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FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Why do we study computers?

Aside from Curiosity

• Awareness

• Knowledge

• Interaction

Where computers are used?

• Graphics

- for creativity

- bar graphs/ pie charts

• Retailing

- bar codes that can be read by computer scanners

• Energy

- energy companies used devices to locate oil, coal, natural gas and uranium.

• Paperwork

- avoids voluminous paper files

• Transportation

- fast delivery

- monitor fluid levels, temperature, & electrical systems

• Law Enforcement

- include national fingerprint files

- computer modeling of DNA that match traces from an alleged criminal’s body.

• Money

- speed up record keeping

- allow banks to offer services

- ATM

• Agriculture

• Government

- forecast weather

- collect taxes

• Education

• Home

• Health and Medicine

• Robotics

• Science/Research/Engineering

• Transportation

NATURE OF COMPUTERS

• Speed

• Reliability

• Storage capacity

Differences of BS Computer Science and BS Information Technology

(from CHED)

BSCS

This course focuses on the basic principles, foundations underlying concepts of computers and in depth knowledge about computing. It also focuses on the development of sophisticated information systems for industries’ needs. You can challenge your imagination, dream up innovations, and design them into reality. You can revolutionize anything. Your creativity is your only limit.

BSIT

Networking can be the main focus of this course. You will become an expert in having computers link-up and interact with one another. From peer networks, to create LAN/WAN. You can create your own global internet system, or apply your talents in innovating ATM’s, and other e-based business applications.

BSCS Career Opportunities

➢ Computer Scientists

➢ Information and Communication Technology Researchers

➢ Systems Analyst

➢ Systems Designer

➢ IT Innovators

➢ Consultant

➢ Programmers

BSIT Career Opportunities

➢ Network Administrators

➢ Systems Engineer

➢ E-based Business Applications Expert

➢ Website/Webpage Developer

➢ Information System Developer

➢ Consultant

➢ Programmer

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

The need to use devices to calculate to keep track of information has long been recognized by man. At some point of antiquity, our ancestors used some objects to represent digits since it is impossible to perform calculations beyond the limited scope of one’s fingers and toes.

The word “to calculate” is derived from the Latin word “calculus” which means “small stones”, suggests that pebbles or beads were used as illustrated by Chinese as early as 1200 A.D. (used in Egypt in 500 BC) for calculating data.

EARLY COUNTING AND CALCULATING DEVICES

• ABACUS – were used by the Chinese around 200 B.C and known as saunpan; while in Japan it was known as “soroban”. It is the first man made computing device made up of beads, by moving the beads that have different positional significance on the rods, it can perform Addition and Subtraction.

The Abacus was so efficient that it spread far and wide and in some lands, it is still in use.

The Abacus met competition as a computing tool in the 17th century. During this era, European thinkers were fascinated by the challenge of making devices to aid in calculations.

• NAPIER’S BONES

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – JOHN NAPIER, a theologian, mathematician and designer of military weapons who discovered LOGARITHMS in 1614.

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1617

DESCRIPTION: consists of segmented rods

FUNCTION(S): an aid to multiplication

PROCEDURE IN USING: consists of segmented rods so that answer to multiplication is found by adding numbers in horizontally adjacent section.

• SLIDE RULE

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – WILLIAM OUGHTRED

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – late 1620s

DESCRIPTION: combined Napier’s Table into a handy device for rapid calculation

FUNCTION(S): Multiplication is done faster.

PROCEDURE IN USING: it operated by sliding one ruler over the other.

MECHANICAL CALCULATING DEVICES

• ARITHMETIC ENGINE better known as PASCALINE

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – BLAISE PASCAL, a French mathematician and experimental physicist, at age 19

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1642

DESCRIPTION: a cigar box sized, patterned after the abacus, but instead of using hands to move the beads or counters, Pascal used pegged wheels.

REASON WHY DEVELOPED: for tax collection problems in France

FUNCTION(S): a mechanical adding machine that could ADD and SUBTRACT numbers up to 8 digits.

PROCEDURE IN USING: perform computation by dialing a number of series of wheels.

• STEPPED RECKONER

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – GOTTFRIED WILHELM VON LEIBNITZ, a German Philosopher and mathematician.

