Structuralism and Functionalism
Welcome to Introduction to PsychologyThis is Exam # PSY-101You may ask, “Why a psychology class within a Christian curriculum?” Well, the answer is quite an easy one. Ministry is primarily a gift that serves people; psychology is the study of human behavior and it can help you better understand the people that you serve. We should be clear however, that as Christians, there are many things within the world of science, that we do not agree with, such as, but not limited to: The Big Bang Theory and Human Evolution. With that being said, please remain mindful of these issues as you study. We hope that you will enjoy this lesson and that you will find portions of its content applicable. What exactly is psychology?What exactly is psychology? While it may seem like a very basic question, it is one of the most common questions asked by students new to the study of psychology. During your first lecture of an introductory psychology class, your instructor might spend some time going around the room asking students to explain what they think psychology involves. During my first psychology class, one girl made a dramatic point of waving her fingers over another student's head and pretending to read his thoughts. Unfortunately, such misconceptions about psychology abound and part of the confusion stems from stereotyped portrayals of psychologists in popular media as well as the diverse careers paths of those holding psychology degrees.The simplest definition of psychology is that it is the study of the mind and behavior. Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain thought, emotion and behavior. Applications of psychology include mental health treatment, performance enhancement, self-help, ergonomics, and many other areas affecting health and daily life. It's difficult to capture everything that psychology encompasses in just a brief definition, but topics such as development, personality, thoughts, feelings, emotions, motivations, and social behaviors represent just a portion of what psychology seeks to understand and explain.Let's take a closer look at this common question.Question: What Is Psychology?There's a lot of confusion out there about psychology. According to some popular television programs and movies, psychologists are super-sleuths that can use their understanding of the human mind to solve crimes and predict a criminal's next move. Other popular depictions present the psychologist as a gray and bearded older gentleman, seated in a stately office lined with books, who spends his days listening to clients ramble on about their difficult childhoods.So what's the truth about psychology? The fact is that there is a little bit of truth in these stereotypical portrayals, but there is actually a lot more to psychology than you might initially think. There is a tremendous diversity in psychology careers, and it is perhaps this enormous range of career paths that contributes to some of the misconceptions about psychology and what psychologists do. Sure, there are psychologists who help solve crimes and there are plenty of professionals who help people deal with mental health issues. But did you know that there are also psychologists who help create healthier workplaces or that design and implement public health programs? Or that there are others psychologists who investigate topics such as airplane safety, computer design, and military life?So what exactly is psychology?Answer: Psychology is both an applied and academic field that studies the human mind and behavior. Research in psychology seeks to understand and explain how we think, act and feel. As most people already realize, a large part of psychology is devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of mental health issues, but that's just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to applications for psychology. In addition to mental health, psychology can be applied to a variety of issues that impact health and daily life including performance enhancement, self-help, ergonomics, motivation, productivity, and much more.Early PsychologyPsychology evolved out of both philosophy and biology. Discussions of these two subjects date as far back as the early Greek thinkers including Aristotle and Socrates. The word psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche, literally meaning 'life' or 'breath.' Derived meanings of the word include 'soul' or 'self.'A Separate ScienceThe emergence of psychology as a separate and independent field of study truly came about when Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.Wundt's work was focused on describing the structures that compose the mind. This perspective relied heavily on the analysis of sensations and feelings through the use of introspection, a highly subjective process. Wundt believed that properly trained individuals would be able to accurately identify the mental processes that accompanied feelings, sensations and thoughts.Schools of ThoughtThroughout psychology's history, a number of different schools of thought have thought have formed to explain human thought and behavior. These schools of thought often rise to dominance for a period of time. While these schools of thought are sometimes perceived as competing forces, each perspective has contributed to our understanding of psychology. The following are some of the major schools of thought in