Understanding Rhetorics



|Public Speaking |

A concise guide for rhetorics and persuasion

By Guy Yariv



Table of Contents

Rhetorics and Public Speaking

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About the Author 2

Understanding Rhetorics 3

Structuring your speech 4

How to work with Outline 6

Structure and overcoming Stage fright 8

Body Language 11

Developing Argumentation 13

Improving your Logic and Explanation 16

How to deal with Questions and Interruptions 17

Answering without knowing the answer 20

Refuting Arguments 23

Giving Feedback 25

Preparing a speech 28

Team Work: Preparing for a panel discussion 31

Getting ready for a PowerPoint presentation 34

Speaking Aides 36

פחד קהל באנגלית 39

לשפר את השימוש באנגלית מול קהל 40

לשמור על האנגלית תחת לחץ 41

הקטנת פחד מכישלון 42

About the Author

Guy Yariv is teaching marketing, rhetorics and public speaking since 1997, and currently offers courses and workshops for public speaking (in Hebrew & English) as well as sales training and coaching.

An Economist by training and with extensive experience in business and entrepreneurship, Guy Yariv's courses are based on real-world experience along with the latest theories and up-to-date research.

Guy has been champion and four-times finalist of Israeli debating, as well as professional director ('Chief Adjudicator') and twice top ranked team (ESL) in the European Debating Championship. Was a Rhetorics lecturer in both the College of Management and Netanya Academic College and instructor of the Tel-Aviv University Debating Society.

All rights reserved to Guy Yariv. Do not copy, publish or re-distribute, in full or in part, without written permission. ©

Understanding Rhetorics

Rhetorics, which is the art of public speaking and persuasion, provides both esthetic enjoyment and practical utility. We can enjoy appearing before an audience, influencing and exciting it, while we can use public speaking to teach, to promote and to influence. It is important to understand that the emotional and the practical sides of rhetorics cannot be separated – a boring politician is less persuasive, and a monotonous teacher cannot educate.

Therefore, rhetorics – both as an art and as a science – is measured on three scales: Content, Context and Style. Mastering all of them is essential because without one the other two lose their value. In order to become a better speaker we need to pay close attention to our abilities in each of these dimensions, and strive to improve all.

Content – What we say

This is the overall name for the message we are trying to convey. The elements of content are arguments and structure. Arguments are the essence of the content, and represent the facts and the logic we use to get the audience to agree with us. Structure is the way those arguments are arranged so that the audience could follow them and understand them.

Style – How we say it

Style refers to the way we present our message. There are many elements to style, and it is convenient to divide them into three main groups:

Verbal style includes our choice of words and our use of language. The non-verbal style deals with the visual aspects of public speaking, such as body language and personal appearance. The semi-verbal style refers to our use of voice in terms of volume, speed, intonation and pronunciation (including accent).

Context – Where we speak

This refers to the situation in which we speak, and how we adjust the content and the style to it. There are several aspects here such as time, place, and the composition of the audience, our persona and the physical and technological settings.

In order to master the use of context it is imperative to understand the situations in which we will be speaking adjust the content and the style to suit the audience, the time constraints, the other speakers etc.

Structuring your speech

Structure is probably the most fundamental skill for controlling a speech. Structure is simple to learn yet very effective in improving the both content and style. In this lesson we will understand why structure helps both the speaker and the audience, and we learn how to structure our speech using two simple rules.

Structure helps the speaker

Structure improves both your content and your style, and even contributes to your confidence. It does that by facilitating your flow and directing you in each step of the way towards the next step, thus keeping you from losing your train of thought. It forces you to prioritize your points and allocate sufficient time to each of them, thus contributing to better time management.

Additionally, in the unfortunate but quite normal event of a mishap, structure confines the damage done to a single part of the speech and prevents other parts from being affected.

Structure helps the audience

The final goal of every speech is to persuade the audience. Now, even if the audience is extremely intelligent and is deeply interested in the speech, it will normally remember very little of your speech – or any other – five minutes after it is over.

A clear and simple structure helps you keep your speech in the audience's head. The structure connects the listeners to the speech: if the introduction presents the main points, the audience will be ready for them when they come. Additionally, structure helps the audience understand the speech because it clarifies the relation between the various parts and the overall theme.

How to structure your speech

The triplets rule

As Dale Carnegie phrased it, "Tell them what you're going to tell them. Then tell it to them. Then tell them what you told them". It may sound as a cliché but once you told people something three times, chances are higher that they will actually remember it.

So the Golden Rule of structure is:

Repeat your message 3 times: in the Introduction, the Body, and the Conclusion

Clearly, each iteration has to be different: The introduction should be brief, the main body has to be more elaborated, and the conclusion should be much shorter than the body but is normally longer than the introduction.

Your goal should be to use the introduction to present the main points of your speech, so the audience knows what to expect. Then, in the body each point should be developed into a full argument (see chapter 2). The conclusion should be used to re-iterate the main points thus eliminating any misunderstandings, and to give the audience a perspective of what was said.

Flag posting

Whenever you start or finish a point, it is important to flag the audience so they recognize the change of subject. This helps the audience understand which part of the speech you are in. Flag posting provides reassurance to the listeners that they are not lost, and also an indication of how much longer your speech will take.

Initially this should be simple and straightforward – "We have discussed the economic aspect, now let's look at the moral aspect", but as you develop your rhetorics you can make your flag postings more subtle.

For Example:

• Today I want to discuss the abolition of the death penalty which I support wholeheartedly for three main reasons: That it is ineffective, that it is irreversible, and that it is immoral. [introduction]

• My first argument is that the death penalty is ineffective because… [flag post]

• Secondly I want to explain that the death penalty is irreversible and therefore… [flag post]

• And last but not least, the death penalty is immoral and when I say that I mean… [flag post]

• So to conclude, the death penalty has to be abolished for three reasons: That it doesn't work, that mistakes cannot be corrected, and that we don't have the moral authority to use it. I urge you to support its abolition. [conclusion]

Call to Action

Here the rule is quite simple – never get off the stage without asking your audience to do something.

Public speaking is rarely a goal, but rather it is a mean to a goal. Whether the goal is to persuade, to teach or to sell, in order to take full advantage of the opportunity you've been given to speak, it is important that your audience not only understand and agree, but that this understanding takes a more concrete form.

How to do it? After summarizing your speech, after you've reviewed what you said, give your audience goals and targets. It can be to approve your plan, acquit your client, buy your product, join a Facebook group or write a letter to a politician – the request can be whatever promotes your objectives, but never – EVER – finish your speech without asking for something.

How to work with Outline

An outline is the written manifestation of the structure. Writing an outline for a speech does several important things to improve our public speaking:

1. It forces us to organize: Once we have 2-3 points on the paper, and once we introduce them in the beginning of our speech, we automatically compartmentalize our thoughts.

2. It helps us focus our thoughts: Under pressure many people find their thinking scattered and unfocused. Writing down the points protects them from getting lost or mixed.

3. It saves time: Outlines are short and concise. Instead of writing a full speech we only jot down the main points and develop them on stage. This makes outlines ideal for preparing under time pressure.

The outlines for a speech should be short and written in big letters and if you find it difficult to write large try to CAPIATALIZE. The reason is that while speaking we often move around or stand up, thus distancing ourselves from the written paper and making it difficult to read. Also, under pressure it is harder to concentrate on long, small text.

The outlines should also be short, very short. Their purpose is not to provide us with the information, because it is impossible to read and digest during a speech. Instead they remind us where we are and give us anchors to our next points.

It is not necessary to write the introduction or the conclusion in the outline. The reason is that the introduction presents the outline and the conclusion summarizes it. Therefore it is enough to write the main points of the body and at most write where the introduction and conclusion come.

In the example to the left we can see what the outline should look like, and in the example on the next page we can read the full speech. Note that it is quite dangerous to try and write the full speech: Reading it will interrupt concentration, degrade the style (monotonous voice and loss of eye contact) and exacerbate stage fright.

Structure and overcoming Stage fright

Very often when we see people 'black-out' during a speech, or we feel stuck on stage we get the sense of being lost for words or having nothing to say. Nothing is further from the truth.

