Meteorological disasters
NATURAL DISASTERSA natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth; examples include floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic processes. A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage, and typically leaves some economic damage in its wake, the severity of which depends on the affected population's resilience, or ability to recover.Geological disastersAvalanches and mudslidesDuring World War I, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the mountain campaign in the Alps at the Austrian-Italian front. Many of the avalanches were caused by artillery fire. EarthquakesAn earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by vibration, shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground. Earthquakes are caused mostly by slippage within geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is called the focus. The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the epicenter. Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife. It is usually the secondary events that they trigger, such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis (seismic sea waves) and volcanoes, that are actually the human disaster. Many of these could possibly be avoided by better construction, safety systems, early warning and planning.SinkholesThe Red Lake (Croatia).When natural erosion or human mining makes the ground too weak to support the structures built on it, the ground can collapse and produce a sinkhole. For example, the 2010 Guatemala City sinkhole which killed fifteen people was caused when heavy rain from Tropical Storm Agatha, diverted by leaking pipes into a pumice bedrock, led to the sudden collapse of the ground beneath a factory building.Volcanic eruptionsVolcanoes can cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster in several ways. The effects include the volcanic eruption itself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or the fall of rock. Second, lava may be produced during the eruption of a volcano. As it leaves the volcano, the lava destroys many buildings, plants and animals due to its extreme heat . Third, volcanic ash generally meaning the cooled ash - may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby locations. When mixed with water this forms a concrete-like material. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight but even small quantities will harm humans if inhaled. Since the ash has the consistency of ground glass it causes abrasion damage to moving parts such as engines. The main killer of humans in the immediate surroundings of a volcanic eruption is the pyroclastic flows, which consist of a cloud of hot volcanic ash which builds up in the air above the volcano and rushes down the slopes when the eruption no longer supports the lifting of the gases. It is believed that Pompeii was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow. A lahar is a volcanic mudflow or landslide. The 1953 Tangiwai disaster was caused by a lahar, as was the 1985 Armero tragedy in which the town of Armero was buried and an estimated 23,000 people were killed.A specific type of volcano is the supervolcano. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, 75,000 to 80,000 years ago a supervolcanic event at Lake Toba reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs, creating a bottleneck in human evolution.[7] It also killed three-quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere. The main danger from a supervolcano is the immense cloud of ash, which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years.Hydrological disastersIt is a violent, sudden and destructive change either in quality of earth's water or in distribution or movement of water on land below the surface or in atmosphere.The Limpopo River during the 2000 Mozambique floodFloodsA flood is an overflow of water that "submerges" land. The EU Floods Directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of land which is usually not covered by water. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tides. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which overflows causing the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries. While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a significant flood unless the water covers land used by man like a village, city or other inhabited area, roads, expanses of farmland, etc.Limnic eruptionsA limnic eruption occurs when a gas, usually CO2, suddenly erupts from deep lake water, posing the threat of suffocating wildlife, livestock and humans. Such an eruption may also cause tsunamis in the lake as the rising gas displaces water. Scientists believe landslides, volcanic activity, or explosions can trigger such an eruption. To date, only two limnic eruptions have been observed and recorded. In 1984, in Cameroon, a limnic eruption in Lake Monoun caused the deaths of 37 nearby residents, and at nearby Lake Nyos in 1986 a much larger eruption killed between 1,700 and 1,800 people by asphyxiation.TsunamiA tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese: lit. "harbour wave"; English pronunciation: /tsu??nɑ?mi/), also known as a seismic sea wave or as a tidal wave, is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Tsunamis