psychology.StructuralismFunctionalismPsychoanalysisBehaviorismHumanismCognitivismPsychology TodayToday, psychologists prefer to use more objective scientific methods to understand, explain, and predict human behavior. Psychological studies are highly structured, beginning with a hypothesis that is then empirically tested. The discipline has two major areas of focus: academic psychology and applied psychology. Academic psychology focuses on the study of different sub-topics within psychology including personality, social behavior and human development. These psychologists conduct basic research that seeks to expand our theoretical knowledge, while other researchers conduct applied research that seeks to solve everyday problems.Applied psychology focuses on the use of different psychological principles to solve real world problems. Examples of applied areas of psychology include forensic psychology, ergonomics, and industrial-organizational psychology. Many other psychologists work as therapists, helping people overcome mental, behavioral, and emotional disorders.Psychology Research MethodsAs psychology moved away from its philosophical roots, psychologists began to employ more and more scientific methods to study human behavior. Contemporary researchers employ a variety of scientific techniques including experiments, correlational studies longitudinal research, and others to test, explain, and predict behavior.Areas of PsychologyPsychology is a broad and diverse field. A number of different subfields and specialty areas have emerged. The following are some of the major areas of research and application within psychology:Abnormal Psychology is the study of abnormal behavior and psychopathology. This specialty area is focused on research and treatment of a variety of mental disorders and is linked to psychotherapy, and clinical psychology. Biological Psychology, also known as biopsychology, studies how biological processes influence the mind and behavior. This area is closely linked to neuroscience and utilizes tools such as MRI and PET scans to look at brain injury or brain abnormalities.Clinical Psychology is focused on the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders. It is also considered the largest employment area within psychology.Cognitive Psychology is the study of human thought processes and cognitions. Cognitive psychologists study topics such as attention, memory, perception, decision-making, problem-solving, and language parative Psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. This type of research can lead to a deeper and broader understanding of human psychology.Developmental Psychology is an area that looks at human growth and development over the lifespan. Theories often focus on the development of cognitive abilities, morality, social functioning, identity, and other life areas.Forensic Psychology is an applied field focused on using psychological research and principles in the legal and criminal justice system.Industrial-Organizational Psychology is a field that uses psychological research to enhance work performance, select employee, improve product design, and enhance usability.Personality Psychology looks at the various elements that make up individual personalities. Well-known personality theories include Freud's structural model of personality and the "Big Five" theory of personality.School Psychology is the branch of psychology that works within the educational system to help children with emotional, social, and academic issues.Social Psychology is a discipline that uses scientific methods to study social influence, social perception and social interaction. Social psychology studies diverse subjects including group behavior, social perception, leadership, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression, and prejudice.Bottom of FormEdward B. TitchenerEstablished the school of thought known as structuralism.Structuralism and FunctionalismWhen psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. Structuralism emerged as the first school of thought and some of the ideas associated with the structuralist school were advocated by the founder of the first psychology lab, Wilhelm Wundt. One of Wundt's students, an man named Edward B. Tichener, would later go on to formally establish and name structuralism, although he broke away from many of Wundt's ideas.Clinical PsychologyEducational PsychologistA2 Level PsychologyIndividual PsychologyPsychology TodayAlmost immediately other theories surfaced to vie for dominance in psychology. In response to structuralism, an American perspective known as functionalism emerged under the influence of thinkers such as Charles Darwin and William James.In 1906, Mary Whiton Calkins published an article in Psychological Review asking for a reconciliation between these two schools of thought. Structuralism and functionalism were not so different, she argued, since both are principally concerned with the conscious self. Despite this, each side continued to cast aspersions. William James wrote that structuralism had "plenty of school, but no thought" (James, 1904), while Wilhelm Wundt dismissed functionalism as "literature."Eventually both of these schools of thought lost dominance in psychology, replaced by the rise of behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and humanism.StructuralismStructuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a