IB History for RWR High School - Global History



The Vietnam WarWhy did the United States get involved and remain in Vietnam until 1972?How and why did the United States involvement change under each president?How did US involvement in Vietnam impact domestic affairs?To what extent did other countries in the Americas oppose the Vietnam War?Phase One: the First Indochina War (1945-1954) Economic SupportAfter WWII the French wanted to regain control over their Indochina colonies (Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand and Laos). The Vietnamese had fought the Japanese and believed they had the right to self-determination and independence. The United States had given weapons to Ho Chi Minh, the leader of the Viet Minh guerrillas who attacked the Japanese. Ho declared Vietnam independent from France. The French, supported by the British, sent in troops to regain control. Truman was sympathetic to the Viet Minh and did not support the French return of colonial rule. He refused the French’s first request for money to fight the Viet Mihn. However, by 1947, the Cold War was in motion with the Soviet Union’s westward expansion and the Truman Doctrine that outlined containment. In 1949 the Soviets had the A-bomb and Mao Zedong & the CCP won the Chinese civil war. Asia seemed as vulnerable to communism as Europe. The US labeled the Viet Minh as communist and assumed they took orders from Moscow. The US began to show interest in supporting the French, and this increased after the start of the Korean War. Truman concluded that the situation in Indochina, China and Korea showed a new phase in Soviet expansion. Nowhere was the world safe from communism. Truman gave the French $40 million in economic assistance/military equipment. Eisenhower continued the financial support, so that by 1954 the US had given France 2.6 billion, covering well over half of the war cost. By 1954 the French had sent 400,000 troops, but were still losing to Ho Chi Minh. The last straw came in the spring of 1954 at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. 10,000 French troops were surrounded. France pleaded with Eisenhower to send in US troops to save them, but he refused, against the advice of his military leaders and vice president Richard Nixon. It was over for the French, a Geneva Convention met to restore peace and lay the plans for Vietnam unification. Around this time, Eisenhower discussed his Domino theory in relation to Southeast Asia. The thought was that if one country “fell” to communism, they rest would follow suit. The Geneva Accords were signed in July 1954, however the US and South Vietnam did not agree to them and Vietnam was divided at the 17th parallel, with Ho Chi Minh controlling the North and the US supporting the South. Viet Minh forces below the 17th parallel went north and French forces went south. 450,000 refugees fled south, mainly Roman Catholics who feared a communist government, while 50,000 refugees fled to the north. The Geneva Accords also created the independent states of Cambodia and Laos. Elections were scheduled for 1956 to unify Vietnam. Ho was certain to win...the south canceled their elections as Ngo Dinh Diem was not well liked and was seen as a US puppet (he was educated in New Jersey). The CIA supported Diem’s government. The South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) was set up as an Asian version of NATO to create collective security against communist aggression. Phase Two: Advisors and a Propped up RegimeWhen Diem cancelled the election, HO’s guerrilla groups (Viet Cong) began to infiltrate the south. Eisenhower provided equipment, weapons and military advisors to train the South Vietnamese army (ARVN). This began the initial involvement of the US military. By 1957 the Viet Cong began active operations against Diem’s regime, enacting the same tactics that were used against the French: sabotage, guerrilla attacks and retreating into the jungle, controlling the jungle and attacking towns/cities and ARVN military bases. 2,600 government officials had been murdered by 1959 and the Viet Cong controlled most of the countryside. The ARVN were not strong, they were poorly trained and led and unmotivated. The US sent more military advisors, 8,000 by the time Kennedy took office in 1961. It became clear to the US military that without US ground forces; the ARVN would lose the war. There was little love for Diem, who ruled on his own whim and was not the puppet of the US as some had believed. He was a Catholic and severely repressed the Buddhist monks in a population that was nearly 80% Buddhist. Monks protested his repression by self-immolation, setting themselves on fire. As the world saw images of burning monks, people began to wonder who and why the US was supporting Diem, even Kennedy was not a large supporter. Kennedy did not want to look weak on communism after the Bay of Pigs fiasco and being reprimanded like a little boy