Lea Ogard - University of Michigan



Orientation for Newly Arriving Immigrants to the United States

December 3, 2007

SWK 646

Fall 2007

SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM:

Immigration is a very sensitive topic of contention within our country; however, for the people who are immigrating legally or are fleeing their native countries as refugees, they are often not provided with necessary services and community supports to make a successful transition into a new country with a different culture and belief system. Current policies do not provide new immigrants with a solid basis on which to build their new lives to be successful citizens who can contribute to the betterment of society. And due to this lack of support and assistance, the current political realm is setting new immigrants up for failure and life-long dependency on the social welfare system. This then fosters prejudices and stereotyping of immigrants, which only furthers their lack of access to necessary social service supports.

Immigration is a very important topic in the United States as the number of immigrants is increasing significantly each year. To illustrate this point:

During the 1990s, an average of more than 1.3 million immigrants — legal and illegal — settled in the United States each year.   Between January 2000 and March 2002, 3.3 million additional immigrants have arrived.  In less than 50 years, the U.S. Census Bureau projects that immigration will cause the population of the United States to increase from its present 288 million to more than 400 million. (Center for Immigration Studies [CIS], 2007)

Because the immigrant population is increasing so rapidly and is expected to increase even more so over the next several years, it is necessary to assess the current policies and determine how they are affecting not only immigrants, but also other citizens of the United States.

The media perpetrates many myths about immigrants and how their presence in the United States affects the country. There are various myths that create prejudices, which develop into discrimination against immigrants, one of which is that immigrants come to this country to use up our welfare assistance. This myth is indeed false in that:

immigrant labor force participation is consistently higher than native-born, and immigrant workers make up a larger share of the U.S. labor force (12.4%) than they do the U.S. population (11.5%).   Moreover, the ratio between immigrant use of public benefits and the amount of taxes they pay is consistently favorable to the U.S.  In one estimate, immigrants earn about $240 billion a year, pay about $90 billion a year in taxes, and use about $5 billion in public benefits.  In another cut of the data, immigrant tax payments total $20 to $30 billion more than the amount of government services they use. (Justice for Immigrants, 2007)

However, despite the fact that they are not using up all of the United States’ welfare assistance, many immigrants do need public assistance to supplement earnings made as they are often exploited for their labor and not given a fair wage. They are left with unmet needs as well because they are not educated on the various resources available to them. And because they are not being taught or guided in how to maneuver through various systems, they are often excluded from society. They are not taught how to navigate through the school system, the legal system, the social system, etc., which then sets them up for failure and dependency.

The issue that many people raise to oppose immigration issues is that of language. Many people in the United States base their argument against immigration on the contention that they do not speak English. However, many of the immigrants who come to the United States do want to learn to speak English; however the issue is that it is difficult for immigrants to access programming in which they can learn to speak English fluently. “Within ten years of arrival, more than 75% of immigrants speak English well; moreover, demand for English classes at the adult level far exceeds supply” (Justice for Immigrants, 2007). The United States has always been a country of immigrants; immigrants established the United States and it has always been advertised as the “land of opportunity.” Therefore, when people immigrate legally, there should be increased accessibility in English classes to foster their acculturation and their acclimation.

Catholic Charities offers a six-month “orientation” to the United States to refugees, but not for immigrants. However, this orientation does not provide these individuals with the appropriate education of how to access community resources nor how to be sustainable and self-sufficient within this society. There are no English classes for these newly arriving refugees and/or immigrants, nor are they taught how to navigate a grocery store or how to use the public transportation systems. There is no education on the welfare system, or on the guidelines and requirements of these systems; this then results in benefits being cancelled without an understanding of why because there was never an explanation of the eligibility of such benefits. New immigrants are not provided with information on the school system, nor on the rights of their children with special needs. They are not educated on their personal rights as members of a new society. All of these factors, among others, contribute to a population without the personal resources to have a successful transition into their new lives.

Likewise, immigrants are not provided with any transitional assistance either. If they do receive some sort of assistance, it only provides them with a very brief overview of certain systems, similar to the aforementioned refugee populations. If they are not provided with an adequate education and with proper assistance to begin their new lives on solid ground, then the political and social climates of the United States are only perpetuating the controversy and stereotyping of immigrant populations. Our current policy is setting them up to be dependent on these social service programs and then we criticize them for using needed resources and benefits. If policies do not change as they relate to immigration, immigrants within the United States will continue to not have necessary access to needed resources or services, and thus become dependent.