can be caused by undersea earthquakes such as the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami, or by landslides such as the one in 1958 at Lituya Bay, Alaska, or by volcanic eruptions such as the ancient eruption of Santorini. On March 11, 2011, a tsunami occurred near Fukushima, Japan and spread through the Pacific.Meteorological disastersYoung steer after a blizzard, March 1966BlizzardsBlizzards are severe winter storms characterized by heavy snow and strong winds. When high winds stir up snow that has already fallen, it is known as a ground blizzard. Blizzards can impact local economic activities, especially in regions where snowfall is rare. The Great Blizzard of 1888 affected the United States, when many tons of wheat crops were destroyed, and in Asia, 2008 Afghanistan blizzard and the 1972 Iran blizzard were also significant events.Cyclonic stormsTropical cycloCyclone, tropical cyclone, hurricane, and typhoon are different names for the same phenomenon, which is a cyclonic storm system that forms over the oceans. The determining factor on which term is used is based on where they originate. In the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, the term “hurricane” is used; in the Northwest Pacific it is referred to as a “typhoon” and “cyclones” occur in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean.The deadliest hurricane ever was the 1970 Bhola cyclone; the deadliest Atlantic hurricane was the Great Hurricane of 1780 which devastated Martinique, St. Eustatius and Barbados. Another notable hurricane is Hurricane Katrina, which devastated the Gulf Coast of the United States in 2005.Extratropical cyclonesExtratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones, are a group of cyclones defined as synoptic scale low pressure weather systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth (outside the tropics) not having tropical characteristics, and are connected with fronts and horizontal gradients in temperature and dew point otherwise known as "baroclinic zones". As with tropical cyclones, they are known by different names in different regions (nor'easter, Pacific Northwest windstorms, European windstorm, East Asian-northwest Pacific storms, sudestada, and Australian east coast cyclones). The most intense extratropical cyclones cause widespread disruption and damage to society, such as the storm surge of the North Sea flood of 1953 which killed 2251 people in the Netherlands and eastern England, the Great Storm of 1987 which damaged southern England and France, and the Columbus Day Storm of 1962 which struck the Pacific Northwest.Affected areas in the western Sahel belt during the 2012 drought.DroughtsDrought is the unusual dryness of soil, resulting in crop failure and shortage of water and for other uses which is caused by significant low rainfall than average over a prolonged period. Hot dry winds, shortage of water, high temperatures and consequent evaporation of moisture from the ground can contribute to conditions of drought.Well-known historical droughts include the 1997–2009 Millennium Drought in Australia led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. As a result, many desalination plants were built for the first time (see list). In 2011, the State of Texas lived under a drought emergency declaration for the entire calendar year and severe economic losses.[11] The drought caused the Bastrop fires.A large hailstone, about 6?cm (2.4?in) in diameterHailstormsHailstorms are falls of rain drops that arrive as ice, rather than melting before they hit the ground. A particularly damaging hailstorm hit Munich, Germany, on July 12, 1984, causing about 2 billion dollars in insurance claims.Heat wavesIA classic anvil-shaped, and clearly-developed Cumulonimbus incusTornadoesA tornado is a violent, dangerous, rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. It is also referred to as a twister or a cyclone, HYPERLINK "" \l "cite_note-12" [12] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology in a wider sense, to refer to any closed low pressure circulation. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (177?km/h), are approximately 250 feet (80?m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300?mph (480?km/h), stretch more than two miles (3?km) across, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (perhaps more than 100?km). WildfiresWildfires are large fires which often start in wildland areas. Common causes include lightning and drought but wildfires may also be started by human negligence or arson. They can spread to populated areas and can thus be a threat to humans and property, as well as wildlife. Notable cases of wildfires were the 1871 Peshtigo Fire in the United States, which killed at least 1700 people, and the 2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia.REHABILITATION ACTIVITIES IN INDIAOn 26 January 2001, an earthquake registering 7.9 on the Richter scale devastated the Indian state of Gujarat. Twenty thousand people died, 167,000 were injured and as many as 600,000 people were left homeless. Over 348,000 houses were destroyed and an additional 844,000 damaged. One of the programme's objectives is introducing water supply and sanitation systems in villages.Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN) agencies were quick to respond to the earthquake, moving in rapidly to provide much needed relief services. The Network’s significant presence in Gujarat ensured immediate assistance to affected communities. AKDN also made a commitment to help them prepare, over the long term, to deal with natural disasters. The Earthquake Rehabilitation Programme has been working to rehabilitate affected communities in selected villages located in the Kutch region of Gujarat. Over 40,000 people will benefit.IntroductionThe 2001 Gujarat earthquake was the second largest recorded earthquake in India. It was the worst natural disaster in India in more than 50 years. Nearly 16 million people out of a total population of 37.8 million suffered the earthquake’s effects. Government estimates place direct economic losses at US$ 1.3 billion; other estimates put the figure as high as US$ 5 billion. Of the 21 districts affected, four were particularly hard hit. The Kutch District was one of them. Four hundred villages were destroyed. Of the 20,000 dead in Gujarat, over 18,000 died in this region. In the city of Bhuj (in Kutch district), over 3,000 inhabitants died, the main hospital was reduced to rubble and close to 90 percent of the buildings were destroyed. There was significant damage to hospitals, schools, electric power and water systems, bridges and roads. Water supply systems in villages were affected. of the district’s 1359 primary schools were destroyed. Damaged health facilities have not been able to provide access to essential healthcare services to resource-poor communities, especially women and children. The Multi-sector Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Programme, implemented by the agencies of the Aga?Khan Development Network (AKDN), has been working to assist communities affected by the earthquake that struck Gujarat in 2001. The programme has built disaster-resistant houses and two new rural education centres. Community-managed drinking water supply systems have been set up. Water harvesting structures are reversing groundwater depletion. New clinics are offering primary health care services to women and children. Savings and credit schemes are helping people regain their livelihoods. Disaster preparedness and management training for villagers has begun. In collaboration with the State Government, training is being provided to NGOs working in the area in areas such as drought management.ObjectivesThe objectives of the programme are: Reconstructing houses, a school and rural education centres damaged or destroyed by the earthquake;Restoring livelihoods through the protection and management of local natural resources; Strengthening healthcare systems to improve access and the range and quality of essential services;Introducing water supply and sanitation systems in villages;Empowering village based institutions and other agencies through training programmes to plan and manage equitable and participatory rehabilitation processes as well as initiate disaster preparedness of the community. This is important given the fact that the area is on a seismically fragile zone and further earthquakes cannot be ruled out;Documenting and disseminating lessons learned. An Integrated ProgrammeThe Programme delivers a comprehensive package of combined services, including shelter-construction combined with income-raising activities; drought proofing with water and sanitation interventions; health, nutrition and psychological stress amelioration with education and disaster preparedness. To maximise the combined resources of these programmes and to ensure that they translate into long-term security, the Network is working with five principal actors in the region:Communities partnering in the implementation of the Programme,Implementing agencies and donor partners,Private providers who work in the areas,Other NGOs working in the areas,Local government agencies. Housing and SanitationSeventy-six houses (out of a proposed 100) have been constructed by the Network and families have moved in. The houses are both cyclone and earthquake resistant and include toilets and bathrooms. The community contributes roughly eight per cent of costs. Of a total cost of roughly Rs 51,000 for each unit, the community is required to contribute approximately Rs 4,000, usually in terms of labour. So far, this has generated almost 10,000 person-days of employment, providing approximately INR 11,20,240 (US$ 23,800) worth of revenue to the community. Traditionally, sanitation coverage, in terms of toilets and bathrooms, has been marginal in this area. In one of the Programme villages, this situation has largely been reversed. Over 105 sanitation units have been constructed (with requests for 125 more). Villagers are willing to contribute up to 50 percent of the cost. In Nagalpur village, for example, the walls of a previously built sanitation structure were repaired. A women’s self-help group facilitated the process by offering free labour. A piped drinking water supply system catering to 80 families in Khambra village has been introduced. The beneficiaries formed a user group called a paani-samiti (water-committee) that levies a monthly charge of Rs 15 (US$ 0.30) per household towards a maintenance