Sheldon Biology Semester I Review Sheet



Honors Biology Midterm Review Guide: 2015 - 2016 ANSWERS

Introduction

1. Observation uses your senses (smell, taste, touch, see, hear) and is measureable to some degree. Inference is an application/interpretation of that observation.

2. Qualitative data is information about qualities; information that can't actually be measured. Some examples of qualitative data are the softness of your skin, the grace with which you run, and the color of your eyes. However, try telling Photoshop you can't measure color with numbers.

Quantitative data is information about quantities; that is, information that can be measured and written down with numbers. Some examples of quantitative data are your height, your shoe size, and the length of your fingernails.

3. Scientific Method (below)

Here's a quick look at the difference between qualitative

and quantitative data.

The age of your car. (Quantitative.)

  The number of hairs on your knuckle. (Quantitative.)

  The softness of a cat. (Qualitative.)

  The color of the sky. (Qualitative.)

  The number of pennies in your pocket. (Quantitative.)

4. Independent- the variable being manipulated and

it goes on the X axis; dependent- the variable that

may change from the independent variable being

manipulated and is on the Y axis; test one variable

at a time;

5. Control group – does not contain the variable being tested

Treatment group – contains the variable being tested

Constant/controlled variables – these are things that should

be the same in an experiment that contains a control and

treatment group. They should not be a ‘hidden’ factor that

could have caused a change in an experiment.

6.

7. Hypothesis is either a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon, or a reasoned prediction of a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena. It is guide for an experiment. In science, a theory is a tested, well-substantiated, unifying explanation for a set of verified, proven factors. A theory is always backed by evidence; a hypothesis is only a suggested possible outcome, and is testable and falsifiable.

8. Characteristics of Life:

• All living things detect changes in their environment and respond to them. (stimulus and response)

• All living things grow and develop.

• All living things are capable of reproduction, the process by which living things give rise to offspring.

Sexual – 2 parents combine their DNA; Asexual – offspring identical to parent

• All living things are able to maintain a constant internal environment through homeostasis.

(ex. Sweat when hot and shiver when cold)

• All living things have complex chemistry (obtain and use energy = metabolism)

• All forms of life are built of cells. A cell is the basic unit of the structure and function of living things.

(unicellular vs multicellular)

9. Homeostasis – maintaining a balance in your body

Temperature – too hot, sweat; too cold – shiver

Blood pressure – too much water in blood – kidney’s remove water and you urinate more

Not enough water – less urine is created.

Metabolism is obtaining and using energy to live. Remember the A, B, C, D process…

Anabolism is building (dehydration synthesis) and Catabolism is digesting (hydrolysis)

10. Organization: (give an example of each, too)

Biosphere – biome- ecosystem – community --- population—organism---organ system --- organ – tissue – cell- cell organelle --- molecule ---- atom

11. So you are probably wondering why this is on here…..

Well we have studied the energy component and eventually we

will be studying ecology, so it seemed like a good place to put

this…

12. Review your lab safety…

Biochemistry

1. What is the atomic number? Atomic weight? An isotope? An ion? Atomic number is the number of protons in an element – it is its identity. Atomic mass is the number of protons and neutrons in an element. Isotope is form of an element that weighs more due to more neutrons. Ion is either a positively or negatively charged element / compound due to gaining or losing electrons.

How are oxygen -18 and oxygen -16 isotopes?

(P = 8, E = 8 and N = 10) (P= 8, E = 8 and N = 8)

2. Calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons based on the periodic table. The number of protons is the atomic number. The number of electrons of an element on the periodic table is the atomic number. Neutrons are calculated by the atomic mass minus the atomic number.

a. What are the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in Carbon & Chlorine?

Carbon: 6 protons, 6 electrons, 6 neutrons Chlorine: 17 electrons, 17 protons, 18 neutrons

3. What are the number of electron cloud layers and how many electrons are in each?

Each row of the periodic table is the number of layers in the electron cloud.