Why public speaking is like frozen vegetables

In reality, the problem that gets most people stuck on stage is actually having TOO-MUCH to say rather than too little. This phenomenon is called 'overflow' and to understand it think of a frozen-vegetable bag: When we try to empty the bag through a small hole we cut on the side the bits don't flow smoothly and often get stuck. Why do they get stuck? after all, when we shake the bag a bit the flow resumes, so the problem was never a small hole.

What actually happens to the vegetables is that too many of them try to get out simultaneously and the result is that none of them can. The passage is too narrow for all of them even if it is wide enough for any one of them.

So how does it relate to public speaking?

When standing on stage there are a lot of things we want to say, and we want to say all of them, preferably in the beginning. This is obviously impossible. We can only say 50-80 words per minutes, but all of our thoughts try to squeeze out at the same time, and of course they get stuck with each other.

So what is the solution

Paradoxically, the solution is not to say as much as fast but rather to prioritize. The laws of structure teach us to choose 2-4 important things to say and to censore everything else even if it results in not saying important, impressive, interesting or amusing things. Instead we divide our message to focus on the most important areas, we present them in outline form. Only then do we develop them, by turns.

Dale Carnegie, probably the first public speaking guru phrased it

"Tell them what you're going to tell them.

And then tell them.

And then tell them what you told them"

In this way of introducing our main points succinctly we protect ourselves from blacking out or getting stuck. The key points come out so early that we don't have time to forget them or get confused, and once they're out we are committed and so no longer have to contemplate what to say or make decision. This is important, because making decision on stage and under pressure is very difficult, a difficulty that often translates into black-outs.

How is Public Speaking like army training?

Stating the outlines out-loud is also reminds us of what we wanted to say.

Here our metaphor is not the kitchen but the firing range: The new recruits in basic training are under enourmous pressure and their instructors are under more pressure still. This is why they make the recruits shout every safety instruction: When the comanding officer says "hold your weapon up" they all shout "hold your weapon up". The reason is that many researchers have found that saying what you intend to do reminds you of your plan and helps you get it done, even under pressure.

The difference between lesson, speech & lecture

Even the most charismatic and experienced public speakers would acknowledge that there are fewer audiences more demanding than 30 school kids in a classroom. Even without lamenting the woes of our educational system, it is important to understand that teaching and lecturing (or speech-making, for that matter) are very different types of public speaking. That is why many teachers are no good at public speaking (e.g. school events or staff meetings) and why many managers with good speaking skills cannot teach or guide.

In this article we will map the differences between the persuasive rhetorics of lectures and speeches and educational rhetorics of lessons and guidance.

Goals: Understanding Vs. Internalizing

The deepest difference between lecture and lesson is the difference providing information and providing knowledge, which is the difference between understanding and internalizing.

During a speech our goal is to be understood to such an extent that the audience will understand what we said, feel that they are following us, and be capable of understanding our next point. This sounds like a lot, but it is actually far short of what is required of teacher.

When a listener listened and LEARNED, it means that the student internalized the information and can now explain it himself and implement it if required to. This is off course the reason why good teaches stop their lesson every-so-often and direct questions at the class to verify learning and understanding.

Attitude: "Convince me" Vs. "Explain me"

Another fundamental difference is the audience's attitude. In a speech, the speaker assumes that the audience has no knowledge of the subject or does no agree, but would have no problem understanding him. In a lesson the teacher assumes that the students would readily accept whatever he says but would not necessarily understand him correctly.

Therefore, the speech-maker would aim to prove while using examples and statistics that are hard to disprove and have strong emotional impact. A teacher, on the other hand, would choose examples that are easier to present and to understand rather than those that are most persuasive. For example when teaching road safety in school a good example will be the story of a careless kid overrun by a car, whereas presenting the issue to a parliamentary committee should probably include cost analysis and international comparisons.

 Tempo: "Let's Go" Vs "Are you with me?"

Speaking speed should be faster in a speech than in a lesson. The reason being that in a speech it is important to maintain alertness and a degree of excitement. In a lesson, on the other hand, it is important to let the listeners ponder, write down or absorb what was said.

Requirements: Passive Vs Active

During a speech or a lecture the audience should be passive, allowing the speaker to deliver the message fluently. The only requirement from the audience is to listen. During a lesson, however, the audience is encouraged to perform active learning activities. At the very minimum that should include writing down - summarizing, in fact - of the teacher's words - which requires analyzing and prioritizing. Moreover, students are often required to perform active tasks such as solving problems, writing assignments or participating in discussions.

Inclusiveness: Most Vs All

In a speech, the object is to persuade as many as possible, while in a lesson the object is to make sure nobody is left behind. This means that in a speech the speaker will proceed in a pace suitable to the majority while a lesson will proceed according to the least able.

Also, a teacher has to verify that his pupils, all of them, are keeping up. That requires addressing them with questions and involving them in tasks that prove knowledge.

Tools: PowerPoint Vs Black board

A lecturer who has to provide information can often use PowerPoint and presentations as a tool to convey large amounts of information quickly. A teacher on the other hand will usually prefer writing on a board, because this method conveys 'learning by doing'.

Writing on a board is also a good way for a teacher to pace himself down to the class.

 

Body Language

Body language is the way in which people (and other animals) communicate their emotions and intentions. It has evolved to allow animals to convey messages to their peers (e.g. 'here's food', 'I am sexually available', or 'a predator is coming') and also to other animals (e.g. 'if you go near my cubs I will bite'). Therefore body language is largely limited to messages that animals might use and cannot convey abstract or complex messages.

Body language can be divided into functional gestures and symbolic gestures. Functional messages are a practical response to the surroundings that gives an indication of one's emotions, for examples straightening up (to see better) when someone enters the room or turning eyes after a pretty woman passing on the street. Functional gestures are usually harder to fake. Symbolic body language is gestures that have developed specifically for communications (such as a human's smile or a dog's wagging of tail). Those are easier to fake.

Body language is communicating all the time, even if we are not aware of it. For example, even when we are sleeping, it communicates how restful we are.

So what is the meaning of learning body language? Well, it is wired very deeply into our brain, so we use it constantly and have been doing so our whole life whether we have been to a 'body language course' or not. That is how we know to keep away from a local bully and recognize when we're being flirted with. However, body language is still prone to errors and miscommunications that can be avoided. Also, learning to understand body language enables us to understand our strengths and weaknesses better, and improve ourselves.

The elements of Body Language

Body language can be analyzed in five concentric circles, each larger and thus relevant to bigger crowds and rooms.

Eye Contact

Looking your audience in the eyes is your way of projecting confidence and sincerity, and can also create intimacy and closeness. This is one element of body language that is very easy to acquire and can become quite natural with some practice.

Facial expressions

The 32 muscles in the face create up to 7,000 recognizable expressions projecting a very wide array of emotions. This enormous variety makes it very difficult to consciously control our emotions – it is impossible to tell yourself 'I doubt what he says; I should raise my eye brows'. Rather your face responds automatically to your emotions, and thus it is important to have control over your emotions in order to improve this aspect of body language.

Some times the audience's expression reflects yours, so it is important to keep an eye on them and adjust your style accordingly.

Hand gestures

It is very difficult to concentrate for any length of time on a frozen speaker. A useful comparison is between watching television and staring at a radio.

Hand movements are there to amplify facial expression and project them to a bigger area (and presumably a larger audience). Therefore, hand movements should be wider when speaking to a larger audience. Another important parameter is harmonizing hand movements and the emotionality of your voice and face; when these are not in harmony the audience feels suspicious.

Posture

When I was a kid, my mother always said 'why can't you just stand normally' – and I knew even then what she meant- to refrain from shifting nervously or from hunching my shoulders. It is important to stand straight, to raise our back and spread our shoulders.

Also, it is recommended to follow our eye contact with our whole body, so that every time we turn to another part of the room to do that with our shoulders and not just our eyes.