fund for the system. This is over and above the Rs 200 (US$ 4.30) for each connection that was collected from each beneficiary earlier, amounting to over Rs 20,000 (US$ 434) that was used to create a base for the fund. An orientation and training programme ensured that the group was able to manage the system on a sustainable basis. Management involves collection of monthly subscriptions, banking, repair and maintenance and conflict resolution. Several community water stand-posts have also been installed and a school sanitation system has been constructed. Managing Water and other Natural ResourcesThe region, like the rest of Gujarat, has been suffering a drought for the last four years. Water tables are dangerously low and groundwater in villages close to the coast is prone to salinity, making it unfit for both agriculture and domestic use. This is already affecting the agrarian economy of the region. The villages draw their water from the only freshwater aquifer of the area and are concerned that groundwater from their region is pumped (even sold in some cases) away from the region to the neighbouring Kandla port and surrounding area. The result is that groundwater is being depleted at the rate of 1 cm per day or 12 feet per year. Freshwater is available at a depth of 250 feet till 500 feet. Beyond that depth, the water is saline. A technical support unit, set up in collaboration with the Government of Gujarat, is providing training to NGOs working on drought proofing and water conservation in the area.The Programme also emphasises conservation and equitable distribution of natural resources in the villages and through improved agricultural practices.Check dams, percolation tanks, bore-well recharging and “contour-bunding” of fields are already addressing some of these issues, primarily through water harvesting and the raising of ground water levels. A reservoir in one of the villages has been repaired. Efforts to improve agricultural practices involved: demonstrating new technologies, organising exposure visits, and conducting training programmes. The introduction of modern water saving agricultural practices, such as the use of drip irrigation systems, is already promoting water management. Floriculture and vegetable farming is also being encouraged. Health and Hygiene PromotionHealth centres are now operational in three villages and will eventually provide services to 20,000 beneficiaries in eight villages. The clinics are staffed by a visiting doctor and a pharmacist while “Lady Health Visitors” manage day-to-day operations and keep health records. A women volunteer base seeks to ensure service delivery at the household level and that health benefits reach the wider (and dispersed) rural community. This integrated approach of health care delivery extends the impact of health initiatives far beyond curative health care to many of the root causes of ill health, such as female illiteracy, health promotion and disease prevention, nutrition and personal hygiene. The Network is addressing respiratory tract infections and other infectious diseases by raising awareness of the immunisation programme. There has also been marked success in the area of post-natal and antenatal care. Combined, the three villages already boast of over 75 percent coverage. Immunisation programmes for pregnant mothers has achieved 90 percent of its target, while the Pulse Polio coverage for children, in collaboration with government agencies has achieved 95 percent. The response to the Hepatitis B vaccination programme has also been very encouraging.EducationThe Network is also helping to build destroyed and damaged schools. The Mundra School, which was built in 1908, was completely destroyed but is now in the process of being re-built. Earlier, it was a primary school catering to approximately 300 students until class seven, but it will now to become a higher secondary school. Two pre-school day-care centres - planned for Nagalpur and Sinugra village - are currently operating from rented premises. The centres have an average of 40 students each. The pre-schools follow a successful and innovative system of activity-based and child-centred learning processes where teachers function as facilitators to help guide students to learn by observation and group-based activities. Disaster Preparedness and Management CapabilitiesProgramme staff have selected 100 villagers (including women) who will be given intensive disaster management training. This will include preparation for post-earthquake, cyclone and fire situations. The objective of the programme is to help build up, within a short period of time, a mechanism that can respond to natural calamities and help save lives. Results of the training should include better coordination with relief and rescue efforts of the government and humanitarian agencies so as to avoid the common mismanagement that often hampers relief operations following natural disasters. By prioritising measures for vulnerability reduction in a transparent, accountable and inclusive way, the programme aims to shape future disaster response and related development projects in other areas of Gujarat, as well as in other drought prone states. ................
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