psychic healing. (4 marks + 6 marks) orOutline and evaluate research into near death experiences. (4 marks + 6 marks)So the question will either ask about explanations or research. The mark schemes make it clear that research can mean studies or explanations, so the easiest way to answer both of the above questions would be to use the explanations for the AO1 then studies as the main part of the evaluation.Belief in exceptional experience: research into and explanations forPsychic HealingPsychic healing refers to any method used to alleviate health problems by purely psychic means.Psychological explanations for psychic healingIt works because it’s a placebo effect – people really do improve, but they improve because they think an effective treatment has been received. It works because of anxiety reduction. The psychic healing works as a form of social support because it is contact with a sympathetic person. As such, it promotes relaxation, reduces anxiety and stress so the body is better able to heal. This explanation ties in with Keicolt-Glaser’s research showing that stress increases your probability of being ill. There are non-psychological explanations for psychic healing such as energy healing and therapeutic touch, which rely on the belief that a healer can channel healing energy. Since these are not psychological explanations you will gain no AO1 credit for them in the exam, although you may want to refer to them in the evaluation.Research about psychic healingEvidence 1 In an Australian study (Lyvers et al. 2006) a psychic used a volunteer sample of 20 participants with chronic back pain and randomly assigned them to a control or experimental group. The participants were all told that the psychic was focusing on them, although he only focused on the treatment group. The psychic (he regarded his ability as a gift and accepted no money) was in one room looking at a photo of the participant and the participant was in another room. Each participant was assessed using a pain questionnaire before and after treatment and no significant difference was found between the two groups, so no evidence of psychic healing was found. Evidence that believers were more likely to think that they had received healing benefits was found; participants had filled out a questionnaire about belief in psychic healing prior to the study and this correlated to pain reduction, regardless of whether they were in the experimental or control group. Therefore belief seems to play a key role in the success of psychic healing.Which explanation of psychic healing does this study tie in with? Why?This explanation supports the placebo effect because their pain was reduced as a result of the individual’s belief in the success of psychic healing not because of the treatment itself (as shown by the non-significant difference found between the control and experimental group).What is good about the way that this study was carried out?Scientific method used to gain objective data e.g. randomly assigned to the conditions (reduces participant variables) and they were separated from the psychic. Also, they told all participants that the psychic was focusing on them (lowering demand characteristics)All of the above increase the internal validity of the study thus providing strong support for the placebo effect explanation.Evidence 2Kreiger (2000) found higher haemoglobin (protein found in red blood cells that carries oxygen around the body) levels in a group with a range of illnesses who had received psychic healing from Oscar Estabany (who had first discovered his healing powers 20 years earlier when treating army horses) than in a control group who did not receive psychic healing. The control group had a similar range of illnesses. The experimental group still had higher haemoglobin levels one year later. The ability to fight off illnesses is associated with metabolism and oxygen consumption.Which explanation of psychic healing does this study tie in with and why?This explanation supports the anxiety reduction explanation because the findings suggest that psychic healing has reduced the participant’s anxiety thus increasing their haemoglobin levels which can help their ability to heal.How could you criticise this study?Even though the control group had a similar range of illnesses, they may have been more severe which could affect the internal validity of the study.Although haemoglobin levels are linked to ability to fight off illnesses, you could argue that this study is not really measuring whether the participants have actually healed which means it is more difficult to establish a cause and effect. Does the evidence allow us to discount the notion that Estabany had genuine healing powers?No, it could be genuine but it can also explained by psychology/science Evidence 3In a double blind study (Keller et al, 1986) 60 participants with tension headaches were randomly assigned to receive either therapeutic touch or a placebo form of the therapy. Those who received the true therapy found significant benefits compared to the placebo therapy. This is a double-blind study. Why does this make the evidence more scientific?Because it is more objective as controls have been put in place (neither p’s nor investigator know who