PAST POLICY:

Although legislation regarding immigration dates back to 1790, this examination on

immigration policy will begin in 1981. In the Act of August 13, 1981, there were specific

provisions of “items restricting the access of aliens to various publicly-funded benefits. Such

immigration-related provisions, included:

a. Precluded the Secretary of HUD from making financial assistance available to any alien unless that alien is a resident of the United States by virtue of admission or adjustment as a permanent resident alien, refugee or asylee, parolee, conditional entrant, or pursuant to withholding of deportation. Alien visitors, tourists, diplomats, and students were specifically excluded.

b. Severely restricted eligibility of aliens to Aid to Families with Dependent Children. (U.S. Citizen and Immigration Services [USCIS], 2007)

Perhaps one of the most important policy actions recently was in 1996 through the

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of August 22, 1996. It’s

provisions included barring legal immigrants:

from obtaining food stamps and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and established screening procedures for current recipients of these programs…[from] entering the U.S. after date of enactment from most federal programs for 5 years…provided states with broad flexibility in setting public benefit eligibility rules for legal immigrants by allowing states to bar current legal immigrants from both major federal programs and states programs… increased responsibility of the immigrants…barred ‘not qualified aliens’ from most federal, state, and local public benefits…and required INS to verify immigration status in order for aliens to receive most federal public benefits. (USCIS, 2007)

Throughout the years of legislation relating to immigration, it has increasingly been used to place more limitations on immigrants. There is a tightening of the international borders to limit people entering the United States, and then there are various hoops that immigrants have to jump through in order to establish legal residency and citizenship. The legislation and policy of the past few decades has been used to make it even more difficult for immigrants to acquire employment and to have access to other services. As if it is not hard enough to enter into a foreign country without an understanding of the culture or of how the system works, immigrants are faced with obstacle after obstacle to establish a new life.

Through the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of September 30, 1996, policy changes were made that created an even more difficult atmosphere for immigrants. Within this act, the number of INS investigators was increased to monitor employment of immigrants and other aliens (USCIS, 2007). It also became more specific in the types of documents that can be used to show employment eligibility and identity. These provisions really limited immigrant’s access to employment opportunities, despite their legal status. It requires them to go through additional processes to ensure proper documentation and to prove their legality in this country. This policy also increased restrictions on benefits for aliens as well. It established additional procedures for proof of citizenship in order to receive federal public benefits; it also requires verification of immigration status for purposes of Social Security and also for higher education assistance (USCIS, 2007). It also provides states with the authority to limit assistance to aliens in providing general cash public assistance. Provisions in this act also included more criminal definitions for immigrants and illegal aliens as well. These acts shifted the mindset of immigration to a more negative perspective, including criminality and terror. Additional provisions include requiring educational institutions to “collect information on foreign students’ status and nationality and provide it to INS, tightened restrictions regarding physicians’ ability to work in the United States” (USCIS, 2007).

The National Research Council has estimated that the “net fiscal cost of immigration ranges from $11 billion to $22 billion per year…the net deficit is caused by a low level of tax payments by immigrants, because they are disproportionately low-skilled and thus earn low wages, and a higher rate of consumption of government services, both because of their relative poverty and their higher fertility” (CIS, 2007). This fact seems contradictory to the previous fact from the Justice for Immigrants organization. The number of immigrants depending on public assistance is probably disproportionate to the overall population, although they do represent a larger population of employees in the United States. However, because they are not paid fair wages, they do not earn enough income to properly support themselves and their dependents. Therefore, if needed programming and education were provided to the immigrant populations in the United States, perhaps they would be able to access needed resources and not need public assistance.

CURRENT POLICY:

When immigrants come to the United States, there are organizations that assist with the legal aspect of citizenship and legality; however, not necessarily with social services. On the menu of services available to new immigrants, none are to assist them with leaning how to navigate through the various systems. Whether they are being systematically excluded from such assistance programs or not, they are not being helped in fundamental ways to assist them with learning a new culture and a new country. Even if they are not being systematically excluded from social services, many social services are not equipped in being able to work with populations of immigrants due to language barriers, lack of cultural competence, or lack of understanding of cultural nuances and needs, etc.