method known as introspection. Wilhelm Wundt, founder of the first psychology lab, is often associated with this school of thought despite the fact that it was his student Edward B. Titchener who first coined the term to describe this school of thought.While Wundt's work helped to establish psychology as a separate science and contributed methods to experimental psychology, Wundt himself referred to his view of psychology as volunteerism and his theories tended to be much more holistic than the ideas that Titchener later introduced in the United States. Titchener's development of structuralism helped establish the very first "school" of psychology, but structuralism itself did not last long beyond Titchener's death.Major Structuralist ThinkersWilhelm WundtEdward B. TitchenerCriticisms of StructuralismBy today’s scientific standards, the experimental methods used to study the structures of the mind were too subjective—the use of introspection led to a lack of reliability in results.Other critics argue that structuralism was too concerned with internal behavior, which is not directly observable and cannot be accurately measured.Strengths of StructuralismStructuralism is important because it is the first major school of thought in psychology.Structuralism also influenced experimental psychology.FunctionalismFunctionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner. Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior. Functionalism also emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education.Major Functionalist ThinkersWilliam JamesJohn DeweyHarvey CarrJohn AngellCriticisms of Functionalism"It is literature. It is beautiful, but it is not psychology," said Wilhelm Wundt of functionalist William James’ The Principles of Psychology.Strengths of FunctionalismInfluenced behaviorism and applied psychology.Influenced the educational system, especially with regards to John Dewey’s belief that children should learn at the level for which they are developmentally prepared.References:Calkins, M. W. (1906) A reconciliation between structural and functional psychology. Psychological Review, 13, 61-81. James, W. (1904) The Chicago school. Psychological Bulletin. 1, 1-5. Fancher, R. E. (1996) Pioneers of Psychology. New York: Norton.Structuralism and FunctionalismWhen psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the debate over how to describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. Structuralism emerged as the first school of thought and some of the ideas associated with the structuralist school were advocated by the founder of the first psychology lab, Wilhelm Wundt. One of Wundt's students, an man named Edward B. Tichener, would later go on to formally establish and name structuralism, although he broke away from many of Wundt's ideas.Clinical PsychologyEducational PsychologistA2 Level PsychologyIndividual PsychologyPsychology TodayAlmost immediately other theories surfaced to vie for dominance in psychology. In response to structuralism, an American perspective known as functionalism emerged under the influence of thinkers such as Charles Darwin and William James.In 1906, Mary Whiton Calkins published an article in Psychological Review asking for a reconciliation between these two schools of thought. Structuralism and functionalism were not so different, she argued, since both are principally concerned with the conscious self. Despite this, each side continued to cast aspersions. William James wrote that structuralism had "plenty of school, but no thought" (James, 1904), while Wilhelm Wundt dismissed functionalism as "literature."Eventually both of these schools of thought lost dominance in psychology, replaced by the rise of behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and humanism.StructuralismStructuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a method known as introspection. Wilhelm Wundt, founder of the first psychology lab, is often associated with this school of thought despite the fact that it was his student Edward B. Titchener who first coined the term to describe this school of thought.While Wundt's work helped to establish psychology as a separate science and contributed methods to experimental psychology, Wundt himself referred to his view of psychology as volunteerism and his theories tended to be much more holistic than the ideas that Titchener later introduced in the United States. Titchener's development of structuralism helped establish the very first "school" of psychology, but structuralism itself did not last long beyond Titchener's death.Major Structuralist ThinkersWilhelm WundtEdward B. TitchenerCriticisms of StructuralismBy today’s scientific standards, the experimental methods used to study the structures of the mind were too subjective—the use of introspection led to a lack of reliability in results.Other critics argue that structuralism was too concerned with internal behavior, which is not directly observable and cannot be accurately measured.Strengths of StructuralismStructuralism is important because it is the first major school of thought in psychology.Structuralism also influenced experimental psychology.FunctionalismFunctionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner. Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior. Functionalism also emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education.Major Functionalist ThinkersWilliam JamesJohn DeweyHarvey CarrJohn AngellCriticisms of Functionalism"It is literature. It is beautiful, but it is not psychology," said Wilhelm Wundt of functionalist William James’ The Principles of Psychology.Strengths of FunctionalismInfluenced behaviorism and applied psychology.Influenced the educational system, especially with regards to John Dewey’s belief that children should learn at the level for which they are developmentally prepared.References:Calkins, M. W. (1906) A reconciliation between structural and functional psychology. Psychological Review, 13, 61-81. James, W. (1904) The Chicago school. Psychological Bulletin. 1, 1-5. Fancher, R. E. (1996) Pioneers of Psychology. New York: Norton.Bottom of FormSigmund FreudFounder of the psychoanalytic school of thought in psychology (Image: 1907).What Is Psychoanalysis?Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to psychology. This school of thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud's theories of psychosexual stages, the unconscious, and dream symbolism remain a popular topic among both psychologists and laypersons, despite the fact that his work is viewed with skepticism by many today.Many of Freud's observations and theories were based on clinical cases and case studies, making his findings difficult to generalize to a larger population. Regardless, Freud's theories changed how we think about the human mind and behavior and left a lasting mark on psychology and culture. Psychology PsychologistPsychology LearningChild Development StagesPsychology PsychiatristPsychoAnother theorist associated with psychoanalysis is Erik Erikson. Erikson expanded upon Freud's theories and stressed the importance of growth throughout the lifespan. Erikson's psychosocial stage theory of personality remains influential today in our understanding of human development.Major Thinkers Associated With PsychoanalysisSigmund FreudAnna FreudErik EriksonErich FrommCarl JungKarl AbrahamOtto RankSabina SpielreinKey Psychoanalysis TermsCase Study - An in-depth study of one person. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger population.Conscious - In Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, the conscious mind includes everything that is inside of our awareness. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about in a rational way.Defense Mechanism - A tactic developed by the ego to protect against anxiety. Defense mechanisms are thought to safeguard the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with. In some instances, defense mechanisms are thought to keep inappropriate or unwanted thoughts and impulses from entering the conscious mind.Ego - The ego is the part of personality that mediates the demands of the id, the superego and reality. The ego prevents us from acting on our basic urges (created by the id), but also works to achieve a balance with our moral and idealistic standards (created by the superego).Id - The personality component made up of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs and desires.Superego - The component of personality composed of our internalized ideals that we have acquired from our parents and from society. The superego works to suppress the urges of the id and tries to make the ego behave morally rather than realistically.Unconscious - A reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experiences even though we are unaware of these underlying influences.Criticisms of PsychoanalysisFreud's theories overemphasized the unconscious mind, sex, aggression and childhood experiences.Many of the concepts proposed by psychoanalytic theorists are difficult to measure and quantify.Most of Freud's ideas were based on case studies and clinical observations rather than empirical, scientific research.Strengths of PsychoanalysisWhile most psychodynamic theories did not rely on experimental research, the methods and theories of psychoanalytic thinking contributed to experimental psychology.Many of the theories of personality developed by psychodynamic thinkers are still influential today, including Erikson's theory of psychosocial stages and Freud's psychosexual stage theory..Psychoanalysis opened up a new view on mental illness, suggesting that talking about problems with a professional could help relieve symptoms of psychological distress.What Is Behaviorism?Bottom of FormBehaviorismSuggests that all behaviors are learned through conditioning.Question: What Is Behaviorism?Behaviorism can perhaps be best summed up by the following quote from the famous psychologist John B. Watson. Watson is often considered the "father" of behaviorism:"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors." --John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930 Study PsychologyCognitive BehaviorClinical PsychologyPsychology HelpPositive PsychologyWhat exactly did Watson mean?Answer: The term behaviorism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed. Behaviorism was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913).Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors.According to this school of thought, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. It suggests that only observable behaviors should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions, and moods are too subjective.As Watson's above quote suggests, strict behaviorists believe that any person could potentially be trained to perform any task, regardless of things like genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts (within the limits of their physical capabilities); all it takes is the right conditioning.!There are two major types of conditioning:Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.Major Thinkers in BehaviorismThere are a number of important theorists and psychologists who left an indelible mark on behaviorism, including:Ivan PavlovB. F. SkinnerEdward ThorndikeJohn B. WatsonClark HullImportant Events in Behaviorism1863 - Ivan Sechenov's Reflexes of the Brain was published. Sechenov introduced the concept of inhibitory responses in the central nervous system.1900 - Ivan Pavlov began studying the salivary response and other reflexes.1913 - John Watson's Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It was published. The article outlined many of the main points of behaviorism.1920 - Watson and assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the famous "Little Albert" experiment.1943 - Clark Hull's Principles of Behavior was published.1948 - B.F. Skinner published Walden II in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles.1959 - Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of Verbal Behavior."1971 - B.F. Skinner published his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, in which he argued that free will is an illusion.Criticisms of BehaviorismMany critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behavior and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcement and punishment.People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has been established through reinforcement.Strengths of BehaviorismBehaviorism is based upon observable behaviors, so it is easier to quantify and collect data and information when conducting research.Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral intervention, behavior analysis, token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism. These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults.Final ThoughtsWhile behaviorism is not as dominant today as it was during the middle of the 20th-century, it still remains an influential force in psychology. Outside of psychology, animal trainers, parents, teachers, and many others make use of basic behavioral principles to help teach new behaviors and discourage unwanted ones.Humanistic psychologyBottom of FormHumanistic psychologyStresses growth, personal freedom,Self-determination and self-actualization.? Humanistic psychology emerged during the 1950s as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which dominated psychology at the time. Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious motivations that drive behavior while behaviorism studied the conditioning processes that produce behavior. Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take into account the role of personal choice.Humanistic psychology was instead focused on each individual's potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency.Psychodynamic CounselingPsychology FamilyIntegrative PsychotherapyPsychology PsychologistStudy PsychologyDuring the late 1950s, Abraham Maslow and other psychologists held meetings to discuss the development of a professional organization devoted to a more humanist approach to psychology. They agreed that topics such as self-actualization, creativity, and individuality, and related topics were the central themes of this new approach. In 1961, they officially established the American Association for Humanistic Psychology.In 1962, Abraham Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being, in which he described humanistic psychology as the "third force" in psychology. The first and second forces were behaviorism and psychoanalysis respectively.However, it is not necessary to think of these three schools of thought as competing elements. Each branch of psychology has contributed to our understanding of the human mind and behavior. Humanistic psychology added yet another dimension that takes a more holistic view of the individual.Major Thinkers in Humanistic PsychologyAbraham MaslowCarl RogersRollo MayErich FrommImportant Events in Humanistic Psychology1943 - Abraham Maslow described his hierarchy of needs in "A Theory of Human Motivation" published in Psychological Review.1951 - Carl Rogers published Client-Centered Therapy, which described his humanistic, client-directed approach to therapy.1961 - The American Association for Humanistic Psychology is formed and the Journal of Humanistic Psychology was established.1962 - American Association for Humanistic Psychology was formed.1971 - Humanistic psychology becomes an APA division.Criticisms of Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic psychology is often seen as too subjective; the importance of individual experience makes it difficult to objectively study and measure humanistic phenomena. How can we objectively tell if someone is self-actualized? The answer, of course, is that we cannot. We can only rely upon the individual's own assessment of their experience.Another major criticism is that observations are unverifiable; there is no accurate way to measure or quantify these qualities.Strong Points of Humanistic PsychologyOne of the major strengths of humanistic psychology is that it emphasizes the role of the individual. This school of psychology gives people more