is receiving the true therapy) to avoid researcher bias and demand characteristics.Can this study be explained by the placebo effect? Why/why not?No - the double-blind technique controls for the placebo effect but there was still a difference found between the two groups Can it be explained by anxiety reduction? Why/why not?No - as both groups received a form of therapy either could potentially reduce anxiety but the real treatment group found significant benefits.How can you explain it?There could have been a statistical error (type 1) Overall evaluation Considering all the evidence, can psychic healing be discounted? Why?Not wholly as some of the experimental evidence has found a difference (Keller et al, 1986) however there are inconsistencies in the research which casts doubt over psychic healing claims.What seems the most likely explanation of psychic healing?The psychological explanations (e.g. placebo & anxiety reduction) seem the most likely (could refer to Occam’s razor here). They provide sufficient contradictory evidence for the existence of psychic healing.There is not much empirical research for psychic healing; some studies have small samples, others are not properly controlled. Why does this make it difficult to reach conclusions about psychic healing?Lack of objectivity and replicability mean it is difficult to reach conclusions. Also, it is difficult to make conclusions for the wider population as findings are difficult to generaliseHow may psychic healers link to pseudoscience?They use complex jargon to explain the process of psychic healing.Lack of replicability means it fails to build on existing scientific knowledge Comment on the ethics of psychic healingPsychic healing could be seen as unethical as it exploits people who may be vulnerable. Also, deception could be an issue if psychic healing is not real. Research into exceptional experience: research into and explanations for out-of-body experience (OBE) OBEs are an experience in which a person seems to perceive the world from a location outside the physical body. Scientists agree that the many reports of OBEs are not made up by the reporter; the ‘experience’ is real to them. However, the causes of OBEs are open to debate. Explanations of OBE A neurological explanation for OBE looks at problems with a specific area of the brain. The area is the right temporal-parietal junction (TPJ). The TPJ is a region of the brain where the temporal lobe and the parietal lobe come together and it is involved in our spatial perception. The region is thought to be important to the brain’s analysis of sensory information that allows us to perceive our own bodies in space. If the area misfires in some way, then Blanke theorises that the effects can include an OBE.A cognitive explanation of OBE is provided by the breakdown of sensory input (Blackmore, 1987). Whilst people normally view the world as if they are behind their eyes, sometimes this sensory input breaks down and the brain attempts to reconstruct the visual field using memory and imagination, hence they see from a birds-eye-view and experience an OBE. When normal sensory input returns the OBE ends. Evidence 1Blanke et al (2005) electrically stimulated the brain of an epileptic whose epilepsy meant that she had lesions in the right TPJ region. The electrical stimulation was given to the angular gyrus (which is in the area of the right TPJ) causing her to have a sense of floating and producing an artificially induced OBE. This was replicated on the patient. In people without epilepsy, Blanke has shown that the conscious experience of seeing the self and the body being in the same place depends on the TPJ. When the right TPJ was stimulated (in a non-invasive way called transcranial magnetic stimulation) participants experienced difficulties with the perception of their own body. They didn’t experience these difficulties when other areas of the brain were stimulated. Which explanation of OBE does it support and why? It supports the neurological explanation because when the TPJ was stimulated it induced OBEs, thus supporting the idea that the TPJ is involved in spatial perception and the experience of OBEs. Are the OBEs investigated by Blanke’s studies the same as naturally occurring OBEs?No, they may not feel as realistic, stable or continuous as real ones. They may not feel natural as well because the participants know they are receiving TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation). However, it is the same part of the brain involved and so there are likely to be some similarities between the experiences. Evidence 2 Ehrsson (2007) demonstrated that an OBE can be created in a lab (without NDE) by scrambling a person’s visual and touch sensations. This is done by placing a pair of video displays in front of a participant’s eyes. The displays show a live film recorded by two video cameras that are two metres behind the participant (left camera to left eye). The participant sees their own back as if they were sitting behind themselves. The experimenter then prods the participant’s chest with a plastic rod and another rod in prodded where the illusory body would be located, just below the camera’s view. Participants reported that they felt that they were sitting