Movement

Walking about too much makes it hard for the audience to concentrate and standing still for 45 minutes will be boring, so barring physical constraints it is a good idea to move around a bit. A good rule of thumb is to shift place every time a new subject comes up. This will give a good balance between too much and too little movement and it will also reinforce the structure of the speech, in effect acting as flag posts.

Note that room for movement is often determined by the nature of the venue, such as the existence of a stage, a podium or a microphone. Teachers often prefer to walk about the room in order to maintain discipline, but are blocked by tables.

Developing Argumentation

Rational persuasion depends on being able to argue your case. This is different from merely asserting your position and expecting others to accept it, and the distinction marks the difference between rhetorics and demagoguery.

The difference between a claim and an argument is that a claim has no persuasive power. One may either agree or disagree with a claim, but it will not change his opinion. An argument, on the other hand, can have a persuasive effect. An argument also fills more time and gives impression of depth.

The components of the argument

An argument, as defined by Monty Python in their 'argument club' skit, is "a collective series of statement in intended to prove a definite proposition". An argument has to include three, and may include four parts: the proposition, a logical explanation, factual evidence, and it may also have leverage.

Argument = Proposition + Explanation + Facts + (leverage)

The proposition (claim)

A proposition (or a claim) is the bottom line of the argument, the point you are trying to prove. The argument is the proof or the explanation of the proposition.

For example: "Violence on TV causes violence among teens" or "Viewing violent programming on television will lead to increased violence in the behavior of teenagers"

The logical explanation

This part provides the theoretical reasons why the proposition is valid. It works by appealing both to logic and to emotion. Logically, an argument is a series of sentences, structured to follow from one another that together demonstrate the proposition is true.

Emotionally, the logical explanation gives the audience the feeling that the proposition has got to be true, and that the speaker has thought out his views before arriving at the conclusion. In order to be effective both logically and emotionally, the explanation has to show logical links, using phrases such 'therefore', 'as a result', 'because of that' and others.

For example: "Watching violence on television causes a certain excitement. People, and particularly teenagers enjoy this excitement and want to repeat it, by watching more violence, but soon TV is no longer enough and they need stronger stimulation. They then turn to violence toward other people and thus violence among teens rises.

The factual evidence

Facts are used to corroborate the explanation, to demonstrate that it is true in 'the real world', and to make it more understandable and accessible to a wider audience.

Factual evidence can be interwoven into the logical explanation and vice versa. It is important not to leave bare facts, but to explain them, their importance, and their emotional impact.

There are many different types of facts that can be used as evidence, but they are normally divided into qualitative and quantitative facts. For maximum impact both types of evidence should be used because each has its own strengths and weaknesses and using them together maximizes their benefits while canceling out their drawbacks.

• Quantitative evidence encompasses all the types of information that can be conveyed in numbers, such as statistics, sums, amounts etc.

These types of evidence have several advantages: They are useful for conveying short and concise data, because the numbers don't require much time. Also, they make the speaker seem more knowledgeable and authoritative because they seem more accurate. They are also harder for some people to refute, because many people don't feel comfortable arguing with numbers.

Quantitative evidence also has several drawbacks. First, they are difficult for many people to understand and internalize. Second, their neutrality makes them less emotional, and thus not very moving or persuasive. Lastly, they require expertise and preparation, as most people do not have accurate statistics available off the top of their head.

For Example: "Teens living in houses that subscribe to the 'action' package on cables are 23% more likely to engage in violence"

• Qualitative evidence is facts that cannot be measured with precision and expressed by numbers. They are more descriptive, rather than numerical in nature. Common examples of qualitative evidence are examples, analogies, case-studies etc.

There are several advantages for qualitative evidence too – First, they add an element of depth to the quantitative evidence by showing the underlying processes leading to a statistic. Second, these facts can be emotional and thus penetrate the defenses of people not willing to listen. Third, they are easier to understand and to relate to, as most people are well conditioned to understand and remember stories. Lastly, for the same reason that makes them easier on the listener, it is easier for the speaker to come up with qualitative evidence.

On the other hand, qualitative evidence can feel insufficiently rigorous. It has an anecdotal nature that makes it look not representative. Also, it takes much longer to tell a story than to shoot a couple of statistics.

For Example: "The boys who massacred their friends in Columbine watched significant amounts of violent programming

• Non Facts - Sometimes a speaker can enhance his evidence by relying on non-fact evidence, such as quotes from famous people or hypothetical facts.

o quotes varies widely depending on who is the speaker and who is the audience. Religious audience will usually view statements made by religious leaders as having a great deal of authority. Secular audience will usually be less swayed by even the most notable and noble authorities. Thus, quotes can be used to enhance and enumerate an argument, but they should not to be used instead of qualitative or quantitative facts.

For Example: "Itzhak Rabin said in his last speech that violence undermines the foundations of democracy"

o Hypothetical evidence is something quite different. It is a thought experiment in which the speaker presents non-existent facts under the banner 'what if'. This allows him to postulate about how certain development would have occurred. Hypothetical evidence is most useful in cases where actual information is missing or not trustworthy - for example a discussion of future development in politics, a discussion of crime trends etc. Albert Einstein popularized the use of thought experiments in his theory of relativity as a way of explaining to the public advanced concept that could not be experimentally created with our technology.

Leveraging

Leverage is the expansion of the claim beyond what was proven by the facts and the logic. We use leverage after we have proved our point in order to explain its importance and meaning. Leveraging can be done with a single word, a sentence or even a whole new argument (e.g. slippery slope argument), the important thing is not to settle merely for proving the argument but to go a step further and explain why the argument proves the whole case of the speech.

For Example: "But it is not enough to talk about violent Television, it is important to do something about it, and reduce the amount of violence that our children are watching".

Improving your Logic and Explanation

In principle, developing arguments makes you more persuasive by adding content. But in reality, developing arguments also improves your style by making you sound more serious and thorough. This stylistic effect – 'sounding deeper and more thorough' can be reproduced by the right phrasing.

How to make the explanation sound more logical and persuasive

Previously we learned that every argument has to have a logical explanation and factual evidence. We are 'programmed' to accept words that show logic, and using them correctly and often will cause our speech to sound as if it has more logic than it actually does.

The essence of an explanation is the causal link – showing reasons why our statement is true. Therefore words that show such causal link give the audience the impression that there are reasons supporting your case, and the more such words you use, the stronger that impression will become.

For example saying 'clean your room because it is dirty' is more persuasive, even to a

10 years old, than saying just 'clean your room'. Now note: there is no obvious reason why the first statement is more persuasive. After all it does not contain any new information and the reason it gives is nothing more than a repeat of the request. The only cause of the increased persuasion is that the first statement includes the appearance of a reason.

|Full link |Partial link |

|Because |It is possible |

|Since |Assume that |

|If ( then |One may expect |

|Therefore |Probably |

|As a result |Apparently |

|Hence |It seems that |

|Subsequently |Most likely |

Interestingly, using these right words frequently for an extended period of time will not only make you look deeper and more thorough but will actually cause you to become deeper and more thorough. The reason is simple, if you remember use the phrase "and the reason for that is" after every claim, you will find that it gets easier to find a reason for every claim. Over time finding such reasons and examples will become habit, and you will simply be thinking about the underlying reasons for things – which is what deeper people do.

How to sound more factual

|Evidence |

|For example |

|For instance |

|Such as |

|Let's look at |

|factually |

|thereof |

|The evidence is |

Just like with the explanation part of the argument, so do facts and examples introduced into the argument make it sound more factually grounded and thus 'real'. In fact, most people understand examples more readily than explanations, and find them more convincing (though the explanation will impress them more, even if they don't understand it). This difference is so significant that whenever I give a lecture or listen to one I notice how the people in the audience raise their heads everytime the speaker says "for example".

How to deal with Questions and Interruptions

The main difference between a speech (or a lecture) and a dialogue is that a public speaking is largely a one-way communication – the speaker speaks, and the audience listens. Nevertheless, sometimes the audience does get involved: It can be an involvement invited by the speaker (e.g. by asking "any questions?") or it may be forced upon him (such as when a superior interrupts for clarification). Either way, audience involvement is rather common in many cultures and a successful public speaker has to be able to use it to his advantage.