Each column (up and down) is the number of electrons in the outer most layer.

a. Draw electron cloud configuration for Magnesium and Chlorine

|[pic] |[pic] |

4. Identify the reactants and products in a chemical equation- reactants are on the left side of the equation and products are on the right side.

• Hydrogen and oxygen are reactants that make water. H2 + O2 ( H2O

• Oxygen and glucose are reactants that hydrolyze to carbon dioxide and water in this exergonic reaction 6O2 + C6H12O6 ( 6CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP

5. What is the difference between an ionic and covalent bond? Give an example of each. Ionic bonds are made when an electron leaves the outer layer of one element and goes to another element – creating two ions. The atoms attract due to opposite charge like salt Na+ and Cl-. Covalent bonds are when elements share the electrons in the outermost layer like H2O.

6. Properties of water:

a. Polar – uneven sharing of electrons; this leads to electronegativity

b. Cohesive- due to its polarity, the slight charges are attracted to other things.

This is one of the reasons why a meniscus forms in graduated cylinders

c. Adhesion – water sticks to itself…. This is why water forms a ball on wax paper

d. Surface tension – animals can walk on water due to its adhesion and cohesive properties

e. 3 phases (ice, liquid, gas) depending on the temperature here on earth

f. hydrophilic –

g. ‘universal’ solvent – dissolves like (hydrophilic) substances

h. forms H bonds…

i.

7. What is pH? How does what know if a substance is an acid or base or neutral? pH is the measure of H+ ion concentration in a solution. Scale 0-14. Less than 7 acid, greater than 7 base. & is considered neutral or pure water.

8. Chemical formula structural formula shorthand formula

a.

Glucose

b.

9. Identify which functional groups are present for a given molecule.

|Hydroxyl |Carboxyl |Amino |

|[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |

| | | |

| | | |

|Aldehyde |Ketone |phosphate |

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| | | |

| | | |

| | | |

|nitrogen lone pair* |Sulfhydryl |methyl |

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| | | |

10. For carbohydrates, fats, and proteins be able to

a. Identify the monomers for each? How does the molecule progress to be a polymer?

b. How does dehydration synthesis work to build a polymer of each group?

c. How does hydrolysis work to break down the polymer of each group?

d. What are the different functions of each group?

|Category |Carbohydrates |Fats |Proteins |

|Monomers( Polymers |Monosaccharide like glucose or |Glycerol & 3 fatty acids ( |Amino acids ( polypeptide chains ( |

| |fructose - polysaccharide |triglyceride. |primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary |

|Dehydration synthesis & bonds |Remove 1 water to make a disaccharide|Remove 3 water molecules to bind |Remove 1 water molecule to make a peptide|

| |from 2 monosaccharides |glycerol with 3 fatty acids |bond |

|Hydrolysis (add water to cut) |Polysaccharides ( Monosaccharides |Triglyceride ( Glycerol + 3 fatty |4th structure( 3rd structure ( 2nd |

| | |acids |structure( polypeptide chain ( amino |

| | | |acids |

|Common names/ food |Sugars, syrups |fats, oils |meats, legumes |

|Functions |1.Energy for body |1.Stored energy |1.Structures- hair, muscle, tissues |

| |2.Stored energy |2.Cell membranes |2.Hormones & enzymes |

11. What are the different forms and functions of polysaccharides (all glucoses hooked together):

Glycogen- branched chain (short term) stored energy for glucose

Cellulose- structural support in stems of plants (we cannot digest it)

Starch- complex sugar food source found in potatoes, rice, and corn

12. How can you tell the difference between saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fats.

Saturated- have no C=C double bonds and all C are saturated with H atoms. Monounsaturated- have one C=C double bond, and polyunsaturated has two or more C=C bonds.

