Para 1 - Cengage



CHAPTER 6

Recreating America: Independence and a New Nation, 1775-1783

Learning Objectives

After you read and analyze this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify the strengths of the British army at the outset of the Revolutionary War and account for England’s failure to win it quickly.

2. Analyze why France joined the war on the American side and the importance of this decision to an American victory.

3. Explain how different American and British choices during the war might have changed its outcome.

4. Show how white women and African Americans hoped for changes in their respective positions in society and analyze the degree to which their conditions actually changed.

Chapter Outline

I. The First Two Years of War

A. The Battle for Boston

1. The American army at Boston had insufficient arms.

a) Benedict Arnold, aided by the Green Mountain Boys, seized British cannons at Fort Ticonderoga for Boston.

2. General Gage attempted to destroy the American forces surrounding Boston.

a) The misnamed Battle of Bunker Hill led to heavy British casualties and an American retreat.

B. Washington Assumes Command

1. Washington took command of an undisciplined force when he arrived in Massachusetts.

2. William Howe assumed command of British land forces; his brother, Richard, commanded naval forces.

C. The British Strategy in 1776

1. Howe decided to attack in the Carolinas and in the Middle Colonies.

a) He counted on backcountry loyalist sentiment in both regions.

2. British attacks in the South failed.

a) Troop and supply movements were uncoordinated.

b) The American fort at Charleston held.

c) Loyalists found themselves abandoned when the British withdrew from North and South Carolina.

D. Escape from New York

1. The attack on the Middle Colonies focused on New York City.

a) To defend New York, Washington moved his forces south from Massachusetts.

2. The Howes decided not to deliver a knockout punch.

a) After American forces suffered defeat on Long Island, they were allowed to withdraw to New York City.

b) Attacked there, Washington withdrew northward; the British again did not follow up with a full-scale attack.

3. Washington had to contend with plots.

a) General Charles Lee behaved insubordinately, but Washington was still able to withdraw to New Jersey and Pennsylvania.

E. Winter Quarters and Winter Victories

1. On Christmas Eve 1776, Washington successfully attacked the Hessians encamped at Trenton.

a) Half of Washington’s troops reenlisted as a result of this victory.

2. Washington next defeated a British force at Princeton.

3. American morale improved as a result of these two engagements.

a) To sustain morale, Washington also wisely declined to commandeer badly needed supplies from civilians.

F. Burgoyne’s New York Campaign

1. The British occupied Philadelphia in the summer of 1777.

2. The British plan to isolate New England and thereby smash the Revolution failed.

a) Burgoyne, marching his army south from Canada, was defeated at Saratoga by Gates.

b) St. Leger marched his army east through New York State but then retreated.

c) Howe did not know of the plan and did not send an army north from New York City to link up with Burgoyne.

3. U.S. diplomatic efforts in Europe improved as a result of Gates’s victory at Saratoga.

G. Winter Quarters in 1777

1. Washington’s army camped at Valley Forge in the winter of 1777-1778.

a) Congress did not provide adequate supplies; the army suffered bitterly.

b) Most enlisted men were poor and/or humbly born.

2. The Valley Forge encampment proved crucial in forging a winning army.

a) Von Steuben provided the professional military training that was lacking throughout Washington’s army.

3. Howe was replaced by Clinton as British commander in chief.

II. Diplomacy Abroad and Profiteering at Home

A. The Long Road to Formal Recognition

1. Although rival European nations expected the American Revolution to fail, they were more than eager to keep the conflict going as long as possible in order to drain England’s resources.

2. American entrepreneur Arthur Lee worked with Caron de Beaumarchais and Comte de Vergennes to create a firm that provided loans and weapons to American rebels.

a) The French government funded this venture behind the scenes.

3. Franklin warned France of an impending compromise with England; the French therefore signed a treaty with the United States.

B. War and the American Public

1. News of the French treaty led to an outburst of spending.

a) English goods were illegally imported and purchased in abundance on the black market.

2. Corruption and bribery abounded, deeply affecting the quality of army supplies.

3. Hard currency was in short supply.

a) Congress and state governments resorted to printing paper money, causing inflation.

b) Governments were forced to use impressment to find enough soldiers; mutiny and desertion increased.

III. From Stalemate to Victory

A. The War Stalls in the North

1. Fearful of a French naval blockade, Clinton withdrew from Philadelphia to New York City.

a) Washington rallied his troops at the Battle of Monmouth to attack the retreating British, after General Lee had ordered the American forces to retreat.