behind their physical body and looking at it from a different location. They reported that although they could feel themselves being prodded, they also felt their ‘alter ego’ being prodded. When the illusory image was threatened by the researcher, the person showed a physical stress reaction (perspiration on their skin).Which explanation of OBE does it support and why?Cognitive explanation because there is a change of visual perspective. The perception of oneself is different resulting in experience of OBE. This study is certainly clever, but is it a valid way of studying OBE?It is valid scientifically but may not be entirely representative of real life OBE. However, it does show us that they exist and can be induced experimentally. Overall evaluationMost of the evidence for OBEs is anecdotal (what people report of their OBE); why is Blanke and Ehrsson’s evidence preferable to anecdotal evidence?Scientific/objectiveCan measure neurological changes/influence reliably. Whereas, anecdotal evidence is often unique, cannot test the reliability or validity of the report. Why is this area so difficult to study empirically?As an OBE cannot be seen (as such). Only way to investigate it is to wait for a natural OBE to occur or induce an OBE and observe the effects. There could be other explanations for OBE; Irwin reports that OBE may link to fantasy proneness. Why may this be the case? What would this suggest about OBE?People with fantasy proneness are more likely to imagine they have had an anomalous experience. This would suggest that OBEs do not exist but are made up by people who are prone to fantasy-style experiences. Research into exceptional experience: research into and explanations for near death experience (NDE)NDEs are vivid and dramatic experiences reported by a sizeable minority of people who have, or believe they have, come close to death. NDEs often involve OBE. There are some interesting similarities in the reports from people who have a NDE. Often there is a sense of peace and the presence of a strong light. Some report this as a religious experience. Other common themes are a life review (my life passed before my eyes), feeling of joy, sense of mystical entity (god like figure), and sense of a point of no return.ExplanationsOne neurological explanation is that when people are near death, a huge amount of endorphins may be released as a response to stress or pain. Endorphins produce feelings similar to opioids (e.g. morphine) and may account for feelings of peace and euphoria in NDEs.A further neurological explanation is that when near death hypoxia occurs (the brain and body are starved of oxygen). This causes unstable cerebral physiology and may account for effects such as seeing a light at the end of a tunnel. Furthermore, when hypoxia occurs the brain may flood with the neurotransmitter glutamate; if too much glutamate is released neuron death occurs so the brain responds to the flood of glutamate by blocking the receptors which glutamate binds to. This blocking causes the NDE. Evidence 1Ring (1980) carried out semi-structured interviews of 102 people who had been near death and identified a NDE core experience: feelings of deep peace and well-being, a sense of separation from the body, entering darkness, passing through a tunnel, seeing a light, entering the light or a beautiful garden.How may this study link to the explanations?Release of endorphins-> feelings of peace and euphoria. Hypoxia-> cerebral physiology changes-> seeing light/entering light. Why may this study be as valid as is possible for a study of NDE?Can’t scientifically induce NDE therefore rely on anecdotal evidence. Can’t predict when they will occur so cannot set up scientific measuring equipment to test themSemi-structured allows participants to elaborate on experience. Evidence 2 Jansen (1996) has revealed how the effects of an NDE can be induced by ketamine. Ketamine produces a range of symptoms that tie in with NDE. Jansen reports that ketamine administered by intravenous injection, in appropriate dosage, is capable of reproducing all the features of the NDE. Ketamine triggers the same blockage in the brain as glutamate. How does this study link to the explanations?Endorphins-> calm, tranquilized, no pain, euphoriaHypoxia-> similar to effects of ketamine. Blocking of neurotransmitter receptors causes experience of NDE. Evidence 3Augustine (2008) reviewed cases of Near Death Experience (NDE) in different cultures and found that NDEs differed between cultures, although there were also similarities between cultures. In India, NDE often involved encounters with Hindu figures and in Japan there was a lack of light appearing in NDE, which is a phenomenon usually, reported in the West.Both the explanations we have looked at are biological ones; why does this study suggest there is a psychological component to NDE?Differences in cultural experiences of NDE suggest they are influenced by upbringing, religion, personal experiences the person has had and NOT purely biological (role for nurture)However, similarities suggest there is a somewhat universal experience had in NDE. It is possible when people report NDE’s they interpret the experience in terms of their own cultural experiences e.g. seeing a figure