U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, through the Department of Homeland Security has a handbook of resources for new immigrants that includes: finding housing, finding employment, taxes, brief overviews of federal benefit programs, education options, etc.; however, there is not explicit assistance with how to maneuver through the system and how to find needed resources (USCIS, 2007). This department is a public sector through the federal government; thus the federal government funds this policy, as immigration is national issue. The federal government delivers this service as well because they create the handbook and it can be ordered through their website. This does not cost much money because the people accessing the handbook are required to pay for it. The only costs to the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services would be in maintaining the website and in ensuring that the documents are translated into needed languages.

Likewise, the independent organization called the United States Immigration Support also has a handbook entitled, ‘The Newcomers Guide to the United States,’ with information on visa Information, drivers license, Social Security cards, healthcare information, banking, employment, starting a business, education, etc. (U.S. Immigration Support, 2007). This is a private non-profit organization that simply offers a database of all needed documentation for immigrants. They deliver the service through their website so it is fairly accessible to immigrants who need such documents. Similar to the handbook of the USCIS, the only cost would be in maintaining the website and perhaps providing certain copyrighted documents.

The goals for the handbook and pamphlets available through these departments and organizations are positive in theory. It is good that these resources are offered in many languages and that they are accessible through the internet. These handbooks and pamphlets are fairly inexpensive and can be downloaded through the internet quite easily. The implementation is easy as once immigrants have these documents, they can just refer to them as needed. However, in application, these resources only offer limited assistance. They provide very little information on the topics included and they do not describe specifics in how to maneuver through various systems. These pamphlets assume that these immigrants are coming to the United States with a certain base of experience and knowledge to be able to read this pamphlet and to be able to successfully apply it. However, it is important to take into account why immigrants come to the United States; many of the Latino immigrants come to the United States due to civil unrest, violence, political problems, lack of opportunity, etc. When they arrive to the United Sates, it would be helpful for the immigrants to have a program to participate in to acquire needed acclimation assistance to learn about the culture of the United States, to learn about the social services available to them, to learn how to shop in a grocery store, learn basic words in English, etc. The most basic needs of these immigrants are not provided for when they first arrive, which then ultimately sets them up for failure and having unmet needs. However, because of all of the laws and policies that are in place that make it difficult for immigrants to succeed, they are really faced with a lack of opportunity and no hope for freedom, which were probably the concepts that enticed them to come the this country in the first place.

Currently, in Congress, there are various bills being proposed relating to immigration. One of which is the HB 308 that wants “to require in specified situations the verification of immigration status of persons who are not United States citizens, to impose state income taxes at a rate of six per cent per annum on the compensation of specified independent contractors who fail to document such verification, and to restrict the employment, transport, post-secondary education benefits, driver's licenses and identification cards, and receipt of public benefits of persons who are not legal residents of the United States” (Capital Advantage, 2007). This would policy would be funded through the federal government; however, it would probably be enforced by the state government as it deals with the state income taxes. However, the local government would probably enforce some of it as well through the license bureau and through the Job and Family Services. This would probably cost the a significant amount of money as it would include creating specific guidelines of accepted documentation, but then employing people to monitor and verify documentation and then to make and take reports when there are violations. Filtering access to employment, transportation, and education would be time consuming and require a lot of bodies to process documents.

Another bill is the S.774, entitled Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors Act of 2007. It is intended to “amend the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 to permit States to determine State residency for higher education purposes and to authorize the cancellation of removal and adjustment of status of certain alien students who are long-term United States residents and who entered the United States as children, and for other purposes” (Govtrack.us, 2007). This would be a beneficial bill to pass as it relates to assisting immigrants in improving their self-sufficiency through education. This bill would allow children of aliens to be able to obtain a higher education and have a chance at increasing their success. The funding sector for this policy would be the public sector through the state. The states would determine residency and then authorize eligibility for this service. This program would cost a significant amount of money to be able to process all documentation submitted and then to review eligibility for each individual.

