ORIGINS OF SEPARATION OF THE SEXES IN CHINA (excerpts)



from Bret Hinsch, “The Origins of Separation of the Sexes in China,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, 123/3 (July-September 2003).

Separation of the sexes began as the pragmatic custom of simple agricultural societies where gendered occupations and customs kept men and women apart for much of each day. Men went out hunting while women stayed nearer to home, caring for children and gathering berries and grains. However, separation of men and women became more formal as people gathered in cities and took on the attributes of “civilized” living. China’s earliest dynasties, for example, brought about a major change in sexual segregation. Men and women were still separated for much of the day because they did different kinds of work in separate places. But some thinkers began to see this physical separation of the sexes not as a mundane fact, but as a proper social ideal. Gender segregation became a social goal, something to encourage and defend. Thus, people in ancient China began to write about the separation of men and women in moral terms.

The most dramatic rhetorical technique for separating the sexes was to praise women who went to extreme lengths to remain in feminized spaces. Published circa 18 BCE, Liu Xiang's book Lieniizhuan [translated Biographies of Exemplary Women] contains several gruesome stories about women who perished rather than expose themselves to a man's view or touch. For example Boji of Song was in the palace alone one night when the building caught fire. Rather than leave the burning building without a proper female escort to protect her virtue, she perished in the flames.

Moreover, judging from discussions of foreign peoples, it is clear that Chinese writers considered the separation of men and women an important characteristic of Chinese civilization. When historians wrote treatises about foreign peoples, they often focused on the unpleasant habits of foreigners: they ate with their hands, tattooed their bodies, cut their hair short, wore woolen clothing, and so on. Such writings tended to reinforce Chinese identity by dwelling on foreign customs that differed from those in China. And Chinese writers took great pleasure in ridiculing cultures that did not enforce the separation of men and women. In fact, Chinese writers clearly viewed the separation of the sexes as an important cultural marker of Chinese identity and repeatedly commented on neighboring peoples who failed to keep men and women apart. For example, Chinese writers denigrated the people of Jiaozhi (now northern Vietnam) because they allowed men and women to bathe together in the same river. The Chinese also looked down on the people of Kogury (now northern Korea) because they allowed crowds includeing both sexes to attend musical performances. The list goes on. In fact, separating the sexes was sometimes seen as more than just a sign of “Chineseness”; some authors considered it synonymous with humanity. People who failed to observe fundamental human distinctions such as the separation of male and female were akin to birds and beasts. The Liji [a book of Chinese rituals] compares those who do not distinguish between men and women with monkeys.

The Chinese had a reason for valuing the segregation of men and women. They came to believe that gender segregation produced laudable social outcomes like stability and harmony. When men and women were kept apart, the Chinese believed, there was less sexual misconduct and more happiness in the home. To make sure that these qualities emerged, Chinese thinkers emphasized the importance of zhenjie along with gender segregation. Roughly translated as “chastity” (or sexual purity), zhenjie was actually quite wide-ranging and touched on virtually all aspects of female life in China, including family, labor roles, education, and religion. Women who accepted zhenjie, for example, not only rejected premarital sex, but also obeyed their husbands, remained loyal to them even after their deaths (widow fidelity), focused on the education of their sons, and willingly served their husband’s parents. In short, people who accepted zhenjie believed that women were honor-bound to separate themselves form men when they were unmarried and to subordinate themselves to their husbands after marriage. Gender segregation and zhenjie therefore were intrinsically linked and considered cornerstones of both Chinese culture and humankind.

Questions/Tasks [Write out the questions/tasks and record on your answers on a separate sheet of paper].

1. Define the words in bold. There are six.

2. What evidence does the author use to support his argument that the ancient Chinese valued gender segregation? Provide multiple examples from the text.

3. According to the author, why did the idea of gender segregation become an important part of life in ancient China?

4. How are gender segregation and zhenjie related? Explain in your own words.

5. Do modern societies continue to uphold the values and habits associated with zhenjie and gender segregation? Explain.

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