Modes of Drama:Tragedy and Comedy

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Modes of Drama: Tragedy and Comedy

Show me a hero and I will write you a tragedy.

-- F. SCOTT FITZGERALD

"The world," wrote Horace Walpole in 1770, "is a comedy to those that think, a tragedy to those that feel." All of us, of course, both think and feel, and all of us have moments when we stand back and laugh, whether ruefully or with glee, at life's absurdities, just as we all have times when our hearts are broken by its pains and losses. Thus, the modes of tragedy and comedy, diametrically opposed to one another though they are, do not demand that we choose between them: both of them speak to something deep and real within us, and each of them has its own truth to tell about the infinitely complex experience of living in this world.

Tragedy

By tragedy we mean a play that portrays a serious conflict between human beings and some superior, overwhelming force. It ends sorrowfully and disastrously, and this outcome seems inevitable. Few spectators of Oedipus the King wonder how the play will turn out or wish for a happy ending. "In a tragedy," French playwright Jean Anouilh has remarked, "nothing is in doubt and everyone's destiny is known. . . . Tragedy is restful, and the reason is that hope, that foul, deceitful thing, has no part in it. There isn't any hope. You're trapped. The whole sky has fallen on you, and all you can do about it is shout."1

Many of our ideas of tragedy (from the Greek tragoidia, "goat song," referring to the goatskin dress of the performers), go back to ancient Athens; the plays of the Greek dramatists Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides exemplify the art of tragedy. In the fourth century B.C., the philosopher Aristotle described Sophocles' Oedipus the King and other tragedies he had seen, analyzing their elements and trying to account for their power over our emotions. Aristotle's observations will make more sense after you read Oedipus the King, so we will save our principal discussion of them for the

1Preface to Antigon?, translated by Louis Galanti?re (New York: Random, 1946).

1249

1250 Modes of Drama: Tragedy and Comedy

next chapter. But for now, to understand something of the nature of tragedy, let us take a brief overview of the subject.

One of the oldest and most durable of literary genres, tragedy is also one of the simplest--the protagonist undergoes a reversal of fortune, from good to bad, ending in catastrophe. However simple, though, tragedy can be one of the most complex genres to explain satisfactorily, with almost every principal point of its definition open to differing and often hotly debated interpretations. It is a fluid and adaptive genre, and for every one of its defining points, we can cite a tragic masterpiece that fails to observe that particular convention. Its fluidity and adaptability can also be shown by the way in which the classical tragic pattern is played out in pure form in such unlikely places as Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941) and Chinua Achebe's great novel Things Fall Apart (1958): in each of these works, a man of high position and character--one a multimillionaire newspaper publisher, the other a late nineteenth-century African warrior--moves inexorably to destruction, impelled by his rigidity and self-righteousness. Even a film such as King Kong--despite its oversized and hirsute protagonist--exemplifies some of the principles of tragedy.

To gain a clearer understanding of what tragedy is, let us first take a moment to talk about what it is not. Consider the kinds of events that customarily bring the term "tragedy" to mind: the death of a child, a fire that destroys a family's home and possessions, the killing of a bystander caught in the crossfire of a shootout between criminals, and so on. What all of these unfortunate instances have in common, obviously, is that they involve the infliction of great and irreversible suffering. But what they also share is the sense that the sufferers are innocent, that they have done nothing to cause or to deserve their fate. This is what we usually describe as a tragedy in real life, but tragedy in a literary or dramatic context has a different meaning: most theorists take their lead from Aristotle (see the next chapter for a fuller discussion of several of the points raised here) in maintaining that the protagonist's reversal of fortune is brought about through some error or weakness on his part, generally referred to as his tragic flaw.

Despite this weakness, the hero is traditionally a person of nobility, of both social rank and personality. Just as the suffering of totally innocent people stirs us to sympathetic sorrow rather than a tragic response, so too the destruction of a purely evil figure, a tyrant or a murderer with no redeeming qualities, would inspire only feelings of relief and satisfaction--hardly the emotions that tragedy seeks to stimulate. In most tragedies, the catastrophe entails not only the loss of outward fortune-- things such as reputation, power, and life itself, which even the basest villain may possess and then be deprived of--but also the erosion of the protagonist's moral character and greatness of spirit.

In keeping with this emphasis on nobility of spirit, tragedies are customarily written in an elevated style, one characterized by dignity and seriousness. In the Middle Ages, just as tragedy meant a work written in a high style in which the central character went from good fortune to bad, comedy indicated just the opposite, a work written in a low or common style, in which the protagonist moved from adverse circumstances to happy ones--hence Dante's great triptych of hell, purgatory, and heaven, written in everyday Italian rather than scholarly Latin, is known as The Divine Comedy, despite the relative absence of humor, let alone hilarity, in its pages. The tragic view of life, clearly, presupposes that in the end we will prove unequal to the challenges we must face, while the comic outlook asserts a sense of human possibility in which our common sense and resilience--or pure dumb luck--will enable us to win out.

Scene from Dr. Faustus 1251

Tragedy's complexity can be seen also in the response that, according to Aristotle, it seeks to arouse in the viewer: pity and fear. By its very nature, pity distances the one who pities from the object of that pity, since we can feel sorry only for those whom we perceive to be worse off than ourselves. When we watch or read a tragedy, moved as we may be, we observe the downfall of the protagonist with a certain detachment; "better him than me" may be a rather crude way of putting it, but perhaps not an entirely incorrect one. Fear, on the other hand, usually involves an immediate anxiety about our own well-being. Even as we regard the hero's destruction from the safety of a better place, we are made to feel our own vulnerability in the face of life's dangers and instability, because we see that neither position nor virtue can protect even the great from ruin.