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1674

DESCRIPTION: an improvement of Pascal’s machine which is a form of calculator

REASON WHY DEVELOPED: for his father’s mercantile business

FUNCTION(S): it can add, subtract, multiply, divide and extract square roots.

When the age of industrialization spread throughout Europe, machines became regular fixtures in agricultural and production sites.

• MECHANICAL LOOM

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – JOSEPH MARIE JACQUARD, A Frenchman

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1801

DESCRIPTION: uses punched cards

FUNCTION(S): used to weave fabrics

PROCEDURE IN USING: noting the repetitious nature of the task requires weavers working on looms devised a stiff card with a series of holes punched in it. The card blocked certain threads from entering the loom and let other threads go on to complete the weave. It can weave flower design or any pictures of animals with ease.

The invention was not a computer; its only contribution was the idea that a machine can do repetitious jobs 24 hours a day without subject to boredom.

• PUNCHED TAPE

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – MORSE

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1838

FUNCTION(S): used to record data for processing

The idea of using a punched card to store a pre determined pattern to be woven by the loom ingrained in the mind of Charles Babbage.

• DIFFERENCE MACHINE (DIFFERENCE ENGINE)

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER- CHARLES BABBAGE, a French mathematician

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED-1822

DESCRIPTION: He constructed a demonstration model based on the rotating wheel principle. His preliminary model was made with toothed wheels on shafts turned by a crank. The model was so received that he built a full scale working version.

Enlisting the aid of a prestigious association of scientists in England of the Royal Society, hem was able to get a grant from the British Government to construct a full scale working version. Expected to be finished in 3 years, Babbage however worked on it for 10 years with the engine growing more complex as he modified, enhanced and redesigned it. The British Govt. had decided then to withdraw its financial support.

Despite the setback, Babbage kept going.

• ANALYTICAL ENGINE

Babbage conceived on another machine in 1835.

DESCRIPTION: It can perform all mathematical calculations, store values in its “memory” and perform logical comparisons among values.

He was the first person to conceived that a computing machine must be composed of an input device (he used a card reader), a memory (he called it “The Store”), a central processing unit (he called “The Mill”), and an output device (he used a printer”).

FUNCTIONS: He conceived of a machine that cold direct to work by means of punched cards. The machine could store partial answers which are later used in performing additional operations. The machine could also print the results of its calculations.

It was never built however all that exists of it are reams of plans and drawings and a small portion of the mill and printer built by Babbage’s son.

What was the missing in Babbage’s dream was electronics-because technology at that time has not even thought of electronics.

Charles Babbage is considered as “THE FATHER OF MODERN DAY COMPUTER.

LADY ADA AUGUSTA BYRON –worked with Babbage when she was 27. She helped developed the instructions for doing computations for the analytical engine. She translated Charles ideas and she was better at explaining Charles machine than he was. Her suggestions that punched cards could be prepared to instruct Babbage engine to repeat certain operations has led some people to call her ”THE FIRST COMPUTER PROGRAMMER.”

• SCHEUTZ DIFFERENCE ENGINE

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – PEHR GEORG SCHEUTZ, A Swedish Printer, Inventor and Translator

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1854

DESCRIPTION: A modified version of Babbage Difference Machine

REASON WHY DEVELOPED: A generous advice by Babbage

Babbage finally saw the creation performed in London

DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS

• PUNCHED CARD MACHINES

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – HERMAN HOLLERITH

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1886

FUNCTION: It adopted the punched card concept of Jacquard. It is developed for use by the U.S. Bureau of Census in tabulating and sorting data.

REASON WHY DEVELOPED: Since 1790, the US Congress has required the census of the country’s population be taken every 10 years. The tabulation of the census in 1880 took 7 ½ years because all the counting had to be done by hand. A competition was held to find a way to speed up the counting process. Hollerith won a contract to tabulate the 1890 US census. As a result, the count for 1890 population was announced only six weeks after the census.

PROCEDURE IN USING: The census data were translated into a series of holes in a punched card to represent the digits and the letters of the alphabet and then passed on through a machine with a series of electrical contacts that were either turned off or on depending on the existence or non existence of holes in the punched cards. These different combinations of off/on situations were recorded by machine and represented a way of tabulating the result of the census.