2. A joint American-French attack on the British at Newport came to an end when the French suddenly withdrew.

3. Indians allied with the British inflicted losses.

a) Attacks in Virginia and Kentucky were inspired by Harry Hamilton.

b) Leading Indian troops, Hamilton captured Vincennes, which was later retaken by George Rogers Clark.

c) In New York State, Chief Joseph Brant defeated John Sullivan’s expedition against Iroquois and loyalist forces.

4. The French fleet withdrew to the Caribbean, forcing Washington into postponing any campaign.

5. Desertion and mutiny increased in the American army because of the inactivity.

B. The Second Carolinas Campaign

1. The British launched a second campaign in the South.

a) Georgia fell to the British with the capture of Savannah.

b) Charleston fell to the British in May 1780; Cornwallis was left in command to capture the rest of South Carolina.

2. Civil war between loyalists and patriots raged.

a) Patriot guerrillas under the command of Francis Marion also attacked the regular British army commanded by Cornwallis.

3. The regular American army fought Cornwallis.

a) The Americans won at Cowpens.

b) Although the Americans lost at Guilford Courthouse, Cornwallis decided to evacuate to Virginia.

C. Treason and Triumph

1. Benedict Arnold plotted to deliver West Point to the British.

2. Washington and the French planned a joint campaign.

a) Washington’s army, joined by French forces, marched south to Virginia; the French navy moved to Chesapeake Bay.

b) Cornwallis moved to Yorktown, where the French navy and American-French army laid siege to his forces.

c) Cornwallis surrendered, ending British hopes of military victory against the Americans.

D. Winning Diplomatic Independence

1. Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay negotiated with Britain for the United States.

a) They wisely disregarded Congress’s orders to be guided by the French.

2. The Treaty of Paris (1783) ended the war.

a) The Americans insisted on (and won) recognition of independence as the precondition for any negotiations.

b) The treaty gave the United States a great deal of territory, but Britain retained Canada.

c) America also won access to the Newfoundland fisheries.

d) Vague terms in the treaty set the stage for future problems between the two nations.

IV. Republican Expectations in the New Nation

A. The Protection of Individual Rights

1. The revolutionary era’s emphasis on the rights of the individual led to significant decisions.

a) Limiting the powers of government was stressed by many.

b) Virginia and other southern states disestablished the Anglican Church.

c) Basic rights (speech, press, assembly, trial by jury, etc.) were included in various state constitutions.

B. Legal Reforms

1. Several legal reforms were spurred by a commitment to the republican belief in social equality.

a) Although not widely used in America, primogeniture and entail were targeted.

2. The passion for social equality, at least in appearance, affected customs and laws.

a) George Washington and his colleagues revised the offending bylaws of the Society of Cincinnati.

b) Pennsylvania and Georgia eliminated all property qualifications for voting among free males.

C. Women in the New Republic

1. Wartime experiences gave women a new sense of independence and responsibility.

a) Many took charge of homes and farms.

b) Some took up arms; others served as spies and saboteurs.

2. In other cases, though, women were victims of abuse by soldiers and guerrillas.

3. “Republican motherhood”—a new concept—defined women as the educators of the next generation and preservers of the republic.

a) This responsibility was defined as a public obligation, not just a family role.

4. Reformers advocated the education of young women.

a) Judith Sargent Murray argued that women were as intellectually able as men.

b) Private academies opened to educate wealthy young women.

D. The War’s Impact on Slaves and Slavery

1. Slaves viewed military service as a means to freedom.

a) Far more joined the British army than the American.

b) Many of these chose to leave America with the British when the war ended.

2. Others attained freedom by escaping to the cities or the backcountry during the war.

3. The revolutionary era’s discussions of freedom led to movements to free the slaves (except in the Lower South).

a) Manumission by individual owners grew during the 1770s, even in the Chesapeake region.

b) The northern states (except Delaware) all passed laws requiring the gradual end of slavery.

E. The Fate of the Loyalists

1. During the war, loyalists fled to areas controlled by the British army.

2. After, many left America when the British evacuated.

a) Wealthier ones settled in England, where they passed into obscurity.

b) Most went to Canada and the Caribbean.

Identifications

Identify the following items and explain the significance of each. While you should include any relevant historical terms, using your own words to write these definitions will help you better remember these items for your next exam.