The goals of these policies is to protect the legal citizens of the United States and to ensure that only legal immigrants are benefiting from the economy and other services. The cost is significant, as it requires much monitoring. The allocation is extensive because they are issued either by the federal or state public sectors; therefore, they have much access in being able to see over such a policy. Similarly, because of these policies being through the federal and state sectors, the implementation can be broad as they have a large jurisdiction. The cons of these policies are that they are limiting services and resources for immigrants; they are placing more restrictions on immigrants, which is creating barriers in accessing needed services. The costs are large, which takes away from funding that could be used more productively in providing needed supports to immigrant populations. Although the education bill has a positive agenda, it still requires immigrants to present very specific documentation and information. HB 308 places greater restrictions on foreign-born persons in being able to access employment and other services.

There is so much time and energy spent on increasing border control and in restricting immigration; and then there is discrimination of all foreign-born persons because of the concept of them taking “American jobs.” The discrimination continues even more so because immigrants are perceived to be dependent on social services and the welfare system. Perhaps it would be more beneficial to spend time implementing assistance programs in assisting the legal immigrants who are already here in the United States and in teaching them to be self-sufficient rather than in need of specific social services or other assistance for which they currently do not have much access. The energy spent by the government to keep people out of our country and in labeling foreign-born persons as criminals and terrorists could be more productive if spent in empowering people to be productive participants in the society of this country and in working to help people be self-sustainable.

PROPOSED POLICY:

In order for immigrant populations to be self-sufficient and successful participants of the United States society, there is a need to offer a more comprehensive “orientation” to our country for the immigrant and refugee populations. I would amend the current legislation S. 774 to not only address higher education needs, but also to include programming for immigrants that would assist them in their acculturation and acclimation to a new country. We need to ensure that while new immigrants are adjusting to a new country we initiate our assistance programs with the notion of them ultimately being self-sustainable and not dependent on the system. Denise Burnette wrote an article addressing the special needs of Latino grandparent caregivers and predictors of unmet needs. Her study found that Latinos in the United States had unmet service needs, especially relating to “information and support services,” as well as affordable housing, financial assistance, and translation services (Burnette, 1999, p.28). The most frequent named barrier to service use was “lack of knowledge about available services…ineligibility, unaffordability, and language and cultural barriers” (Burnette, 1999, p.28). Therefore, an orientation or assistance program for immigrants would be helpful to address these unmet needs and to teach or coach immigrants how to access needed resources.

Included in this, immigrants need to have orientations in their native languages to ensure an understanding of the policies being explained to them and to ensure a clear comprehension of the limitations and requirements of social services. They need to be shown how to obtain housing, food, and clothing, not only initially, but in the future as well. They need to be shown and be taught how to navigate the various systems of education, health, legal, social, economic, etc. The orientations should be at least nine months as to ensure sufficient time to teach and coach immigrants in all areas. There should be at least six months of guiding them and then setting them up with proper services, but then with additional time to be able to coach and refine skills to ensure they feel confident with being able to maneuver through society. The handbooks and pamphlets created by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services and the United States Immigration Support are helpful on some level, but are not necessarily helpful in assisting immigrants with being successful long term. Burnette researched the areas of service use by Latino immigrants and their subsequent unmet needs and found that it would be more helpful to immigrants to have assistance in the aforementioned areas rather than just a brief overview of the possible benefits or assistance programs as outlined by such pamphlets by these agencies.

Perhaps these orientations should be funded through the United States Department of Homeland Security, through their department of U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, which is a federal public sector. It could also be done in collaboration with the independent organization called the United States Immigration Support, which is a private local sector. They can fund this proposed policy as they are already very involved in immigration issues and if they are wanting to address immigration and the subsequent effects, they would be willing and invested into collaborating in this effort in delivering the service as well. If our country can provide new immigrants with a proper orientation and set them up with appropriate services to promote self-sustainability, they would have more of a chance of being self-sufficient and not requiring as much long-term assistance. Their most basic needs would not be left unmet and perhaps it would alleviate some of the criticisms of immigrants.