The goals of audience involvement

Questions and 'points of information' can be very influential both for the speaker and for the audience. They highlight any misunderstandings and disagreements, and thus give the speaker opportunity to solve these problems. Therefore a speaker in tune with his audience is better able to address them in a relevant and persuasive manner.

What Questions can achieve

| |For the audience |For the speaker |

|Construct|Clarify misunderstanding |Appear as an expert |

|ive |Correct errors |Create involvement |

| |Present a stance |Verify understanding |

| |Project knowledge |Project confidence |

| | |Vary the tone and pace |

| | |Rest and relax |

|disruptiv|Waste time |Waste time |

|e |Confuse audience |Rebut the speaker |

| |Change subject |Confuse the speaker |

| | |Change the subject |

Interestingly, speakers with stage fright often find that once a question has been asked, the remainder of the speech is much less stressful. Therefore I often encourage people who are afraid of public speaking to get their audience involved

Timing questions from the audience

Timing is crucial for successful management of questions, because effective timing of questions from the audience allows you to retain and project control. Thus, rather than diminish your style and making you look confused or weak, answering questions can enhance your style and make you look knowledgeable and in command.

The Golden Rule – Answer questions only BETWEEN arguments

1. It is less disruptive to you

Because you don't stop in mid sentence, and also because you don't have to remember to which point you have to return.

2. It is less disruptive to the audience

The audience will not always remember where you left off, and won't necessarily return to the flow.

3. It emphasizes your structure

It puts a definitive barrier between the two arguments. In effect, the questions become flag-posts.

4. It closes the argument

It helps verify that the audience understood your point entirely, and it projects the closure – that if no further questions are asked then the subject is closed.

5. It project organization and control – it emphasizes your control, and that you take questions at your will and others'.

Corollaries of the golden rule

1. Do not accept questions during introduction

 This is the most sensitive phase of your speech in which the audience needs to understand the general outlines of the speech. Disruptions at this stage will obfuscate the big pictures. Besides, you just started, what have they got to ask?

2. Do not Accept questions in the Conclusion

This is another sensitive phase, because this is where you re-organize the speech and give the audience last chance to catch up. Also, this is where you make the closing and lasting impression, so make sure it is you who makes the impression and not an audience member.

Note that it is quite ok to have a questions and answers session after your conclusion, just make sure it comes after and not during the conclusion.

3. Do not accept questions in mid-sentence

It projects insecurity and lack of control, as the questions' timing is dictated by the audience not you. It may make you lose concentration and it will definitely make your audience lose concentration of the argument (though it may raise overall concentration).

How to Decline Questions?

Shortly, with as few words as possible and without apologizing. "soon", "in a moment" and "not now" are very good ways to do it. "I am sorry but I will answer your question after I finish this point" is too long. Once you finish your argument make point of returning the questioner and ask to hear his question.

Answering without knowing the answer

In the previous lesson we learned that by keeping a few simple rules it is possible to turn audience questions and comments into a tool that helps our speech rather than hinder it. In this lesson we'll see what happens when we get a question we don't know the answer to.

This fear is familiar to anyone who ever stood in front of audience: What do you do when a question comes and you don't know the answer? Theoretically the answer should have been to be better prepared, but realistically there is a limit on how much one can prepare while there is no limit on the number of possible questions. Therefore it is imperative to develop the skill to handle questions when not knowing the answer.

There are 4 main ways to handle such situations and it is important to be proficient in all of them. This is because every technique has its strengths and weaknesses, and each one is suited to a different situation. In addition, every such method, when over-used, becomes transparent and looks like an excuse. Therefore it is important to use all of them, switch between them, and never use one of them too many times in a row.

1. Answer the question with a question

This method is useful for teachers and lecturers, especially with when caught hot handed not knowing.

• Return the question to the asker

This is the basic approach - To simply return the question to the asker and ask how he would've answered it. This approach is useful for black-out situations when we forget the answer to a simple question, or for questions about an opinion. But, it is dangerous to use this technique on informative questions.

• Return the question to the whole class

This technique is more appropriate for general-knowledge questions, as there is a bigger chance that at least someone in the audience will know the answer.

• Turn the question into homework

Here we refer the question to the next meeting. Its strength is that it works for just about any questions, but its weakness is that it works only when the speaker is in a position to order homework, and only when there is indeed a subsequent meeting.

Limitations - This method requires a convincing and authoritarian appearance otherwise the fakery becomes apparent. Otherwise it is better to use the 'tentative answer' approach. Also, this technique only works for speakers who ordinarily engage the audience, and therefore make it seem more natural.

2. Give a Tentative Answer

This technique is intended for uncertainty rather than out-right blank answer - for when we have a rough idea about the answer but nothing definite. The magic in this technique is to give the answer with an unconfident tone and make it conditional. It is useful, though not necessary, to promise to check and return with an answer.

In effect, this is a way to give an uncommitted answer, in a way that allows you to be wrong.

Limitations - this method cannot be used for a question about something immediately actionable. also, it cannot be used about a decision that has already been made and which you've been part of.

3. Change Subject - "Zoom-In" or "Zoom-Out"

In this technique the idea is to talk about something you know rather than something you don't. This method got a bad reputation from politicians over-using it so much that it has become the butt of jokes. Therefore the old techniques of 'X is not the right question. The right question is Y' can no longer be used.

Instead, the right way to change subject is to focus in or to zoom out.

• Zoom In -

In this method we answer about one part of the question which we know about. For example, asked about freezing West-Bank settlements we may answer with a story about one settlement.

• Zoom Out -

In this method we answer about the question and some bigger issues together. To use the West-Bank settlements example, we may answer about the whole peace process.

Limitations - This method can fool the audience, but it will usually not fool the asker, so it is best not to allow follow-up questions.

4. Use Your Ignorance - 'I don't want to mislead you'

This is my favorite approach. I discovered some years ago that admitting ignorance, done frankly, actually leads audiences to appreciate you more. There are so many wise-guys in the world who would do anything to hide the fact that they don't know, that simple admission becomes refreshing and surprising.

This technique works best if we mix the question we don't know between several that we do know. Then, it is important to look visibly sincere in saying we don't know, and add something to the effect of "I only talk about things I understand" or "This is not my area of expertise so I'll have to give this question a pass".

Done right this method actually improves your professional credentials, because of its exception-that-proves-the-rule effect: By acknowledging that I don't know one question i give the best proof that I actually do know all the others.

Limitations - This method should be used very sparingly, otherwise we stop looking sincere and start looking ignorant.

Refuting Arguments

Previously we learned how to construct arguments, and in particular, we learned that a good argument should include four parts:

1. A claim - the proposition which the argument is trying to prove

2. Logic - The theoretical reasons that back the main claim

3. Evidence - Facts that support the claim and the logic, and connect them to actual reality

4. Leverage - An optional part, that show how the proven argument furthers the case of the speech

In this lesson we shall learn how to refute and disprove an argument, and we will learn that we can refute each of the four parts of the arguments.

Rebutting the main claim (A Counterargument)

This method counters the argument without disproving it. It is a 'yes, but' method saying, in effect, 'what you say may be true, BUT I have a stronger argument against it'. Therefore, this rebuttal is not actually negative content that shows your opponent to be mistaken, but rather a positive content arguing your case.

For example, we can say "it might be true that watching violent movies promotes violence, but violent films are still free speech protected under the law". This counter argument does not clash with the original; it merely shows an opposing claim.

Rebutting the Logical Explanation

Refuting logic is quite often the hardest form of rebuttal, because it often involves abstract reasoning, and requires analytical skill that is difficult to master on-stage. There are two main ways of challenging the logic of an opponent- the harder way is to find holes in their logic such as an internal contradiction or a logical fallacy (for example "It is a mistake that watching violent films make you violent, rather, people who are violent enjoy watching violent films").

An easier way of rebutting the logic of an opponent is offering an alternative explanation to his logic and facts (for example "if watching violence on television was indeed promoting violence, we should have seen more of it in people watching the news").