1. Deborah Sampson

2. Thomas Gage

3. Benedict Arnold

4. amnesty

5. William Howe

6. Battle of Bunker Hill

7. George Washington

8. Richard Howe

9. Hessian troops

10. Battle of Trenton

11. John Burgoyne

12. Horatio Gates

13. Valley Forge

14. Baron Friedrich von Steuben

15. Benjamin Franklin

16. cheap money

17. black market

18. graft

19. Sir Henry Clinton

20. Charles Lee

21. Battle of Monmouth

22. George Rogers Clark

23. Thayendanegea

24. Charles Cornwallis

25. Francis Marion

26. Battle of King’s Mountain

27. Nathanael Greene

28. West Point

29. Yorktown

30. Treaty of Paris

31. republic

32. suffrage

33. almshouse

34. primogeniture

35. entail

36. Mary Ludwig

37. “Republican motherhood”

38. Esther Deberdt Reed

Multiple-Choice Questions

SELECT THE CORRECT ANSWER.

1. American weaknesses during the War for Independence included all of the following EXCEPT

a. underpaid soldiers.

b. officers with little military training.

c. unscrupulous profiteers.

d. no foreign support.

2. Washington moved his army from Massachusetts to New York City because

a. the colonists of Massachusetts were able to protect themselves.

b. supplies necessary to an army were easier to obtain in New York.

c. British strategy focused on New York because it had many loyalists.

d. he anticipated that Burgoyne would march south from Canada into New York.

3. The chief significance of the Battle of Saratoga in 1777 was that it

a. raised the possibility of French support for the Americans.

b. ended the siege of New York.

c. encouraged the Americans to sue for peace.

d. damaged the prestige of the British command structure.

4. Friedrich von Steuben’s chief contribution to Washington’s ragged army was that he

a. helped train and discipline the raw recruits.

b. used his personal wealth to supply troops.

c. headed up the important army engineering operations.

d. lent prestige and respectability to the Continental Army.

5. France decided to support America during its war for independence because

a. France had just gone through its own revolution and sympathized with people who rebelled against tyranny.

b. France’s chief minister had been bribed by American diplomats.

c. Catholics (the French) and Protestants (the English) were still enemies.

d. of French losses to Britain in the Great War for Empire.

6. To meet the problem of insufficient hard currency, Congress

a. raised taxes.

b. printed paper money.

c. abolished the gold standard.

d. coined copper instead of silver money.

7. To fight the war, the British relied on

a. loyalist guerrilla forces.

b. Native American allies.

c. Hessian mercenaries.

d. All of these

8. Which of the following statements regarding the fighting at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781 is accurate?

a. It demonstrated the incompetence of the American army.

b. It proved that George Washington was a military genius.

c. It showed the value of French support for the American cause.

d. It pointed out the superiority of land over naval forces.

9. In negotiating an end to the war, America’s diplomats

a. insisted on Canada’s return to France.

b. gave up all claims for access to the fisheries off Newfoundland.

c. forced the British to recognize American independence as the price for even beginning the negotiations.

d. fought so much with each other that the British were able to take advantage of them.

10. The revolutionary era’s emphasis on protecting the rights of the individual led to

a. granting women full property rights.

b. laws guaranteeing freedom of religion.

c. the abolition of indentured servitude.

d. the disestablishment of churches in all of the states.

11. Among the most obvious attempts to promote economic equality in the immediate postwar period was the movement to abolish

a. slavery.

b. primogeniture.

c. indentured servitude.

d. real estate taxes.

12. Despite the growth of social equality during the revolutionary era,

a. the northern states refused to abolish slavery.

b. entailed estates were revived.

c. loyalists were everywhere barred from citizenship.

d. in almost all states, only free, white men who owned property could vote.

13. The concept of “Republican motherhood” assigned women responsibility for

a. indoor service in the military.

b. transmitting republican values to the next generation.

c. government service at the local level.

d. managing the family’s property.

14. The American Revolution affected slavery by

a. forcing people to question how it contradicted prevalent ideas of freedom and liberty.

b. providing opportunities for many slaves to obtain their freedom by escaping to the British army.

c. beginning the process of abolishing it in the northern states.

d. All of these

15. Loyalists who left America for England

a. in almost all cases eventually returned to the United States.

b. often sank into obscurity.

c. joined the British army in hopes of one day destroying the new American republic.

d. received appointments to government posts as rewards for their faithfulness to Britain.

Essay Questions

1. UNLIKE THE BRITISH GENERALS WHOM HE FACED, GEORGE WASHINGTON WAS NOT A TRAINED, PROFESSIONAL SOLDIER. WHAT, THEN, CAN ACCOUNT FOR HIS SUCCESS AS A MILITARY LEADER?