which they perceive to be their own religious figure. Overall evaluationWhy is this area so difficult to study empirically?Ethically cannot induce NDE and therefore reliant on report of inducing a situation as similar as possible e.g. ketamine use. Cannot determine cause and effect making it hard to establish which explanation is more feasible. No single neurological explanation can account for the richness of NDE experiences; what does this suggest about the individual neurological explanations?Neurological explanations are reductionist. It is likely to be a combination of both biological factors, with potential influences from cultural factors too. Research into exceptional experience: research into and explanations for psychic mediumshipPsychic mediums claim to be able to communicate with people in the afterlife or spirit world. Psychic mediums contact a deceased person, on behalf of a ‘sitter’, generally in a trance state.Explanations for psychic mediumshipPossible explanations for psychic mediumship:Biological explanations focus on psychic mediumship as an altered state of consciousness, so they look at what happens to the medium when they are in a trance. These explanations argue that the brain of the medium is operating differently when they are in a trance state. Emphasis is placed on the role played by the limbic system in the trance-like state. (The limbic system is a large area of the brain associated with emotions.) Winkelman (2000) argues that the trance state is characterised by a shift toward right hemispheric dominance, along with a dominance of the parasympathetic nervous system Psychic mediumship does not really exist; instead it relies on the non-psychic skill of the “psychic” to perform cold reading. This is a form of deception on behalf of the psychic, although not all psychics are consciously deceiving their readers. They may be unknowingly deceiving and really be convinced that they have psychic powers. What is the Barnum effect?People accept generalisations that are true of nearly everybody to be specifically true for themselves.What is cold reading?A communication technique in which one person (the reader) elicits information from another person (the subject or sitter) without that person's awareness. The reader may use the information to gain the subject's trust, or to convince the subject that the reader knows more about the subject than they actually do. Cold reading often relies on a person’s inclination to seek out more meaning than there is.Thinking of the psychodynamic functions hypothesis, why are some vulnerable people so willing to believe in psychic mediums and therefore not realise that a cold reading is occurring? Being able to communicate with someone in the afterlife might be comforting/anxiety reducing for the individual, thus acting as a coping strategy. This may mean they are more influenced by what is being said in the reading and are prepared to ignore statements that do not necessarily apply to them.Research into psychic mediumshipEvidence 1There is some evidence to support the claim that mediumship is an altered state of consciousness. Newberg et al. (2012) studied 5 expert and 5 less expert Brazillian mediums. They were brain scanned whilst writing normally and whilst practising psychography – which is when a deceased person is supposed to write through the medium’s hand. The mediums were asked to put themselves in their normal trance-like state for the psychography. The brain scans (SPECT – single photon emission tomography) revealed that the expert mediums had a lower level of activity in their left hippocampus (limbic system) and less activity in their frontal lobes; the less expert mediums had more activity in these regions whilst practising pychography. Newberg suggests that this is because they needed to work harder because they were newer to psychic mediumship; he also comments that the study cannot address whether psychic mediumship is genuine but it can show that something different is happening to the brain of the medium whilst they are in a trance.Which theory of psychic mediumship does this study support? Why? Does it support all of the theory? Look in detail at the theory and the results, including the difference between the experts and the less expert mediumsBiological explanation – supports the idea of an altered state of consciousness as when the experts were in a trance state the limbic system operated differently as suggested by the theory. However it does not consider or provide support for the right hemispheric dominance during the trance state. Also, the theory cannot explain the difference in brain activity between the experts and less expert mediums.This study is scientific evidence on the trance state and as such is a new development for the study of mediumship. Why is it scientific and why does this matter?The use of objective equipment (brain imaging – SPECT) to measure activity levels in the brain increases the validity and replicability of the research. This enhances the scientific status of the research meaning we can be more confident in the results.Evidence 2: Schwartz et al (2001)Schwartz et al (2001) tested five mediums filmed by an American TV network. Two women were the sitters. Both sitters were