Rebutting Facts and Evidence

Finding fault in the facts is easier than finding faults in logic, and factual rebuttal is therefore easier and more natural to most people. It can be done in two ways - countering the facts with opposing facts, or questioning the source of the facts.

• Introducing opposing facts - this is the simplest and most straightforward way of contradicting an opponent. You simply bring your own facts that show that their facts are wrong or misleading. The advantage of this method is that it is simple to do, but the downside is that you actually have to have opposing facts.

For Example - "during the 1990's America has seen a steady decline in street violence even though television broadcasted increasing amounts of violence"

• Questioning the source of the facts - this method is very useful as it does not require any knowledge on your part. The idea is that whatever facts your opponent brings must have a source, and that source is always fallible - it is either outdated, biased, its methodology or sample may be wrong, or it may have been misquoted.

Rebutting the leverage

This rebuttal is not on the argument itself, but on whatever conclusions are drawn from it. The essence of this rebuttal is 'you exaggerate'. It is not an attack on your opponent's argument itself, but on the conclusions your opponent draws from his argument. Doing that, your opponent may base an unrealistic plan on an otherwise sound logic.

For example "even if we agreed that there's damage in violent films, it is outrageous to propose creating a censorship board. What are we, China?"

Dishonorable rebuttals

1. Changing the subject (spin)

you can sometimes circumvent a powerful argument by changing the subject, especially if you steer the discussion towards a more emotional issue. For example "It is a futile waste of time to discuss TV violence when our children commit real violence against Arab children".

2. Personal attaches ('Ad Hominem')

Instead of attacking the arguments, it is possible to attack the person making them. For Example "how can you, Guy Yariv, purport to oppose violence when your website publishes an article supporting corporal punishment in schools?'

3. Physical Interruption

It is sadly effective to prevent a good argument being made by disrupting the speaker with loud noises or constant questions and interruptions.

Giving Feedback

Effective feedback can help a speaker improve his public speaking skills, but just as important it can help the person giving the feedback to improve his public speaking skills. Giving feedback is a process that sharpens our understanding of the speech and its components, helps us delineate the important from the frivolous and moves us from the vague feeling that a speech 'worked' or 'flopped' into a lucid and coherent understanding of exactly what was right and what went wrong in the speech.

Linguistically, 'Feedback' is information about the results of an action intended to direct the perception of a person about his behavior according to another's reaction. Operationally, feedback is a tool to inform us, as we learn public speaking, exactly how we are doing and what needs improvement. In this lesson we will learn how to understand and analyze a speech, how to decide what needs commenting, and how to deliver feedback for maximum effect.

Step 1: Collecting information

There is a significant difference between the general impression from a speech, which requires nothing more than sitting and listening, and feedback that explains WHY that particular impression was made. This understanding requires careful analysis of the speech which is not something that can be done 'live' during the speech but requires detached deliberation afterwards.

For that analysis to work, however, it is imperative that you have as much of the relevant information, and that requires a written record of the speech, a record on which the subsequent analysis can be based.

1. Write what was said

It is important to listen with a pen and a paper, and to write as much as possible, because after the speech you remember much less of it than you think you would.

2. Summarize the content (do not transliterate word-for-word)

It is impossible to write every word said. We speak 100-150 words every minute but write only a third as much. Therefore it is important to summarize and use shorthand.

3. Find the main components -Structure, arguments, examples, rebuttal

It is much easier to follow and record a speech when you divide it to components and record them as such. This method makes sure you 'get' the main points of the speech, and helps uncover flaws. Was there an introduction? Did the speaker present a structure? Did he follow through on that structure? Was every argument explained? Were the arguments backed by facts? etc.

4. Form a spontaneous impression

Try to record your immediate feeling without analyzing it

o Evaluate style

A stylistic impression is fleeting, and after it passed it is difficult to put your finger on what it was. That is why it is recommended, during the actual speech to note your impression of the emotions conveyed by the speaker and the elements of his body language and voice.

o Evaluate substance

The content can be re-examined after the speech, so it is not as necessary to record our impression. Still, it may be useful to take a note of a good (or bad) example, and to point an argument you liked (or didn't).

Step 2: analyze and develop conclusions

After the speech is over, it is time to look at your notes and delve deeper into what has been said and the meanings of the speech. In this part you try to take a step back from the speech and understand what your impression was, how that impression was made, and whether this impression is backed by the actual substance or was a demagoguery exercise. This stage can be divided into a more technical first part in which we run through a 'check-list' of items and see whether the speech had them, and a second part in which we form our aesthetic impression over the persuasiveness of the speech and the speaker.

1. Look at the parts of the speech

It is useful to start by running a check-list of the basic elements of speech to take stock of what was missing, and the quality of what was presented.

o Content - Was there a structure? Introduction? Flag-posts? Summary? Were there arguments? Logic? Factual evidence? etc.

o Style - Which emotions did the speaker convey? How was the body language? Eye contact? Hands gestures? Voice modulation? Reaction to questions from the audience?

o Context - Did the speaker adjust himself to the audience? To the time constraints? To other speakers?

2. Evaluate Quality

This is the most sensitive and subjective part, which to many is the most difficult. Here you have to actually look into what was said and decide -what was persuasive and what wasn't.

Then explain those impressions and back them by evidence collected from the speech, for example "the second argument was not persuasive because it didn’t' have any examples".

Step 3: Present feedback

After deciding what you think about the speech, it is time to deliver your conclusions in a way that will have the best impact and most benefit to the speaker. This stage is quite sensitive as many people get offended by criticism.

Therefore, there is tremendous value in being able to give feedback in a fashion that gets your listener to feel (not just understand) that you do have his best interest at heart.

1. Constructive Criticism

Too many times people confuse 'constructive criticism' with 'compliments'. Instead of presenting the favorable and their non-favorable impressions in a way that helps their listener, they offer generalized platitudes. That is wrong. Constructive criticism means that every critical observation should come with a recommendation for how to avoid it. That way your listener does not focus on the 'your argument was vague' admonition but rather on the 'try to add more examples' tip. Both are necessary, but the tip should be made dominant.

2. Sincere constructive criticism

Feedback that misses the bad bits misses the whole point. It gives the listener a false impression of his ability, obscures routes for self improvement and makes you sound sycophantic. If your listener is any wise, or if he has a sense of self-criticism, he will also find the feedback unreliable and misleading. If your listener has both self-criticism and fear of speaking, he will think you are trying to comfort and cheer him, and conclude that he was so awful you couldn't bear to give him the facts. As a result, for people with stage fright only sincere, accurate and constructive criticism works.

3. Effective Presentation

Presenting feedback in front of an audience is a speech just like any other, and should be prepared and delivered professionally as any other:

o Structure your feedback speech

Make sure you have an introduction and a summary. make sure you organize your conclusions in an easy-to-recognize order (e.g. good-parts vs. bad-parts, or content vs. style, or chronologically)

o Use empathetic style

Try to sound empathetic and constructive. Make sure not to sound apologetic on one hand or arrogant and condescending on the other.

Preparing a speech

Preparing a speech requires 5 stages - first you must create a strategy, then you need to brainstorm ideas for arguments and examples. The next stage is organizing an outline and after that the arguments have to be developed. The last step is to review and revise.

Step 1: Creating a Strategy

In this step you build a game plan, a process which involves two tasks: understanding the context and setting goals.

To understand the context of the speech means to make sure you know the situation in which you will speak: how much time will you speak? Who will be in the audience? Are there other speakers and if so who are they? Etc.

Based on this information you should determine what you can expect to achieve and how you expect to achieve it. For instance, if you are a college student that has to present a report you need to show command of the material and analytic skills (after you determined what the professor expects, and how much time you will have). If you are going to give a sales presentation you need to decide if you can aim for closing a deal or just to get a meeting with an executive.

Step 2 - Brainstorming

In this step you turn to your creative side and try to generate as many ideas for arguments and examples as you can, so that you will be able subsequently to build your speech from them. In this step it is important to let your associations run freely so that you will have as much material to work with in the next steps. Therefore, I recommend working with a pen and paper and to jot down any thought that occurs to you. This recording is necessary because when you get hit by a burst of ideas, you might forget one while you're working on the next.