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: Washington took care not to alienate the civilian population, deciding against using authority given to him by Congress to confiscate supplies. Second, he did the unusual and unexpected. For example, methods of warfare at the time included settling down for the winter in one place and not taking any action. But Washington disregarded such traditions and caught the enemy off guard, successfully attacking the Hessians at Trenton on Christmas Eve and the British soon after at Princeton. These actions improved morale among both soldiers and civilians. Finally, Washington was wise enough to recognize that he needed help, and he was able to work well with the foreigners who could provide it. He relied on von Steuben to train his troops, and he planned joint action with the French, which finally paid off at the decisive Battle of Yorktown.

2. Without foreign assistance, the Americans would have lost the Revolutionary War. Do you agree?

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: If you do, then you ought to first discuss the weaknesses of the Americans in order to show why foreign assistance made so much of a difference. American weaknesses were indeed quite considerable: the loyalists were a potent threat everywhere; the British could count on support from Native Americans and slaves seeking freedom; American troops were untrained and inadequately supplied; paper money steadily lost its value; and corruption was rampant. In the face of all this, the importance of the assistance provided by a foreign volunteer like Friedrich von Steuben becomes apparent. Moreover, Cornwallis could well have escaped by sea at Yorktown had the French navy not been in place to stop him. Finally, the fact that France, Holland, and Spain recognized America gave international legitimacy to the Revolution and undoubtedly boosted the Americans’ morale.

3. Despite the revolutionary era’s talk about liberty and equality, the condition of women and slaves changed little. Do you agree?

DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: The question asks for your opinion. If you choose to argue affirmatively that significant change occurred, you could supply the following as evidence: the wartime experiences of women—running farms and businesses, heading families, sometimes participating as soldiers, spies, and saboteurs—made them independent as never before; the concept of “Republican motherhood” assigned women a new civic role; a substantial number of slaves gained freedom; manumission grew in the North, in Virginia, and in Maryland; and all but one northern state passed laws to gradually abolish slavery.

Evidence, on the other hand, that there was little actual change for women and slaves abounds: married women still did not have property rights; women could not vote; and laws gradually abolishing slavery in the North affected only a small number of the nation’s slaves because the majority lived in the South.

Map Exercise

After examining Maps 3.2, 3.3, 4.2, 6.1, and 6.2 in your textbook, explain why the colony of New York figured prominently as a theater of military operations during both the French and Indian War and the Revolutionary War. Why did the Connecticut River Valley not play an important role like New York’s Hudson River Valley?

Individual Choices

Deborah Sampson

To answer the following questions, consult the Individual Choices section at the beginning of the chapter.

1. Describe Deborah Sampson’s family background.

2. Why did she enlist in the Continental Army—an unusual choice for a woman during the Revolution?

3. How was the truth of her gender discovered?

4. How did she prove herself to be a rebel even after the Revolutionary War?

5. How did Deborah Sampson demonstrate the unexpected impact of the Revolution on an ordinary person’s life?

Individual Voices

Examining a Primary Source: Esther Deberdt Reed Glories in the Usefulness of Women

To answer the following questions, consult the Individual Voices section at the end of the chapter.

1. Identify Esther Deberdt Reed.

2. Do you think Reed is challenging the notion that women are constitutionally, or naturally, weak and incapable of making decisions and acting on them? Or is she saying that women are decisive and competent only in times of great crisis?

3. If you were opposed to the activities Reed was engaged in, what arguments would you make against this type of female activism?

4. Male revolutionary leaders often drew analogies between their choices and actions and those of biblical heroes and leaders of the Roman republic? Why do you think Reed referred to the women of the Bible and ancient Rome?

5. Why was liberty so important to women?

RUBRIC: Conduct further research on the role of women in the American Revolution and analyze their previously unrecognized contributions. Use that information to complete the following rubric. Why do you think it has taken historians and Americans so long to recognize these contributions? What does this delay tell us about American society during the revolutionary era?

|WOMEN IN THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR |BACKGROUND |NOTABLE CONTRIBUTION(S) |LONG-TERM EFFECTIVENESS |

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Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions

1. D. BECAUSE THIS STATEMENT IS NOT TRUE, IT IS THE CORRECT CHOICE. FRANCE, HOLLAND, AND SPAIN SUPPORTED AMERICA.

a. Because this statement is true, it is not the correct choice. American soldiers could not look forward to receiving wages.

b. Because this statement is true, it is not the correct choice. See pages 155 and 159.

c. Because this statement is true, it is not the correct choice. Corruption, graft, and suppliers who cheated were not unusual.