The following is a scene from Christopher Marlowe's classic Elizabethan tragedy Doctor Faustus. Based on an anonymous pamphlet published in Germany in 1587 and translated into English shortly thereafter, this celebrated play tells the story of an elderly professor who feels that he has wasted his life in fruitless inquiry. Chafing at the limits of human understanding, he makes a pact with the devil to gain forbidden knowledge and power. The scene presented here is the decisive turning point of the play, in which Faustus seals the satanic bargain that will damn him. Stimulated by his thirst for knowledge and experience, spurred on by his pride to assume that the divinely ordained limits of human experience no longer apply to him, he rushes to embrace his own undoing. Marlowe dramatizes Faustus's situation by bringing a good angel and a fallen angel (i.e., a demon) to whisper conflicting advice in this pivotal scene. (This good angel versus bad angel device has proved popular for centuries. One still sees it today in everything from TV commercials to cartoons such as The Simpsons.) Notice the dignified and often gorgeous language Marlowe employs to create the serious mood necessary for tragedy.

Christopher Marlowe

Scene from Dr. Faustus2

about 1588

EDITED BY SYLVAN BARNET

Christopher Marlowe was born in Canterbury, England, in February 1564, about ten weeks before William Shakespeare. Marlowe, the son of a prosperous shoemaker, received a B.A. from Cambridge University in 1584 and an M.A. in 1587, after which he settled in London. The rest of his short life was marked by rumor, secrecy, and violence, including suspicions that he was a secret agent for Queen Elizabeth's government and allegations against him of blasphemy and atheism--no small matter in light of the political instability and religious controversies of the times. Peripherally implicated in several violent deaths, he met his own end in May 1593 when he was stabbed above the right eye during a tavern brawl, under circumstances that have never been fully explained. Brief and crowded as his life was, he wrote a number of intense, powerful, and highly influential tragedies--Tamburlaine the Great, Parts 1 and 2 (1587), Doctor Faustus (1588), The Jew of Malta (1589), Edward the Second (c. 1592), The Massacre at Paris (1593), and Dido, Queen of Carthage (c. 1593, with Thomas Nashe). He is also the author of the lyric poem "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love," with its universally known first line: "Come live with me and be my love."

2This scene is from the 1616 text, or "B-Text," published as The Tragicall History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus. Modernizations have been made in spelling and punctuation.

1252 Modes of Drama: Tragedy and Comedy

Doctor Faustus with the Bad Angel and the Good Angel, from the Utah Shakespearean Festival's 2005 production

DRAMATIS PERSONAE

Doctor Faustus Good Angel Bad Angel Mephistophilis, a devil

ACT II

SCENE I

(Enter Faustus in his study.)

Faustus: Now, Faustus, must thou needs be damned;

Canst thou not be saved!

What boots? it then to think on God or heaven?

Away with such vain fancies, and despair--

Despair in God and trust in Belzebub!

5

Now go not backward Faustus; be resolute!

Why waver'st thou? O something soundeth in mine ear,

"Abjure this magic, turn to God again."

3 boots avails

Scene from Dr. Faustus 1253

Ay, and Faustus will turn to God again.

To God? He loves thee not.

10

The god thou serv'st is thine own appetite

Wherein is fixed the love of Belzebub!

To him I'll build an altar and a church,

And offer lukewarm blood of newborn babes!

(Enter the two Angels.)

Bad Angel: Go forward, Faustus, in that famous art.

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Good Angel: Sweet Faustus, leave that execrable art.

Faustus: Contrition, prayer, repentance? What of these?

Good Angel: O, they are means to bring thee unto heaven.

Bad Angel: Rather illusions, fruits of lunacy,

That make men foolish that do use them most.

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Good Angel: Sweet Faustus, think of heaven and heavenly things.

Bad Angel: No, Faustus, think of honor and of wealth.

(Exeunt Angels.)

Faustus: Wealth!

Why, the signory of Emden? shall be mine!

When Mephistophilis shall stand by me

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What power can hurt me? Faustus, thou art safe.

Cast no more doubts! Mephistophilis, come,

And bring glad tidings from great Lucifer.

Is't not midnight? Come Mephistophilis,

Veni, veni, Mephostophile!?

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(Enter Mephistophilis.)

Now tell me, what saith Lucifer thy lord?

Mephistophilis: That I shall wait on Faustus whilst he lives,

So he will buy my service with his soul.

Faustus: Already Faustus hath hazarded that for thee.

Mephistophilis: But now thou must bequeath it solemnly

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And write a deed of gift with thine own blood,

For that security craves Lucifer.

If thou deny it I must back to hell.

Faustus: Stay Mephistophilis and tell me,

What good will my soul do thy lord?

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Mephistophilis: Enlarge his kingdom.

Faustus: Is that the reason why he tempts us thus?

Mephistophilis: Solamen miseris socios habuisse doloris.?

Faustus: Why, have you any pain that torture other??

Mephistophilis: As great as have the human souls of men.

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But tell me, Faustus, shall I have thy soul--

And I will be thy slave and wait on thee

And give thee more than thou hast wit to ask?

24 signory of Emden lordship of the rich German port at the mouth of the Ems 30 Veni, veni, Mephostophile! Come, come, Mephistophilis (Latin) 43 Solamen . . . doloris Misery loves company (Latin) 44 other others

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