For those of us who are highly self-critical I recommend to make a mental note of temporarily turning off your 'criticism switch', and to write down even ideas that are clearly weak or deficient. The reason is that critical examination blocks the creative process by expecting every idea to come out fully formed. That stifles half-baked idea that might have been developed into brilliant ones.

By the way, research has shown that persistent critical attitude to brainstorming does in fact reduces creativity and induces negative self-image.

Step 3 - Organizing an Outline

In this stage turn the 'criticism switch' back on, and concentrate all the stray thoughts that you wrote down during brainstorm into a skeleton of a speech that will promote your strategy. Perform three actions that will lead to a concise outline:

• Consolidating- Look at the arguments and examples and see which ones go together. It is quite possible that two of them say the same thing and are thus redundant. Alternatively, two weak ideas can merge into one powerful argument. Consolidating and eliminating redundant ideas also reduces clutter.

• Filtering and prioritizing - Decide which arguments should be dropped out because they are not good, period (e.g. they are not convincing, factually wrong, insulting to some in the audience or inconsistent with other arguments), and which are just not good enough (because they take too much time, or are inferior to other arguments).

• Organizing - In this step you should determine the order in which the arguments are going to be presented in other words, write the outline of your speech.

Step 4 - Developing Arguments

Take the outline and expand each heading into a fully developed argument.

This process involves creating a logical explanation of the heading, and then adding factual evidence such as examples, statistics etc. In this stage it is quite useful to take advantage of scrap notes used in the brainstorming stage - there are often useful examples or concepts there.

Step 5 - Reviewing and Revising

In this stage take a step back and view the speech from the audience's perspective. Present the speech to yourself - preferably out-loud - and observe the stronger and weaker points (The next chapter deals with rehearsing with others). This is a good chance to catch mistakes and errors and fix them. If the changes are substantial, it would be necessary to read the speech again.

Before reviewing a speech it is important to disengage from the actual writing in order to get a fresh perspective. A good disengagement would be to take a coffee break or make a couple of phone calls, but if time is rushed it may be enough to close your eyes for a few seconds, take a deep breath and let your mind slip - and then review the speech.

Another advantage of this review process is that it is a bit of a rehearsal and will improve your command of the material and the flow of your presentation.

A final note

Each of these stages is crucial, and they should be performed in sequence, but it is perfectly legitimate to jump back and forth if the situation requires and the time permits. For instance, it is quite possible that during argument development, a new insight requires re arranging the outline or even revising the strategy.

Team Work: Preparing for a panel discussion

This lesson draws on the previous (how to prepare a speech) but expands it to explain how to prepare for a group presentation or a panel discussion.

Step 1: Creating a Strategy

In this step you build a game plan, a process which involves two tasks: understanding the context and setting goals.

Team Work: In this stage two things must be done - creating and verifying a consensus, and assessing strengths and weaknesses of the team members. Consensus means that the goals of the joint presentation are shared by all team members and that if there are varying interests they are acknowledged and approved. Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the team members is crucial if this is the first time that they present together (even if they've known each other for years), but is always important to ensure proper allocation of the various roles.

Step 2 - Brainstorming

In this step you turn to your creative side and try to generate as many ideas for arguments and examples as you can, so that you will be able subsequently to build your speech from them.

Team Work: In this stage it is important to harness the enormous strength of cross fertilization which improves brainstorming enormously. The reason is that brain storming is a process of creative and associative thinking, and associations occur when one idea reminds you of another. When several people participate in this process each new idea will raise a different reaction in each team member, and each new reaction can be translated to a new idea which in turn will be presented to the group and help generate new associations and ideas.

However, team brainstorming is even more susceptible to stifling criticism than individual brainstorming. Therefore, it is important not to criticize and not to reject any idea. Instead, let them all be written, and which ever generates more subsequent ideas will naturally become more significant.

Step 3 - Organizing an Outline

In this stage you turn back on the 'criticism swtich', and concentrate the brainstorm into a skeleton of a speech. Three actions that lead to a concise outline: Consolidating related ideas into a coherent argument, Filter weak arguments, and organize the strong ones into an outline.

Team Work: In this stage the goal is to create a single, unified outline for all the team's members. This will create a sense of joint purpose in the team and in the message presented, and it is also a great way to avoid the three pitfalls of committee work:

• Overlapping - Prevents the team from explaining new and important material and gives people in the audience the feeling that their time and intelligence are not appreciated.

Overlapping happens when each member develops his own outline, and chooses to focus on the points most important to him, and since great minds think alike, members will probably share the sense of what is important and so each will decide to include the same points his outline.

• Inconsistencies - At best, inconsistencies damage the credibility of the message and the team. At worst contradictions give a sense of cheating and deception - of trying to fool the audience.

Inconsistencies happen when varying interests were not smoothed out in the strategy phase, or when the outline is not developed as a joint process.

• Neglecting an argument - Represent a missed opportunity and will probably lead to a blame game of 'I thought YOU were going to say this'.

To avoid overlooking an argument it is important, before finishing this step and moving to the next one, to take another look and the scrap papers from the brainstorming and verify that each point has been accounted for as either being good and included or being bad and discarded.

Step 4 - Developing Arguments

In this stage take the outline you have produced, and work on expanding each heading into a fully developed argument.

Team Work: This stage is the only one in which should be done separately by each team member. Since each member has to work on different subjects, individual work multiplies the capacity. Joint work in this stage probably feels faster, because the team probably does develop argument faster than any individual member, but this is just an illusion because the team is slower than the combined speed of all of them working in parallel.

In addition, working independently enables each member to assess how well he understands his allotted points and how deeply he needs to (and whether he can) develop them. If the arguments are developed together, the weaker members will rely on the stronger ones to develop their arguments, and not realize (until they are on stage) that they don't have much to say about them.

Team members can certainly consult with each other at this stage, and it is probably a good idea that a team leader will verify that they are all making progress - but it is crucial to let each member take responsibility of his own speech.

Step 5 - Reviewing and Revising

In this stage you take a step back and view the speech from the audience's perspective. Present the speech out-loud and observe the stronger and weaker points.

Team Work: In this stage the team should take advantage of the benefits of mutual feedback, and the better perspective that each member has about his fellow member's speech. Each member should present his speech to the team (in full if there is enough time, or in brief if there isn't) and get their feedback. It is important to give and to get detailed feedback with constructive recommendations, and to verify that there are indeed no overlappings, inconsistencies or dropped arguments.

Another advantage of presenting the speech to each other is that it is a much better practice towards the 'real thing' than reviewing and revising alone.

Tips for joint presentation for a group

• Involvement - Team members should look interested and supportive when another member speaks. It is important not to gaze, pick nose or look dispirited and disappointed. In general, when you are in a panel, you should maintain body language discipline as if you are speaking.

• Shared Structure - Each team member should present the overall structure of the entire team in his introduction and conclusion. This gives a sense of shared purpose, and ensures the audience doesn't get lost. For example a member would begin by saying "You are seeking an investment in your firm, and after David spoke about the technology, I would like to explain your marketing strategy which will include online advertising, viral marketing and billboards. After that, Ron would speak about the finances"

• Work together on stage - Even if the panel discussion has started, it is still possible to communicate and share ideas. If you heard an opponent say something important you should disseminate that information, and if you are suddenly stuck without enough content you should seek help. Just note that it looks better if such communication is done with notes than in whispering.

Getting ready for a PowerPoint presentation

Power point presentations demand much more preparation than an ordinary speech or lecture. Even experienced speakers can easily run into problems - both technical and content-related - without proper groundwork.

Dress Rehearsal practice

A complex presentation will only be presented well after a successful dress-rehearsal. A good rule of thumb is to have at least two practice runs. Also, if the practice didn't go smoothly there is no reason to expect better performance with real audience. Three aspects of PowerPoint presentations are particularly sensitive and require practice:

1. Timing

Presentations normally have a limited time-frame - 10 minutes attention span for sales, 20 minutes for academic-conference speech, and 45 minutes for a lesson. Without proper practice it is very common to overshoot or undershoot the timing. Therefore, it is crucial to practice with a timer, and to speak out-loud during the rehearsal (speaking out loud takes twice as long as silent reading).