2. c. The British hoped to capitalize on the presence of many loyalists in the Middle Colonies. See page 154.

a. The British withdrew from Massachusetts in July 1776; there was no longer any need for protective forces there. See page 155.

b. Washington’s decision to move to New York City reflected his correct understanding of British strategy. See pages 154-156.

d. Burgoyne’s invasion from Canada toward New York City was not yet envisioned; it began a year later.

3. a. See page 159.

b. New York had fallen to the British a year before the Battle of Saratoga.

c. Although the British government offered a peace plan after their loss at Saratoga, the American Congress rejected a return to colonial status. See page 161.

d. The major impact of the American victory was to create the possibility that France would align with the Americans. See page 159.

4. a. He was an excellent drillmaster. See page 160.

b. Penniless, he had left his homeland as a bankrupt. See page 160.

c. See page 160.

d. His contribution was far more concrete than mere image building; he turned the undisciplined American recruits into a well-trained force. See page 160.

5. d. France hoped to regain some of the territory and international status that it had lost to England during the Great War for Empire. See page 161.

a. The French Revolution did not begin until the late 1780s.

b. If anything, the Comte de Vergennes wavered, taking time to decide what to do. See page 161.

c. Although true, religious considerations did not determine foreign policy in this instance. Considerations of empire did. See page 161.

6. b. Congress resorted to printing paper currency as the supply of hard currency fell. See pages 162-163.

a. Congress did not resort to this method. See pages 162-163.

c. This did not exist. See pages 162-163.

d. Congress had no hard currency to speak of, whether gold, silver, copper, or any other metal. See pages 162-163.

7. d. Because a, b, and c are true, this is the correct choice.

a. Although this statement is true, it is not the correct choice. The British relied on guerilla loyalists in the South.

b. Although this statement is true, it is not the correct choice. Many Native American tribes supported the British side.

c. Although this statement is true, it is not the correct choice. One of Washington’s most famous successes came when he surprised the Hessian troops camped at Trenton, New Jersey, on Christmas Day in 1776.

8. c. The French army and navy were crucial elements in the victory over the British at Yorktown. See pages 167-168.

a. The Americans performed admirably. See pages 167-168.

b. The decision to go after the British at Yorktown was made by the French general. Washington had to go along with his plan. See pages 167-168.

d. A combined American-French land army and the French navy won the victory. See pages 167-168.

9. c. The American delegation declared that this was their precondition to any negotiations at all. In other words, they refused to negotiate for American independence. See page 168.

a. They hoped the British would give it up but settled for the Northwest (then part of Canada)—for the United States, not for France. See page 168.

b. On the contrary, the United States won unlimited access to the Newfoundland fishing grounds. See page 168.

d. There is no reason to conclude that Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay did not work well together. See page 168.

10. b. Virginia led the way in its 1786 Statute of Religious Freedom; other states followed suit. See page 169.

a. A married woman’s property belonged to her husband, and there is no evidence that this changed. See page 170.

c. Along with the powers that masters had over the lives over their indentured servants, there is no evidence for abolition. See page 169.

d. Although Virginia and other southern states moved to disestablishment, the New England states did not separate church and state until the 1800s. See page 169.

11. b. The right of the eldest son to inherit his father’s entire estate was abolished wherever it existed. See page 170.

a. The movement to abolish slavery was an outgrowth of the Revolutionary era’s emphasis on liberty rather than on economic equality. See pages 173-174.

c. There is no evidence of a movement like the one to abolish slavery.

d. No such reform was attempted. See page 170 for a discussion of the protection of property rights in the Revolutionary era.

12. d. Only Pennsylvania and Georgia abolished all property qualifications for voting by free white males. See pages 169-170.

a. With the exception of Delaware, they all adopted programs of gradual emancipation of the slaves. See page 175.

b. Laws requiring the entail of estates were abolished wherever they existed. See page 170.

c. In fact, some returned from exile to their former homes. See page 175.

13. b. See page 172.

a. Although a small number of women performed some kinds of military service during the Revolution, the concept did not include this. See page 172.

c. For what it did include, see page 172.

d. Although women had done so during the Revolution while their husbands were away fighting, the concept did not include this. See page 172.

14. d. Because a, b, and c are true, this is the correct choice. See pages 173-174.

a. Although this statement is true (see pages 173-174), it is not the correct choice.

b. Although this statement is true (see pages 173-174), it is not the correct choice.

c. Although this statement is true (see pages 173-174), it is not the correct choice.

15. b. Many passed their days in humble circumstances and sank into social insignificance. See page 175-176.

a. Many remained in England, where they found themselves socially inconsequential in contrast to their positions in America. See page 175-176.

c. There is no evidence for this. See page 175-176.

d. There is no evidence for this. See page 175-176.

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