THOMAS J. WATSON – the Founder of IBM.

He had worked for the Tabulating Machine Company. But due to its differences of opinions on how to run the company with Hollerith, he resigned. In 1924, he went to form another company, IBM, and became giant in business market first as a supplier of calculators then as developer of computers.

• MARK 1 (AUTOMATIC SEQUENCED CONTROLLED CALCULATOR )

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – HOWARD AIKEN

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1944

DESCRIPTION: It was 8 feet high and 55 feet long, made of streamlined steel and glass that weighed 5 tons.

FUNCTION(S): It can perform division, multiplication, addition, and subtraction in a specified sequence determined by setting the switches.

REASON WHY DEVELOPED: IBM was not into manufacturing computers, until Howard Aiken convinced Watson to finance a project of building a computer based on Charles Babbage concept. Watson gave him I million US dollar to put up the computer.

Watson however was pessimistic about the device so he just donated it at Harvard University because he thought that the world did not need it at that time..

MARK 1 was the first general-purpose electromechanical computer.

• Atanasoff-Berry Computer

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – Dr. John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1939

DESCRIPTION: The first digital computer that worked electronically. It made use of the base 2 or binary system.

FUNCTION(S): It had the capability of solving simultaneous equations in as many as 24 unknowns with a degree of accuracy.

REASON WHY DEVELOPED: The idea came up to Atanasoff for linking the computer memory and associated logic - the basic concepts for the electronic digital computer.

• COMPLEX NUMERICAL CALCULATOR

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – George Stibitz, a research mathematician with Bell Telephone Lab. and Samuel Williams, a Bell Switching Engineer

FUNCTION(S): subtract, multiply and as well as add complex numbers. This calculator was presented to be used for remote controlled electromechanical computation.

REASON WHY DEVELOPED: Stibitz realized that Boolean Logic (an idea developed by George Boole based on the Binary number system) can be used for circuitry of electromechanical telephone relays.

• Z1-Z4

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – KONRAD ZUSE, an Engineer in Berlin.

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1938

DESCRIPTION: It had a keyboard for feeding problems into it. At the end of calculation, the answer was flashed on a board composed of many little bulbs. Finding out the keyboard as clumsy slow, he was able to develop Z2, where instructions are encoded by punching holes in discarded 35mm film and feeding this to the machine. HE continued with his work and able to complete Z3, a program controlled device based on binary system, the Z4 were used to solve engineering problems of aircraft and missile design.

In 1942, Konrad Zuse with his sometime associate Helmut Scheyer wanted to redesign the Z3 so that it used vacuum tubes rather than electromechanical switches since vacuum tubes has no moving parts.

In about this time, the British were developing a similar machine for the purpose of breaking the German codes in World War 2 . The British intelligence gathered a group of brilliant researchers and sequestered

them at Blatchley Park,a large Victorian estate near London. One of these so called Alan Turing- one of the backroom boys. Some of his ideas where used in building the Colossus- a machine used to intercept enemy messages during the war. The new machine used 2000 vacuum tubes.

Computers that used vacuum tubes are considered part of the 1st gen. Through these computers used vacuum tubes, they were however developed by research teams in an academic setting mostly to see if the machine could be built and not to be sold to the open market. When World War II broke out, countries involved in the war intensified their scientific experiments to develop

When World War 2 broke out, countries involved in the war intensified their scientific experiments to develop new technology. The nation with the more advanced technology had the edge of winning the war. Many projects on computer development went under way simultaneously during the period.

➢ ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER – JOHN ECKERT AND JOHN W. MAUCHLY, working for the Dept. of Defense of United States

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1945

DESCRIPTION: a machine built using electronics at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the Univ. of Pennsylvania .It is the first general-purpose electronic digital computer The ENIAC was built based on Atanasoff’s ABC. When it was built, it consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes, all of them operating simultaneously, 1000 times faster than its mechanical predecessors did.

Reasons why developed: It was a proposal beforehand to the Military that they build a machine that would cut the time needed to produce military artillery and bombing trajectories from 15 minutes. to 30 seconds.