by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev at Vienna. He committed even more forces to Vietnam and sent VP Johnson on a fact-finding mission. This led to US covert involvement of the coup against, and murder of, Diem and his brother. The US had mistakenly thought they could control the South Vietnamese generals. By the time of the coup the US had 16,000 soldiers stationed there. The coup occurred November 1st 1963, and US policy changed from one of mere advisors to one of escalated support. Kennedy was assassinated a few weeks later in Dallas, Texas on November 22, 1963. Phase Three: US escalation and fighting in South VietnamOn August 2nd, 1964 the USS Maddox was attacked by three North Vietnamese torpedo boats. The three torpedo boats were hit by a US aircraft. On August 4th the Maddox was joined by another destroyer and returned to the same location. That night the Maddox believed it was under attack and fired on radar contacts, but never made visual contact. The US did not respond to the first attack, but did respond to the second one with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. President Johnson asked Congress to pass this resolution to give himself broad powers to support and protect Vietnam under SEATO. Congress approved it with little debate. Many years later, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara admitted that this second attack had not occurred.After the Gulf of Tonkin resolution the US took control of the war in South Vietnam. It would be a limited conflict, with no formal declaration of war and localized to Vietnam. The US military immediately began Operation Rolling Thunder, an air campaign to bomb North Vietnam into submission. It had four major objectives:Boost morale of the South Vietnamese regimePersuade the North to stop supporting communist insurgency in the SouthDestroy North Vietnam’s transportation system, industrial base and air supportStop the flow of men and weapons into South VietnamWithin three years 153,784 bombing missions were flown over North Vietnam while the navy added 152,399. That averaged to approximately 230 a DAY. This led to about 90,000 casualties, of which 72,000 were civilians. Over 860,000 tons of bombs were unleashed on North Vietnam. The US also used helicopters to lift ground troops to remote areas of the jungle and attack enemy strongholds. The Viet Cong countered by attacking US bases and ambushing patrols. Initial support for the war was high to beat the “commies.” But as US casualties increased, the public began to question why were there. Johnson was getting frustrated as well, since the war was cutting into his budget for the Great Society. He had hoped Operation Rolling Thunder would get the US out of the war quickly. He did not count on the tenacity of the Vietnamese. He stated, “I can’t get out, I can’t finish with what I’ve got, so what the hell do I do?” He was even more distraught by Canada’s Lester Pearson who tried to broker a peace talk to end the war. Canada was accepting American draft dodgers as well. When Pearson visited the White House not long after giving a speech suggesting America end the war and enter peace talks, Johnson grabbed Pearson by the lapels and angrily stated, “Don’t piss on my rug. Johnson wanted to finish the war before the 1968 presidential election. It became clear that the air campaign would not win the war alone. By 1966 there were 450,000 soldiers in Vietnam. Meanwhile, the White House told the people they were winning the war and television reports discussed how many Viet Cong casualties there were. Johnson did not want to be the first US president to lose a war against the communists. Phase Four: Public Opinion begins to sway against JohnsonThe American public was being told time and again that the North Vietnamese forces were being ground down and were incapable of launching major attacks. The public needed to be patient. General Westmoreland assured the public and the president the war would be over soon, he just needed more men. In January 1968, everything changed when the North Vietnamese launched the Tet Offensive. The “Tet” is the Vietnamese New Year and normally a ceasefire is observed by both sides. During this time 85,000 North Vietnamese and Viet Cong soldiers infiltrated major cities in South Vietnam and simultaneously struck. They took control of important government institutions (including the US Embassy in Saigon, now named Ho Chi Minh City). They weren’t easily defeated either as it took several weeks to regain control. Everything was broadcast over the TV. Uncensored combat footage showed desperate Americans fighting a determined enemy that was nowhere near ready to give up. Westmoreland asked for 200,000 more men. The Tet Offensive was a major gamble for the Viet Cong. It may have been a defeat for them on the battlefield, but it was a win for them in swinging US public opinion against the war. The defeat of the Tet Offensive was a US victory, as it had significantly