2. Animation

It is easy to forget the number of animated elements in a slide and their order of appearance, even more so under the pressure of live performance. The result is points discussed before they are presented, and when they appear, they need to be re-discussed. Also, forgetting the order of animations will lead to an expression of surprise on the speaker's face with each click.

3. Proofreading

Clearly all presentations must be proofread, but proofing done after a 'real' presentation (i.e. timed and out-loud) is different. Reading the presentation aloud gives a different feeling to the written text, and highlights awkward phrasing.

It is not uncommon, even for experienced PowerPoint hands, to revise many slides after every rehearsal.

Check and Verify the Equipment

With current 2010 technology PowerPoint presentations are not reliable and technical glitches are common from classroom use to conferences. These problems are not confined to technophobes and many a computer geek lost presentations to technical errors. It never looks good to start a presentation by crawling under tables to connect USB cables or desperately troubleshooti incompatible versions.

Therefore it is crucial to call several days in advance and verify the check-list bellow, to ask who is the technical person and to make sure he will be on hand. And still, make sure you arrive at least 15 minutes beforehand and that you carefully test each and every item on the list bellow

1. The Computer

Check that it is actually there, that it is connected to the socket, turns on and recognizes your disk-on-key.

2. The Operating System

Check that the computer is not annoyingly slow, that no embarrassing error messages pop up, and that there is an internet connection if you need one.

If you present for a technology firm or design firm, or in academia make sure the computer runs Windows and not Mac or Linux.

3. PowerPoint

Make sure the version in the computer supports your presentation in terms of version (e.g. PowerPoint 2003 will not show PowerPoint 2007 slides). If you are not a PowerPoint expert make sure you know the basic operations on this machine- how to open, show, advance, rewind and save presentations.

4. The Presentation

Check that you have the right presentation and you didn't bring a draft. Run the presentation on the computer in full to see that

o The text works ok (especially non-English text)

o All the animations work properly

o All links to external media (e.g. video, web pages, excel files etc.).

o There are no leftover or draft slides in the presentation

5. The Controller

Whether the presentation will be controlled by a mouse, a keyboard or a dedicated device, make sure you are VERY comfortable with it: that you can move slides forward and backward without thinking about it, and that slides don't 'jump'. It is always a good idea to bring a wireless mouse with a USB adaptor as back-up.

6. The Projector ('barko')

Check that it is working, and find out how to revert the presentation from the computer screen to the projector and back again.

7. Lighting System

Check how to turn the lights on and off, and if there are multiple switches find out which combination gets the right lighting environment (preferably one that is dark enough for the projector to be visible, but lighted enough for audience members to write notes). If you cannot control the lighting from the podium make sure to instruct an audience member how to do it.

8. Sound System

If the venue requires amplification then it is important to make sure that it works and calibrated (so you do not sound like Speedy Gonzales or Darth Vader), and that you know how to use it. If you have sound effects in your presentation (not recommended) or run a video clip, make sure the sound system is connected to the computer and works properly.

Speaking Aides

Israeli politicians have screwed up in many of their speeches, but in all likelihood no screw-up was bigger than the one of Prime Minister Levy Eshcol on the eve of the 6-days war in 1967. Eshcol, reading a written speech meant to instill confidence in nervous citizens, ran into two words which his aides inserted in the last minute into his speech without consulting him. He didn't like them and tried to come up with better words. It didn't take long, maybe just five or ten seconds, but during that time he said "Ahh" three times and repeated his words twice. The impression of mumbling and indecisiveness were strong enough to force him to resign his second post as defense minister and landed Moshe Dayan into that position instead.

The small lesson here is that when reading a speech from a paper, it is important to practice carefully, especially if the speech was written by a team. The bigger lesson is that choosing the right accessories for a speech can determine its success. So here is a simple guide to the use of speaking aides:

Memorizing Speech

There is certainly some magic in standing up and speaking 'from the cuff' without preparation or aides, or at least in appearing to do so. It gives the impression of a speaker so in command of his material that he knows it all by heart. It also gives the sense of being so emotionally connected to the subject matter as to allow the speaker to speak spontaneously and from the heart. Unfortunately making such an impression requires a lot of talent or a lot of experience, or a lot of practice, and probably all three.

Without them, a 'spontaneous' speech easily deteriorates into lack of seriousness and

falls prey to any little mishap.

• Pros: projects spontaneity, assures excellent eye-contact, allows for free movement around the room.

• Cons: No back-up in case of failure. Projects excessive confidence and lack of preparation. Require extensive preparation to look respectable.

• When to use: If you really, really know all your stuff. If it is more important to look comfortable than to look professional. If you do not care about failing.

• Famous Examples: Preachers and Stand-up Comedian. Best Speaker: Jerry Seinfeld

Using outlines

Outlines are a powerful and efficient tool that gives good results with minimal effort. My experience is that after basic training most people can create and deliver a good sounding speech within minutes, even under pressure. The increased flexibility and efficiency of outlines come from making the most of the written medium (clarity, organization, and reminding) with the flexibility of speaking freely.

A special advantage of using outlines is reducing stage fright, as it leaves the speaker in control while offering guidance the potential for support in case of a black-out.

• Pros: Projects professionalism. Allows flexibility in timing and emphasis. Enable a good amount of spontaneity and eye contact. Enables speaking at length even with minimal preparation.

• Cons: Requires training.

• When to use: anywhere. Anytime.

• Famous Examples: Lecturers in academia, marketing professionals. Best speaker: Benjamin Netanyahu.

Reading a written speech

Many of the speeches we see on television are read from a written paper, leading many to think that this is the right way to make a speech. The reason is that reading a pre-written speech is appropriate for delicate situations where he wrong word can cause much damage, or when many people must be involved in preparing the speech. Therefore, important speeches by politicians have a good reason to be pre-written, but most others do not.

To come across well, a written speech has to be carefully rehearsed in order to overcome its inherent weaknesses: Limited eye contact and monotonous tone.

• Pros: No room for ambiguities. Total control of every word. Avoids black-outs and other failures. Enables eloquence when speaking in a foreign language.

• Cons: Requires extensive preparation and time-consuming rehearsal. Limits eye contact and connection with the audience. Limits flexibility. Can sound monotonous or sounding very formal.

• When to use: In delicate situations when what is not said is more important than what is said. When writing can be outsourced to more talented and less busy writers.

• Famous Examples: Senior politicians, diplomats, business facing a crisis. Best Speaker: Barack Obama

PowerPoint Presentations

Done right, a presentation can upgrade the speaker and add a lot of content and style, and even a bit of humor. This is because it gives the visual dimension and allows much more information than a purely oral speech. Presentations are particularly useful in areas that require large amounts of information or an important visual aspect. Another advantage is that presentations are very structured and can force organization and discipline even on the messiest speaker.

However, preparing a presentation is an art form in its own right and requires proficiency with the medium, with the technical glitches and bugs, and with coordinating spoken and visual messages while overshadowed by a giant screen.

• Pros: By mixing text, speech and graphics it upgrades the visual aspect. Virtually guarantees structure and control. Enables good eye contact.

• Cons: Requires extensive preparation. Requires practice and proofing. Limited flexibility. Can easily degenerate into too much text and boring reading of slides.

• When to use: When there is a lot of material and limited speaking time. When visual information is necessary. When the same presentation has to be made several times.

• Famous Examples: High-tech and finance managers. Best Speaker: Shay Agassi, Steve Jobs

פחד קהל באנגלית

ישראלים שצריכים לדבר מול קהל בחו"ל נתקלים בכמה קשיים מעל ומעבר לקושי לעמוד לפני הקהל. יש לכך כמה סיבות - כאלו שקשורות לקושי האובייקטיבי של השפה וכאלו שקשורות לקושי הפנימי של החרפה בחרדה מהקהל. במקביל, ישנם גם כמה פתרונות וכלים לשפר את המצב.