13. A triglyceride is one glycerol and three fatty acids.

-remove one of the fatty acid chains and add

a phosphate group. The phosphate and glycerol

are polar, hence the head is hydrophilic and the

two tails are still hydrophobic

remember – this is an amphipathic molecule

-phospholipids are used in building cell membranes

14. What is cholesterol and why is it important?

A compound of the sterol type found in most body tissues, including the blood and the nerves. Cholesterol (three room and a house) and its derivatives are important constituents of cell membranes and precursors of other steroid compounds, but high concentrations in the blood (mainly derived from animal fats in the diet) are thought to promote atherosclerosis. It helps to keep membranes fluid when the temperature is too cold or helps keep it in tact if the temperature gets too high. Like a buffer.

15. What are the 4 types of protein structures? What mechanisms are in place to cause the shape at each level.

Primary- polypeptide between the amino group and carboxyl group of two separate amino acids

Secondary-alpha helix and beta-pleated sheets—uses H bonds between the C=O and N-H

Tertiary- “R” groups: Ionic bonds, sulfur bridges, hydrophobic reactions, hydrogen bonds.

Quaternary- same as tertiary, but uses two or more tertiary structures together (like hemoglobin which has 4 tertiary structures in it quaternary molecule. Not all proteins have this level

16. Interpret a graph on the effects of an enzyme-interpretation of graph data

17. Potential is stored (like in bonds of a molecule) where kinetic is of action (sunlight, heat)

18. First law: energy cannot be created or destroyed; just rearranged; ultimate source of energy is the sun

Second law: every energy transfer releases untrappable energy known as entropy; this is what keeps our body warm as we are endotherms.

19. This is the energy coupling diagram that has been on two tests so far….. find it in your book or your notes and study the parts. Relate # 17 and #18 to this diagram. Learn the associated terms!!!!

20 . ATP – adenosine triphosphate

A nucleotide (sugar, phosphate and a nitrogen) a

are modified by adding one additional phosphate

(now ADP) and then another one to make the

Molecule (ATP).

With the phosphates being negatively charges,

this assists in ‘possibly’ more energy released from

the hydrolysis of the bond.

How is energy released in ATP? When chemical bonds are broken between phosphates energy is

released

21. Three kinds of work when ATP is hydrolyzed:

• Mechanical – muscle movement

• Chemical – building bonds – like anabolism for a protein out of amino acids

• Active transport – using energy via cellular respiration in the mitochondria to go against a gradient or endo/exocytosis processes

22.

Factors that affect enzymes: (can cause denaturing)

Saltiness

pH

temperature (boiling)

mixing

23. See diagram to right for competitive and

non-competitive inhibition.

Feedback inhibition means an end product,

Turns the series of reactions off until some

Of the end product is consumed.

24. Explain the induced fit model – such as sucrase on sucrose- possible essay question.

E + S --> ES --> E + P / Sucrase (enzyme) binds to sucrose (substrate) ( (products) glucose and

fructose +sucrase (enzyme)

25. What is denaturation of an enzyme – how does it occur? Protein breaks down and unfolds due to

extreme temperature and pH changes. Changes its shape and no longer can easily have an induced fit

26. Metabolism: sum of all building and breaking down in your body; assisted with enzymes (A, B, C, D)

A = anabolism

B = building (dehydration synthesis)

C = catabolism

D= digestion/destroying (hydrolysis)

The Cell

1. What is the difference between a plant and animal cell

|Plant |Animal |

|Membrane and cell wall |Plasma membrane |

|Mitochondria and chloroplast |Mitochondria |

|Cytoplasm, nucleus |Cytoplasm, nucleus |

|Most organelles |Most organelles |

|(has a large central vacuole) |(no large central vacuole) |

2. What is the difference between a prokaryote and eukaryote cell

– prokaryotic lacks a nucleus & most other organelles; smaller; circular DNA in nucleoid region

- eukaryotic cell has a membrane bound nucleus and organelles; larger; linear DNA

- both have DNA and ribosomes

3. Why is the phospholipid bilayer important- creates a barrier to regulate the transport of substances in and out of a cell; hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails, transport proteins. Oxygen and water diffuse (although water more so by aquaporins), glucose by proteins (facilitated). Exocytosis / endocytosis- moving material out or into cell by vesicles made of membrane. Amphipathic means there is a water-loving and a water-hating side of one molecule. This allows a barrier when a bilayer is created.