credit in controlling and determining their state of mental health.It also takes environmental influences into account. Rather than focusing solely on our internal thoughts and desires, humanistic psychology also credits the environment's influence on our experiences.Humanistic psychology continues to influence therapy, education, healthcare, and other areas.Humanistic psychology helped remove some of the stigma attached to therapy and made it more acceptable for normal, healthy individuals to explore their abilities and potential through therapy.Humanistic Psychology TodayToday, the concepts central to humanistic psychology can be seen in many other areas including other branches of psychology, education, therapy, political movements and other areas. For example, transpersonal psychology and positive psychology both draw heavily on humanist influences.The goals of humanistic psychology remain as relevant today as they were in the 1940s and 1950s. As Maureen O'Hara, former president of the Association of Humanistic Psychology, explained, "As the world's people demand freedom and self-determination, it is urgent that we learn how diverse communities of empowered individuals, with freedom to construct their own stories and identities, might live together in mutual peace. Perhaps it is not a vain hope that is life in such communities might lead to the advance in human consciousness beyond anything we have yet experienced."ReferencesAssociation for Humanistic Psychology. (2001). Overview of humanistic psychology. Retrieved from , A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.Rogers, C. R. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Shaffer, J. B. P. (1978). Humanistic psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-HallCognitive Psychology HYPERLINK "" Bottom of FormQuestion: What Is Cognitive Psychology?Cognitive psychology is a relatively young branch of psychology, yet it has quickly grown to become one of the most popular subfields. Topics such as learning styles, attention, memory, forgetting, and language acquisition are just a few of the practical applications for this science. But what exactly is cognitive psychology? What do cognitive psychologists do?Answer: Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.The core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store information. There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research, such as improving memory, increasing decision-making accuracy, and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning.Until the 1950s, behaviorism was the dominant school of thought in psychology. Between 1950 and 1970, the tide began to shift against behavioral psychology to focus on topics such as attention, memory and problem-solving. Often referred to as the cognitive revolution, this period generated considerable research on topics including processing models, cognitive research methods and the first use of the term "cognitive psychology."The term "cognitive psychology" was first used in 1967 by American psychologist Ulric Neisser in his book Cognitive Psychology. According to Neisser, cognition involves "all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations... Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon."How is Cognitive Psychology Different?Unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, cognitive psychology is concerned with internal mental states.Unlike psychoanalysis, which relies heavily on subjective perceptions, cognitive psychology uses scientific research methods to study mental processes.Who Should Study Cognitive Psychology?Because cognitive psychology touches on many other disciplines, this branch of psychology is frequently studied by people in a number of different fields. The following are just a few of those who may benefit from studying cognitive psychology.Students interested in behavioral neuroscience, linguistics, industrial-organizational psychology, artificial intelligence, and other related areas.Teachers, educators, and curriculum designers can benefit by learning more about how people process, learn, and remember information.Engineers, scientists, artists, architects, and designers can all benefit from understanding internal mental states and processes.Major Topics in Cognitive PsychologyPerceptionLanguageAttentionMemoryProblem-SolvingDecision-Making and JudgmentIntelligenceImportant People in the History of Cognitive PsychologyGustav FechnerWilhelm WundtEdward B. TitchenerHermann EbbinghausWilliam JamesWolfgang KohlerEdward TolmanJean PiagetNoam ChomskyDavid RumelhartJames McClellandReferencesNeisser, U. (1967). Cognitive Psychology. Meredith Publishing Company.Sternberg, R. (2003). Cognitive Psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Proceed to the exam belowExam:Please write a 2-3 page essay on your interpretation of the impact that psychology has on daily living and the possibilities that it can bring to ministry work. Please include at least five subfields, and please be sure that they are relevant to your subject. Also, choose at least one historical psychology figure and comment on his theories. After you have completed your essay, please email it to: nychrisitanbiblecollege@ for grading. Be sure to include your name and exam number. The number of this exam is: #PSY-101This is Exam #PSY-101 ................
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