unknown to the mediums, were over 40 and had recently experienced a number of deaths. The mediums could not see the sitters (they were separated by a screen) and the sitters were only allowed to answer yes or no. The two women judged the accuracy of the mediums’ statements to be 83% and 77%. To check that the statements did not simply apply to everyone, a control group of undergraduate students were shown the statements and they rated the statements as 36% accurate, suggesting that the mediums were actually quite good. It seems that the Schwartz study is not a valid test of psychic ability because of flawed methodology.Sensory leakage may have occurred - the sitters and the mediums were only separated by a screen and the medium could hear the sitter saying yes or no – how could this enable a cold reading to occur?They could have picked up on the sitter’s tone of voiceThe sitter may have hesitated when responding to the yes/no questions The reader could have been picked up on visual cues seen through the screen.The control group was poorly chosen – they were so different to the sitters. Explain why they would have rated the statements as only 36% accurate and why this could have led to a false conclusionAs they were different ages they wouldn’t have had the same life experiences so the statements may not have applied to them because of their age rather than them being Barnum statements.Evidence 3: O’Keeffe and Wiseman (2005)O’Keeffe and Wiseman (2005) were highly critical of Schwartz’s study so carried out a replication with improved methodology and found no evidence of psychic ability. Five mediums (all volunteers and recognised as good mediums by the Spiritualists National Union) gave readings for five sitters. No sensory leakage was possible since the sitters and the psychics were placed in separate, adjacent rooms in a psychology department at university; the mediums and the sitters did not meet. Each medium was given one hour per reading and was asked to contact spirits for their sitter and to speak whatever they found out whilst being videoed. Later each of the readings was transcribed. Each sitter read all of the 25 readings that were produced and rated the personal relevance of each statement. The sitters’ ratings were actually lowest for the statements that had been written for them. Another finding was that more general statements made in the readings tended to be rated as more personally relevant than the precise ones.Were Schwartz’s findings replicated and what does this tell us?No – psychic mediumship does not exist under controlled conditions therefore the research is inconsistencies due to flawed methodology that Schwartz used.Why is O’Keefe and Wiseman’s study a more valid test of psychic mediumship than Schwartz’s?Control over sensory leakage (they did not meet and were in separate rooms)Videotapes we recorded so information was not missed Replicability was possible.Looked specifically at whether the readings would be relevant to others.Conclusion to the evidenceDoes it seem from the evidence that psychic mediumship exists? No, no valid or reliable evidence to support the existence of psychic mediumship however there is evidence to suggest mediums might experience different brain activity when in a trance state.Anomalistic Psychology February 20106 (a)A researcher wanted to test the ability of a known 'psychic healer'. Ten volunteers suffering from chronic back pain were selected through newspaper adverts. The volunteers were all given a questionnaire which rated their belief in psychic healing and another questionnaire which rated their levels of pain. They were then randomly assigned to either a treatment group or a control group. Afterwards, all the volunteers filled in the pain questionnaire again. The researcher found that there was no significant effect on pain relief as a result of psychic healing.Answer the following questions, using your knowledge about research into psychic healing.The researcher wanted to know whether there was a correlation between belief in psychic healing and improvement in pain ratings. What statistical test could the researcher use? Justify your answer. (2 marks)Outline one ethical issue in this study and suggest how the researcher could have dealt with it. (3 marks) 'It is interesting why, even today in the modern age of science and technology, some people still believe in psychic healing.' Discuss factors underlying belief in psychic healing. (4 marks + 5 marks)This question could no longer be asked as the specification has changed.(b) Outline and evaluate psychological research into belief in out-of-body experiences and/or near-death experiences. (4 marks + 6 marks)June 2010Explain what is meant by pseudoscience. (4 marks)During a public demonstration of 'psychic powers', a psychologist witnessed what appeared to be the ability of one person to read the thoughts of another.Explain how the psychologist could use the Ganzfeld procedure to investigate this apparent ability.