➢ EDVAC (ELECTRONIC DISCRETE VARIABLE COMPUTER)

Year 1952, when University of Pennsylvania completed the EDVAC that computers had reached the stage of Development where an automatic sequence of events could be successfully handled by machines

➢ EDSAC ( ELECTRONIC DELAY STORAGE AUTOMATIC CALCULATOR)

INVENTOR/DEVELOPER: John Von Neuman

YEAR INVENTED/DEVELOPED – 1949

DESCRIPTION: The World’s first-stored program computer in Cambridge University.

FUNCTIONS: the first machine that has the capability to feed information into the computer. It perform computations and write out info at the same time. It contained the first written documentation of a stored program

Reasons why developed: It was a proposal beforehand to the Military that they build a machine that

This first successful incorporation of the stored program concept marked the final major step in the series of breakthrough inspired by war

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

1st Generation Computers ( 1951-1958): The Vacuum Tube

The beginning of computer age can be dated on 06-14-1951.

➢ UNIVAC – Universal Automatic Calculator or Computer- The first General- Purpose Computer to be mass produced by Eckert & Mauchly. Manufactured by Remington Rand Corp.

It can calculate at the rate of 10,000 additions per second.

This marked the beginning of the “First Generation Computers” Computers using vacuum tubes sold to business or research institution.

It used magnetic tapes

➢ IBM 650 – developed by IBM Corp. in 1957. It reads punched cards

The main memory of these computers was either banks of liquid memory (magnetic core) It do not have RAM nor ROM

Programmers at first had to write programs in machine language using numbers - difficult and time consuming.

Vacuum Tubes about the size of a light bulb were used as the internal computer components because thousands of such tubes were required, they generated a great deal of heat causing many problems in temperature regulation and control .

In addition, all tubes had to be working simultaneously they were subject to frequent burn out , and the people operating the computer often did not know whether the problem is in the programming or machine.

2nd Generation Computers ( 1954-1964): The Transistor

In 1947, 3 Bell Lab. Scientists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley developed the transistor, a small device that transfers electronic signals across resistor. (TRANsfer reSISTOR). It is much smaller than vacuum tubes .

Advantages: no more warm up time, consumed less energy, generated much less heat and more faster and more reliable.

In the late 1950s, transistors were incorporated into computers. Another important development was the development of assembly language was developed, then FORTRAN and COBOL.

With transistor, it can perform 200,000 to 250,000 calculations per second.

GRACE HOPPER – invented the first programming language.

3rd Generation Computers (1965-1970): Integrated Circuits

Integrated Circuits –made up of silicon, one of the most abundant element in the earth’s crust found in common Beach sand. The importance of these element to Santa Clara county, 30 miles south of San Francisco, is responsible for the county’s nickname: Silicon Valley which is the principal site for the manufacture of the so-called silicon chip:the IC

It replaces transistors in computers starting 1965. The resulting machine were called 3rd Gen computers.

Advantages: reliability, compactness, and low cost-characteristics of the chips.

The beginning of the 3rd gen was trumpeted by the IBM 360 series (named for full circle service-360 degrees). The System/360 family of computers designed for business and scientific use came in several models and sizes leads to the introduction of families of computer. Perhaps the most far reaching contribution of the 360 series was IBMs decision to to unbindle the software, that is is to sell software separately from the hardware. This approach led to the creation of today’s software industry. Software became more sophisticated.

4th Generation Computers (1978-1988:Present): The Microprocessor

4th Generation was in fact an extension of 3rd Generation technology. In the early part of 3rd Generation, specialized chips were developed for computer memory and logic: the general-purpose processor on a chip otherwise known as Microprocessor which became commercially available in 1971.

In addition, the common applications of microprocessor: digital watches, pocket calculators, PC, copy machines ,TV etc.

Computers today are 100 times smaller than those of the 1st generation and a single chip is far powerful than ENIAC.

Intel began shipping the first microprocessor (complete CPU on a chip) in 1971 with a word of only 4 bits and was called 4004. In 1972, Intel came up with 8008, whose word had 8 bits with a better version in 1973 called as 8080.