The cost to implement this orientation program would be considerable, as it would require training people in providing service in a cultural and linguistic competent manner. There would need to be various orientation groups to accommodate the various languages of the immigrants coming to the United States and would also need to be implemented numerous times throughout the year as new waves of immigrants arrive. And because the proposed orientation is almost a year long, it is very time consuming and would require many persons to implement the program and then to also provide extensive coaching to the newly arriving immigrants.

The pros of this proposed policy are many in my opinion. If there could be an orientation to immigrants, they would ultimately be more self-sufficient and successful in their transition to a new country. It would assist them with accessing needed supports and not be left with as many unmet needs. It would cost a good amount of money, but it would be worth it as the immigrants would be able to be more self-sustainable and thus less dependent on social welfare benefits. The allocation of services would be able to services a large population, which would improve the overall situation for all immigrants coming to the United States. Since the implementation would be through the government and an independent organization, they can monitor the implementation and the evaluation of the program to ensure its success and benefit to the immigrant populations. A con for this policy proposal is that it would require a lot of time to develop the programming and also in implementing it. The coaching of the immigrants would be very extensive and require much dedication on behalf of the coach. The price is justifiable with how the program would benefit the immigrants long term; however, it would be a considerable amount of money, which people would argue could be used for better things. The implementation of this proposed policy is very intensive and requires a high-fidelity service, which may be very difficult to implement long term. However, I believe the pros outweigh the cons in that if an orientation of sorts exists to help newly arriving immigrants, they will be lead to a good start in their acclimation and adjustment to a new country.

Also, it may be argued that immigrants may not even want such services; however, in working with a large immigrant population, I have noticed a consistent need for specific resources and social supports that are currently lacking. They feel disconnected from society and left with unmet needs. But more than that, they feel helpless because they don’t even know how to access needed resources or supports. However, if an immigrant did not want to participate in such a program, it could be optional, but I feel that once they began to realize they have unmet needs, they would seek out the orientation program. However, due to the current political and social climate surrounding immigration in today’s society, this proposed policy probably wouldn’t be accepted. There is such a negative aura around immigration issues that the general public would not support such a policy change. But one can always hope for the betterment of human kind!

KEY ORGANIZATIONS/INDIVIDUALS:

Mark Krikorian

Executive Director

Center for Immigration Studies

1522 K Street N.W., Suite 820

Washington, DC  20005-1202

Phone: (202)466-8185

Fax: (202)466-8076

Email: center@

Website:

Nancy S. Anthony

Chairman, Board of Directors

Federation for American Immigration Reform

1666 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 400

Washington, DC 20009

Phone: (202)328-7004

Fax: (202)387-3447

Email: info@

Website: site/PageServer

Sr. Jane Burke, SSND

National Manager

Justice for Immigrants: A Journey of Hope

The Catholic Campaign for Immigration Reform

United States Conference of Catholic Bishops

Migration and Refugee Services

3211 Fourth Street, NE

Washington, DC 20017-1194

Phone: (202)541-3224

Fax: (202)722-8755

Email: justiceforimmigrants@capwiz.

Website:

Ralston H. Deffenbaugh, Jr.

Presdient

Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service

700 Light Street

Baltimore MD 21230

Phone: (410)230-2700

Fax: (410)230-2890

Email: lirs@

Website:

Douglas Rivlin

Director, Communications/Media

National Immigration Forum

50F Street NW, Suite #300

Washington, DC 20001

Phone: (202)347-0040

Email: media@

Website:

Arnoldo García

Director, Immigrant Justice & Rights Program

National Network for Immigrant and Refugee Rights

310 8th Street, Suite 303

Oakland, CA 94607

Phone: (510)465-1984 ext. 305

Fax: (510)465-1885

Email: agarcia@

Website:

Juan Salgado

President

The Illinois Coalition for Immigrant and Refugee Rights

55 E. Jackson Blvd, Suite 2075

Chicago, IL 60604

Phone: (312)332-7360

Fax: (312)332-7044

Email: jsalgado@

Website:

Dr. Emilio T. Gonzalez

Director

U.S.Citizen and Immigration Services through the U.S. Department of Homeland Security

850 S. Street

P.O. Box 82521

Lincoln, NE 68508

Phone: (800)375-5283

Email: uscis.webmaster@

Website: portal/site/uscis

Senator Richard Durbin (D, IL)

Democratic Senator from Illinois

United States Congress

Washington Office:

309 Hart Senate Office Building

Washington, D.C. 20510-1304

Phone: (202)224-2152

Fax: (202)228-0400

[pic]Main District Office:

230 S. Dearborn St., Ste. 3892

Chicago, IL 60604

Phone: (312)353-4952

Fax: (312)353-0150

Website: durbin.