(6 marks) At the same event, the psychologist observed that many audience members appeared impressed by, and expressed a belief in, the abilities of a psychic medium.Outline two or more factors underlying belief in anomalous experience. (4 marks)Consider how such factors can be used to understand belief in psychic mediumship. (10 marks)C and d could no longer be asked as the specification has changed.February 2011What has research shown about personality factors underlying anomalous experience? (4 marks)Some researchers consider that there is a link between poor reasoning skills and belief in the paranormal.Using your knowledge of research in this area, explain why some researchers might think there is a link between poor reasoning and strong belief in the paranormal. (3 marks)This question should no longer be asked as the specification has changed.To investigate this, a researcher asked participants to complete a reliable and well-validated scale measuring belief in the paranormal. Each participant was then scored on their attempt to solve a set of reasoning problems.What is meant by a 'reliable and well-validated' scale? Explain why it is important to use such a scale when measuring paranormal beliefs. (2 marks + 2 marks) Apart from poor reasoning skills, explain how one other cognitive factor is linked to belief in the paranormal. (3 marks) This question could no longer be asked as the specification has changed.Discuss methodological issues in the study of psychokinesis. (4 marks + 6 marks)June 2011Explain issues surrounding scientific fraud in the study of anomalous experience. (4 marks)Leon wore a green T-shirt when he sat a mock GCSE exam and got an unexpectedly good result. Since then he has always worn the same T-shirt when he has had to sit an exam. This morning he is feeling distressed because he cannot find his T-shirt and he has an A-level psychology exam today.How might a psychologist explain Leon's superstitious behaviour? (5 marks)Abbie, Leon's friend, cannot understand why he is so upset. She has worked hard and revised thoroughly and does not feel that she needs a T-shirt or anything else to get her through the exam.Suggest how personality and/or other factors might explain why Abbie does not have anomalous beliefs. (5 marks)Discuss what research into exceptional experience has shown us about out-of-body experience. (4 marks + 6 marks)January 2012Jo and Frankie are watching a television programme about paranormal action. A stage performer is apparently using the power of his mind to influence dice thrown by another person. The person rolls a pair of dice three times and rolls a double six each time.Jo gets very excited.Jo shouts: "Wow! That is amazing. I think I could train myself to use the power of my mind to make things happen."Frankie replies: "Calm down. It's just a coincidence. Nobody can use the power of their mind to influence events like that."Frankie thinks that it is just a coincidence. Jo does not agree.Explain what is meant by coincidence in this context. (2 marks)Jo and Frankie interpret the same experience differently. Use your knowledge of personality factors to explain why people interpret anomalous experiences differently. (4 marks)Outline and evaluate the Ganzfeld technique as a way of investigating ESP. (4 marks + 4 marks)Discuss what research into exceptional experience has shown us about psychic mediumship. (4 marks + 6 marks)June 2012Describe one way in which researchers have studied psychokinesis. (4 marks)Harry had a dream last night about his aunt Susan. She emigrated to Canada years ago and he has not heard from her for three years. This morning, he received a letter from his aunt saying that she was going to visit. He thinks that he might have psychic powers.How might psychologists explain Harry's experience? Use your knowledge of the psychology of coincidence in your answer. (4 marks)Discuss how Harry's anomalous experience can be explained by personality factors. (6 marks)Outline and evaluate research into out-of-body experience and/or near-death experience. (4 marks + 6 marks)Jan 20131 4 Outline two differences between science and pseudoscience. (4 marks)1 5 Magical thinking is a common type of anomalistic experience. Estate agents have great difficulty selling houses where a murder or other tragedy has occurred, even when the asking price is below what the house is worth. Workers in dangerous occupations, such as deep-sea fishermen, often engage in elaborate rituals before going to sea.How would a psychologist explain the examples of magical thinking shown in the extract above? (10 marks)1 6 Discuss one or more explanations of psychic mediumship. (4 marks + 6 marks)June 2013Outline two methodological issues involved in the study of psychokinesis. (4 marks)Most people have several dreams each night, and a small number of these dreams come true a week or so later. Former American president, Abraham Lincoln, is believed to have dreamt of his assassination, two weeks before it happened.Some people interpret dreams coming true as evidence for the paranormal. However, others assume that probability or coincidence can explain this anomalous experience.Explain why some people see dreams which later come true as evidence for the paranormal, whereas other people do not. Use your knowledge of probability judgements and/or coincidence in your answer. (10 marks)Discuss what research has shown about psychic healing. (4 marks + 6 marks) ................
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