5th Generation Computers: Artificial Intelligence

The term 5th Gen. Was coined by Japanese to describe the powerful, intelligent computers they wanted to build by mid 1990’s.

True focus is connectivity, the massive industry effort to permit users to connect their computers to other computers.

FIRST PUTERS

Internal Component: Vacuum tubes

External storage :Magnetic Tape-

For input: Punched Cards

For output :Punched Cards and paper

Programming Language: Machine language

Human operators to set switches

Example: UNIVAC 1

SECOND PUTERS

Internal Component: TRansistors

External storage :Magnetic Core, Magnetic Tape

For input: Punched Cards and Magnetic Tape

For output :Punched Cards and paper

Programming Language: FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Human operators to set switches

Example: HONEYWELL 200

THIRD PUTERS

Internal Component: INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

External storage :IMPROVED DISK STORAGE

For input AND output :MONITOR AND KEYBOARD

Programming Language: Complete operating system

Less involvement of Human operators

Example: Family computers, minicomputer-used commercially, IBM 360

FOURTH PUTERS

Internal Component: MICROPROCESSOR

External storage :MAGNETIC DISK

Programs: Application software for microcomputer

Microcomputer were used-IBM PC

Example: Burroughs B7700 and HP 3000 (minicomputer)

What is a COMPUTER?

- is an electronic machine that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it into useful information (output) and store it away in a secondary storage device for safekeeping or later reuse.

Data – defined as a set of symbols which are used to represent objects, events, or activities, quantities available for processing into information.

Information – is a set of symbols that are organized to become meaningful to people.

It refers to the processed data.

From the definition, it is evident how data flows through the system:

PHASES OF DATA PROCESSING

1. Input – involves collecting, verifying and encoding data into a machine-readable form for the computer using input devices.

2. Processing – computer creates useful information from data through such operations as classifying, sorting, calculating, summarizing, and storing. This includes also the storing of data in the storing devices.

Classifying – identify 1 or more characteristics.

Sorting – arranging or selecting data according to order or rank or according to common characteristics.

Calculating – arithmetical processes w/c are necessary to convert data into a more significant form.

Summarizing – condensing data so that main points are emphasized.

Storing – store information in the computer.

3. Output – processed information is produced or displayed in usable form.

2 kinds:

Hardcopy- anything that undergoes printing

Softcopy – an output seen on screen

Advantages of computers:

fast

accurate

economical (time, money)

offers compact storage

offers intangible benefits

Disadvantages:

relatively high cost of equipment

cost and difficulty of systems design and programming

channeling of work is not spread-out

rely on human

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS:

According to type of processing:

1. Digital Computers – machines that perform mathematical calculations, compare values, and store the results.

Ex. Personal computers

2. Analog computers – computers continuously measures and compares changing values. Their output are usually in the form of readings on dials, or graphs.

Ex. Electrocardiogram

Speedometer of a car

3.) Hybrid Computer – is a special machine which combines the measuring capabilities of both digital and analog computers.

According to size and speed:

1. Supercomputers – fastest and most powerful computer, it is also the most expensive.

- built to process huge amount of information and is used for large quantities of data manipulation.

- Main memory is measured in billion bytes and execute billions of instructions per second.

- Used by government agencies, scientific laboratories and large corporations.

Ex. Weather forecasting computers

2. Mainframe computers – less powerful not as fast and less expensive than supercomputers.

-main memory is measured in terms of millions of bytes and can process millions of data per second.

Ex. BIR mainframes, DCWD mainframes

3. Minicomputers – smaller than mainframes, less memory and less expensive alternative to mainframe.

Ex. Computers used in medium size companies

4. Microcomputers- contain lesser amount of memory and processing capability and less expensive than minicomputers. Also known as personal computers.

Classified according to size:

Desktop Microcomputer

Portable/handheld– ex: laptop, palmtop, handheld pocket computers.

According to Use:

1. General Purpose computers – designed to handle a variety of applications such as word processing, spreadsheets, games, database management, payroll accounts.

Ex. Personal Computers

2. Special Purpose Computer – designed to solve specific problems which are tailored to the needs of a single customer.

Ex. ATM Computer[pic]

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