weakened the Viet Cong army. Rather than focus on this, the American public only saw the loss of American lives. People wondered how a guerrilla army that they were told was on the verge of collapse could orchestrate such a grand scheme. Anti-war protests were increasing. People chanted outside the White House “Hey hey, LBJ, How many kids have you killed today?” A man even self-immolated himself on the White House lawn. In March 1968, President Johnson announced on television that he would not run for a 2nd term. Johnson suspended the Northern bombing campaigns, which opened the door for peace talks. Johnson’s new hope now was to end the war with peace negotiations to help Democratic candidate Hubert Humphrey. Richard Nixon was running as the Republican nominee and feared an end to the war would hurt his chances of winning the election. He campaigned on a slogan of ending the war and bringing back law and order to the US after the recent violence in the Civil Rights campaigns, public servant assassinations and the counterculture. Nixon told his aide, H.R. Haldeman to “secretly monkey wrench” the peace talks by convincing the South Vietnamese leaders NOT to agree to a deal before the election. Nixon would always deny he had anything to do with it. Haldeman’s notes from the meeting, recently discovered, offer proof of Nixon’s direct connection to the sabotage. Phase Five: Nixon, Vietnamization and an endVietnamization was Nixon’s policy of returning the weight and responsibility of the war back into the hands of the South Vietnamese, called Vietnamization. He would increase the ARVN’s role while gradually withdrawing US ground forces. He sent his chief adviser, Henry Kissinger to negotiate a peace treaty with the North that would permanently divide Vietnam. At the same time, Nixon opened up relationships with China, being the first American President to visit communist China. He supported China’s admission into the UN and negotiated SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) with the Soviets to decrease weapons. This relaxation of tension within the Cold War was known as detente. Nixon tried to use the back channel discussions to put pressure on the Vietnamese to end the war. Talks however dragged on and this led Nixon to escalate the war once more. Heavy bombings of Hanoi and the mining of the Haiphong Harbor brought the North back to the table. In an effort to cut off the Ho Chi Mihn trail, Nixon expanded the bombing into Cambodia and Laos. This was done secretly and only stopped once the American public heard of it and cried out for it to stop. Troops began coming home in 1969 through 1972. The last bombing raid was in August of 1972. The Paris Peace Accords were signed in 1973, which ended US involvement in the war. 190500066421000-18097567373500After a brief lull, fighting erupted again between the North and South in 1975. North Vietnam invaded in March, the ARVN collapsed and Saigon was captured on April 30th. People rushed to get out throught the US Embassy, many were helicoptered out, many others were left behind. The following pictures show people desperate to leave Saigon through the US Embassy and people pushing the Huey helicopters into the ocean to make more room for people to be put on the ship.Social Costs of the Vietnam WarVietnam made the US reconsider its global image and status. Prior to the war, most Americans believed the world looked up to the US and respected the US as the bulwark against communism. By 1968, public support for containment and the Vietnam War was fading fast. A youth counterculture that challenged their parent’s ideals and the status quo demanded social and political reforms. They held protests, sit-ins, music festivals and gatherings with Universities being at the center of the action. Young men burned their draft cards and approximately 40,000 draft dodgers fled to Canada. Muhammad Ali (famous world champion boxer) declared himself a conscientious objector, had his title stripped and boxing license revoked for three years as well as sentenced to jail (though he didn’t serve time in jail). His refusal drew attention to the high proportion of African Americans who were drafted that the racial injustice that existed in the US, stating, “And shoot them for what? They never called me nigger, they never lynched me, they didn’t put no dogs on me, they didn’t rob me of my nationality, rape and kill my mother and father. … Shoot them for what? How can I shoot them poor people? Just take me to jail.”1968 was a tumultuous year. Martin L. King Jr., civil rights leader that inspired a world, was assassinated in April. A few months later, John F. Kennedy’s brother, Robert, who was a strong supporter of Civil Rights, was assassinated as well. Johnson refused to run as the democratic candidate, and at the Democratic convention in Chicago, riots broke out between police and anti-war protesters. The violence was broadcast live on television. Many middle class