4. Label the main parts of a cell membrane and discuss structure and function

a. carbohydrate chain (on a lipid – so glycolipid)

b. glycoprotein (sugar on protein)

c. glucose – monomer of carbo chain

d. phospholipid head – hydrophilic area

e. fatty acid tails – hydrophobic area

f. lipid bilayer – forms barrier for cell

g. microfilaments – scaffolding of cell

h. peripheral protein- moves and attachment

i. cholesterol – helps control fluidity of cell membrane

j. transmembrane/intergral protein- associated with

active and passive transport through membrane

5. Passive and Active transport in a cell

a. Diffusion- which way do particles move in an experiment;

could be a general term for molecules to move from high to low

concentration; if referring to a cell, these molecules of discussion

move across the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane

What happens at equilibrium- reached when the movement

of particles in one direction is equal to the number of

particles moving in the other

b. Facilitated Diffusion - passive transport of a substance

using a transmembrane/integral protein embedded in the

semi-permeable lipid bilayer of a cell

1. glucose enters with the assistance of insulin

through a carrier protein

2. water mostly uses an aquaporin (protein channel)

3. three possible types of Osmosis – an example of facilitated diffusion with water moving

through an aquaporin in a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high to low

concentration

Plant cells: animal cells:

c. Active transport –

1. Can require ATP to move a substance through a carrier transmembrane protein from an area of

high to low concentration. See picture in the right hand corner of this page.

2. Can be referring to endo/exocytosis…. Where a fluid or a solid is taken in by “in pocketing”

and being surrounded by the membrane. Endocytosis can also be receptor mediated….

6. Lab safety- be familiar with class rules for: fire use, acid use, glass breakage, etc.

7. What is the structure (look like) and function of following parts of cell

a. Nucleus: center of cell, circular; the part that houses the cell's genetic material in the form of DNA

b. Nucleolus: ball-like mass of fibers and granules in a cell nucleus; makes ribosomal components

c. Endoplasmic Reticulum: may be smooth (lipid synthesis, glycogen storage, Ca+2 storage, detox

alcohol) or rough ribbon-like (for protein synthesis); network of membranes within a

cell's cytoplasm that produces a variety of molecules

d. Cell wall: box like structure; strong wall outside a plant cell's plasma membrane that protects the cell

and maintains its shape; cellulose for plants, chitin for fungus, peptidoglycan for some bacteria

e. Ribosomes: small dot structures- cluster of proteins and nucleic acids (rRNA) that constructs proteins

in a cell; either attached to ER or free floating in the cell

f. Golgi apparatus: flattened stack of ovals; cellular organelle that modifies, stores, and routes cell

products

g. Desmosomes: proteins that anchor cells together; much like a staple is used on two papers.

h. Gap Junction: a channel for two animal cells to communicate (i.e.gab) with each other

i. Tight Junction: a barrier like substance that prevents cells from leaking (think about a bladder & what it holds)

j. Cilia: short hair-like structures from a cell and containing bundles of microtubules that move a cell

through its surroundings or move fluid over the cell's surface

k. Flagella: whip-like structure responsible for movement; much longer than cilia

l. Mitochondria: powerplant of cell- turns glucose into ATP; bean shaped; cristae folds to increased

surface area for the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation (ETC & chemiosmosis)

m. Central vacuole: large structure (bigger than nucleus) stores water to help hold plants up

n. Chloroplast: green disk structure responsible to turn solar energy into glucose (photosynthesis)

o. Vesicles: small packages that hold material taken into a cell or being released to outside of a cell

They allow movement of material within a cell. Microfilaments pull them as they walk on the microtubules (inner life of a cell video).

p. Microfilaments: Two actin (protein molecules) twisted like a candy cane. Allow for tension bearing

activities within a cell (i.e. pulling vesicles around the cell)

q. Plasmodesmata – form of gap junction in plants… it is a channel that allows them to share materials

and/or communicate with each other

r. Peroxisomes – contain enzymes that oxidize certain molecules normally found in the cell, notably

fatty acids and amino acids. Those oxidation reactions produce hydrogen peroxide, which is the

basis of the name peroxisome.