Prakash I. Khatri

Citizenship & Immigration Ombudsman

U.S. Department of Homeland Security

Washington, D.C. 25528

Phone: (202)282-8000

Email: Webmaster.Ice@

Website: index.shtm

U.S. Immigration Support

511 Avenue of the Americas #45

New York, NY 10011

Fax: (646)792-3296

Email: info@

Website:

GLOSSARY

Alien: Any person not a citizen or national of the United States.

Immigrant: A person who moves to another country to take up permanent residence.

Immigration Act of 1990: “increased the limits on legal immigration to the United States, revised all grounds for exclusion and deportation, authorized temporary protected status to aliens of designated countries, revised and established new nonimmigrant admission categories, revised and extended the Visa Waiver Pilot Program, and revised naturalization authority and requirements” (USCIS, 2007).

Immigration and Nationality Act: “This act, along with other immigration laws, treaties, and conventions of the United States, relates to the immigration, temporary admission, naturalization, and removal of aliens” (USCIS, 2007).

Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA): “was passed in order to control and deter illegal immigration to the United States. Its major provisions stipulate legalization of undocumented aliens who had been continuously unlawfully present since 1982, legalization of certain agricultural workers, and sanctions for employers who knowingly hire undocumented workers, and increased enforcement at U.S. borders” (USCIS, 2007).

Lawful Permanent Resident: “Any person not a citizen of the United States who is residing the in the U.S. under legally recognized and lawfully recorded permanent residence as an immigrant” (USCIS, 2007). Also known as "Permanent Resident Alien," "Resident Alien Permit Holder," and "Green Card Holder."

Migrant: “A person who leaves his/her country of origin to seek residence in another country” (USCIS, 2007).

Permanent Resident Alien (aka Immigrant): “An alien admitted to the United States as a lawful permanent resident” (USCIS, 2007).

Refugee: Any person, who, owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of his or her nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling, to avail himself or herself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his or her habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it (United Nations International Law, 2007).

Undocumented immigrant: A person who is in a country without the permission of that country's government. Such persons are called "undocumented" because they lack the required paperwork (Journey of Hope, 2007).

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Burnette, D. (1999, January). Custodial Grandparents in Latino Families: Patterns of Service Use

and Predictors of Unmet Needs. Social Work, 44 (1), 22-33.

Capital Advantage LLC. (2007). . Fairfax, VA: Capital Advantage LLC. Retrieved

November 3, 2007, from .

Center for Immigration Studies. (n.d.). Center for Immigration Studies. Washington, D.C.:

Center for Immigration Studies. Retrieved November 17, 2007, from .

Department of Homeland Security. (2003). U.S. Citizen and Immigration Services. Washington,

D.C.: Department of Homeland Security. Retrieved November 3, 2007, from

.

Justice For Immigrants. (2007). Justice for Immigrants. Washington, D.C.: Justice for

Immigrants. Retrieved November 3, 2007, from .

Lutheran Immigrant and Refugee Services. (2007). Lutheran Immigrant and Refugee Services.

Baltimore, MD: Lutheran Immigrant and Refugee Services. Retrieved November 17,

2007, from .

National Immigration Forum. (2007). National Immigration Forum: To Embrace & Uphold

America’s Traditions as a Nation of Immigrants. Washington, D.C.: The National

Immigration Forum. Retrieved November 17, 2007, from

.

National Network for Immigrant and Refugee Rights. (2007). National Network for Immigrant

and Refugee Rights. Oakland, CA: National Network for Immigrant and Refugee Rights.

Retrieved November 17, 2007, from .

Tauberer, J. (2004). GovTrack.us. Pittsburgh, PA: GovTrack.us. Retrieved November 3, 2007,

from .

U.S. Publishers, Inc. (2007). United States Immigration Support. New York, NY: United States

Immigration Support. Retrieved November 3, 2007, from

.

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