Americans were not supportive of the youth movement. But, when Walter Cronkite, a trusted and balanced newsman criticized the war, many people began to question it as well. Cronkite stated, after the Tet Offensive, “It seems now more certain than ever that the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in a stalemate...Bit it is increasingly clear to this reporter that the only rational way out then will be to negotiate, not as victors, but as honorable people who lived up to their pledge to defend democracy, and did the best they could.” This was a turning point in public opinion on the war. Until 1968, despite the protest, the majority of Americans believed in the cause to “fight the Reds” and protect democracy. President Johnson stated, “That’s it. If I’ve lost Cronkite, I’ve lost Middle America.” The situation worsened when a company of US soldiers deliberately massacred 350-400 villagers in the My Lai hamlet. The military tried to cover it up, but one of the soldiers went to the press. The American people believed that the US soldiers did not kill innocent people, now what were they to believe in? My Lai provided fresh ammunition for the anti-war movement. Hundreds of thousands of protesters marched on Washington to demand an end to the war. Nixon vowed he would not be swayed by protesters. The radical group, the Weathermen, emerged from this mess, their slogan being, “You don’t need a weatherman to tell you which way the wind is blowing.” In October, they launched a campaign against US imperialism and advocated, mass violence. It was not quickly taken up by the more peaceful anti-establishment groups.95250135001000On April 30th, 1970, Nixon announced the invasion and bombings of Cambodia. The students at Kent State University (Ohio) began a four day protest on May 1st. Property was vandalized and people were arrested. The Ohio National Guard was called to keep the peace. Around 2,000 protesters taunted them; the guard used tear gas to disperse them. The crowd came back and with gas masks and fixed bayonets, the National Guard advanced on the crowd. Without warning, 29 of 77 soldiers fired on the crowd. Nine students were wounded and four were killed. Five days later, 100,000 people went to Washington and student strikes closed over 900 Universities. UW Milwaukee and UW Madison were among those that shut down. The picture to the left shows demonstrators at UW Madison in 1970. On May 14th two students were killed by police at Jackson State University (Mississippi). Nixon blamed the communist radicals for stirring up trouble (maybe he had flashbacks to Venezuela?) New York Mayor, John Lindsey, denounced Nixon and claimed the country was on verge of a civil war. Nixon responded with a pro-war march by New York construction workers. This only added fuel to the anti-war fire, Neil Young released his song “Ohio”. Canadian Opposition to the Vietnam WarLatin American Opposition to the War“C” supported France in 1st Indochina war & participated in Geneva peace talksCanadian forces stationed in Indochina reported on any ceasefire violationsCanada was officially neutral, but gave intelligence info to the USAAt the start, most Canadians supported the USA, government stayed neutral supplying SV with red Cross aidCanada developed new regulations for getting involved in a war:No military alliances - Had to have full support of the peopleOther countries in the region had to support Canada's actionsCanada would not support reestablishing colonialism in any wayAny action must conform to the UN Charter“C” public became more anti-war and protest as the war dragged onPearson gave speech suggesting peace instead of war, angered Johnson“C” supported US anti-war effort by accepting US draft dodgers/deserters (approx. 30-40,000)Canadian companies supplied US military: food, boots, napalm and Agent OrangeApprox. 30,000 Canadians went to the US to volunteer to fightThere is no one unified view of the Vietnam WarCastro supported North Vietnam, and some say Cuban participated in interrogation and torture of US pow’s in VietnamAuthoritarian regimes supported the USA, for being anti-communistMost Latin Americans took a middle road, sometimes supporting South Vietnam to defend itself against the North, sometimes supporting North Vietnam against US actions. Protest movements were organized by University students who identified with the Anti-USA North VietnameseIn Mexico, Pro-Viet Cong societies were establishedCosta Rican gov. Claimed students went to Vietnam to join the Viet CongAs war ended, these protests changed their focus to other US actions of domination-63500685165Many Latin Americans learned from Vietnam that armed struggle COULD be successful, which bolstered socialist-leftist groups in the 1907’s...leading to guerilla movements. Canada accepted refugees from the ear, labeled “boat people” as they did whatever they could to get out. ................
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