8. Endomembrane system deals with mRNA sending its message from DNA (which is safely kept in the

nucleus) to a ribosome. As a protein is manufactured, it is stored inside the Rough ER. It then ‘buds’

off the Rough ER in the form of a vesicle that is pulled via microfilaments walking on microtubules to

the Golgi Apparatus. It is modified in the GA and the vesicle ‘buds’ off the GA as it eventually excreted

via is to be excreted exocytosis.

Both the mitochondria and chloroplast were once thought to be a prokaryotic organism (circular DNA

and ribosomes are found in their inner fluids. Both were thought to be taken into a cell – at different

times, of course—by endocytosis but not consumed. This is evident by their double membrane. It was a win – win situation as protection was provided by the cell that ‘ate’ it and it supplied energy to the cell-

hence the name – endosymbiosis.

9. What are the principles of cell theory

- All living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living

things (life legos), cells come from pre-existing cells

10. How should one look at a slide on the microscope at high power: set in on low power and find the object, go to medium and then high keeping the organism in the center of the field of view, only use the fine adjustment on high power. Lab practical??? Can you do this? Review microscope lab….

Cellular Respiration

1. formula is 6O2 + C6H12O6 ( 6CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP Opposite is photosynthesis

2. Cell respiration and fermentation both provide mechanisms for the production of ATP that enable organisms to survive.

3. comparison chart

| |Glycolysis |Fermentation |

|a. requires oxygen |No |No |

|b. Where do they occur |Cytoplasm |cytoplasm |

|c. why do they occur |This is the first step of cellular respiration (even |To regenerate NAD + so glycolysis can continue to produce 2 |

| |though it is anaerobic) |ATP’s |

| |2 ATP net, 2 -3C pyruvate, and 2 NADH molecules |Lactic Acid: 2- 3 C lactic acid; used to make food and |

|End products | |cheese |

| | |Alcoholic: 2 – CO2, 2 – 2C alcohols (beer and wine) |

| | |In addition to what is produced in glycolysis |

| | | |

4. see chart above

Odds and ends:

Yeast and fermentation – what type aerobic or anaerobic? Anaerobic because do not need oxygen

How do muscle cramps develop? Build up of lactic acid during fermentation in muscles due to lack of O2

What foods are made from fermentation? Cheese, alcoholic beverages, breads, yogurt.

5. Comparison of Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron transport chain, & fermentation (2 types): # ATP, location, need for oxygen, produces carbon dioxide. See notes that where emailed home prior to the cell respiration overview quiz (

| |Glycolysis |Cut and Groom / |Krebs |Oxidative Phosphorylation: |Fermentation |

| | |Bridge/ Transition | |Electron transport Chain & | |

| | | | |chemiosmosis | |

|# ATP |2ATP |--- |2ATP |28 -34 ATP |2 ATP |

|Location |Cytoplasm |Cyto into matrix |Mitochondria matrix |Mitochondrial cristae |Yeast / Muscles |

|Need Oxygen- Aerobic |No |No |No |Yes |No |

|CO2 produced |No |Yes |Yes |No |Yes- alcohol |

|NADH produced |yes |yes |Yes |No, it is used here |No, it is used here |

|FADH2 produced |no |no |yes |No, it is used here |------ |

6. See class notes

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There are 1000 um in a 1 mm.

(um = micrometer)

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C6H12O6

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