מקורות הבעיה

חרדת קהל, כפי שאני מסביר בתחילת כל קורס, היא בעצם פחד מפני כישלון מול הקהל. לכן חרדת קהל מחריפה בשני מצבים - כאשר יש יותר סיכוי לכישלון או כאשר הנזק מהכישלון יותר גדול. אצל רבים הדיבור מול קהל בשפה זרה מחריף את החרדה משתי הסיבות גם יחד:

הסיכוי לכישלון גדול יותר כי כושר הניסוח פחות, ויש צורך לעבד את המסר ולתרגם אותו. בו בזמן קשה יותר לקבל תמונה לגבי שביעות הרצון של הקהל מהנאום בגלל קודים תרבותיים שונים (היפנים יישארו קפואים תמיד וזה מלחיץ, האמריקאים ירעיפו מחמאות גם בלי סיבה וזה מעורר חשד). במקביל גם משמעות הכישלון גדולה יותר מהסיבה שהמאמץ הכרוך בהגעה לקהל בחו"ל מקטין את הסיכוי להזדמנות שניה, וכן בגלל שאותו מאמץ עצמו מעיד שכנראה האירוע היה חשוב מספיק בשביל לנסוע לחו"ל בשבילו.

אמנם אף אחד מהחוקים הללו אינו חוק ברזל (מי אמר שכל קהל בחו"ל באמת חשוב?) אלא הכללה, אבל הסכום שלהם ביחד מסביר מדוע פחד הקהל חריף יותר בשפה זרה.

דרכי הפיתרון

האופי של פחד הקהל בשפה זרה, אומר שכדי לשפר את הבטחון אפשר לכן לפעול בשלוש דרכים עיקריות:

• לשפר את היכולת לדבר מול קהל באנגלית (האופציה הטובה ביותר, אבל הקשה ביותר(

• להקטין את משמעות הרגשית של כישלון כאשר (למעשה - אם) הוא יקרה

• להקטין את ההשפעה של הפחד כאשר הוא מופיע

במאמרים הבאים ניגע בשלושת הדרכים ונבחן כיצד להשתמש בהן.

לשפר את השימוש באנגלית מול קהל

בתיאוריה, הדבר הכי טוב הוא פשוט ללמוד לדבר אנגלית יותר טוב, ולמי שיש את הזמן והכסף זו בהחלט ההמלצה הראשונה שלי*. במציאות מדובר בעבודה של חודשים ושנים, ולפעמים גם בהשקעה יקרה במיוחד. ובנוסף, גם לאחר לימוד אינטנסיבי יש מרחק גדול בין האנגלית שיש לנו לבין האנגלית שזמינה לנו על הבמה.

לכן, הכלי הפשוט והיעיל יותר הוא לשפר את האנגלית שכבר יש לנו - זו פעולה פשוטה יותר מאשר ללמוד עוד אנגלית, וכל מי שבילה כמה ימים בחו"ל יודע שזה בהחלט אפשרי. הטכניקות שאני מציג בהמשך המאמר הן טכניקות שאני משתמש בהן בקורס שלי לדיבור מול קהל באנגלית כדי לרענן את האנגלית המדוברת של המשתתפים וכדי להפוך את מירב האנגלית הזו לזמינה על הבמה. אלו טכניקות שיכולות לעבוד גם בשימוש עצמי בבית אבל בעיקר לצורך שיפור האנגלית ב-1 על 1 ופחות באנגלית מול קהל (בשביל זה צריך הרי קהל).

רקע - אוצר מילים אקטיבי ופאסיבי

לכל אדם יש אוצר מילים אקטיבי ואוצר מילים פאסיבי: הפאסיבי הוא כלל המילים שאנחנו מכירים, ושכאשר מישהו אחר משתמש בהן אנחנו נבין אותו. אוצר המילים האקטיבי הוא זה שעומד לרשותנו כאשר אנחנו צריכים לדבר או לכתוב. וכמובן שאוצר המילים הזה הוא רק חלק מאוצר המילים הפאסיבי. החלוקה הזו לפאסיבי-אקטיבי קיימת גם בשפת האם שלנו, אבל היא הרבה יותר חריפה בשפות זרות. תחת לחץ (למשל מול קהל) אוצר המילים האקטיבי מצטמצם וקיימות כמה טכניקות שמאפשרות להגדיל אותו.

 להימנע מדיבור בעברית לפני הנאום

הדרך הכי יעילה היא להימנע מעברית בשעות שלפני הנאום ולדבר באנגלית בלבד. ככל שנדבר יותר באנגלית המוח שלנו ייתרגל לחשוב בשפה זו, ובנוסף כל המילים שאנחנו משתמשים בהן יהפכו לזמינות בהרבה על הבמה. לא רק המילים יהפכו טבעיות יותר אלא גם תבניות הדיקדוק וצורת החשיבה של השפה יהיו שוטפים יותר. זו הסיבה שבכל פעם שהייתי נוסע לתחרויות דיבייט בחו"ל הקפדתי להגיע לפחות יומיים קודם כדי 'להתאקלם' באנגלית. באותו אופן הרבה אנשי עסקים אומרים שהאנגלית שלהם כשהם חוזרים מנסיעה של שבוע טובה בהרבה מזו שהם יצאו איתה. בהקשר הזה הדגש הוא לא על דיבור אנגלית אלא על הימנעות מלאה מעברית בסמוך לנאום, מכיוון שכל שימוש בעברית מחזיר אותנו לתבנית הנוחה והטבעית של דיבור בשפת האם.

לנסות לחשוב באנגלית

ומה אם אי אפשר להיות מוקף באנגלית? לפעמים הרי אין אפשרות לשהות עם דוברי אנגלית ו'להשתמש' בהם כדי לשפר את עצמנו, או שאין התראה מספקת לפני דיבור מול קהל כדי להספיק 'להתנקות' מהעברית. במצב כזה כדאי לפחות לעשות את החשיבה שלנו באנגלית. תרגיל אפקטיבי הוא לדבר לעצמנו באנגלית - למשל לקרוא בשם האנגלי של כל פריט שאנחנו נתקלים בו (מקרר, מקלחת, מחשב, רמזור). בנוסף, יעיל מאד להקיף את עצמנו בשפה האנגלית למשל על ידי השארת הטלוויזיה דולקת על CNN והקפדה שלמוע רק מוזיקה אנגלית מדיסקים במקום גלגלץ.

* שימו לב, אגב, שקורס במכון כמו ברליץ עולה כמו חופשה חופשה של חודש בחו"ל. כך שיכול מאד להיות שיותר יעיל, ובטוח שיותר כיף, לבלות כמה שבועות בפאב לונדוני מאשר בכיתת לימוד בעזריאלי.

לשמור על האנגלית תחת לחץ

לא תמיד אפשר להעלים את הפחד קהל, ולכן צריך לדעת איך להמשיך ולדבר גם כאשר הוא נוכח ומפריע. ישנן כמה טכניקות פשוטות אך יעילות שיכולת לעזור כאשר ההצגה חייבת להימשך

לדבר יותר לאט

האטה של קצב הדיבור לא רק עוזרת פיזיולוגית להירגע, אלא גם נותנת יותר זמן לחשוב ולבחור את המילה הנכונה. הסיבה לכך כפולה - דיבור איטי נותן יותר זמן לחשוב, ובו זמנית הוא משאיר פחות זמן אותו צריך למלא.

לחפש מילה נרדפת בעברית, ולתרגם

כאשר מילה הולכת לאיבוד, ולא מצליחים למצוא את התחליף המדוייק קורה הרבה פעמים שנתקעים בסימטה מנטלית ללא מוצא - כל שמתאמצים יותר לחשוב על המילה המבוקשת היא מתרחקת יותר.

פתרון אפשרי הוא לחפש מילה נרדפת בעברית ואז לתרגם אותה. למשל, אם מחפשים מילה נרדפת למילה Public אפשר לחפש בעברית מילים נרדפות למילה 'ציבור' - למשל 'קהל' ואז לתרגם אותה לאנגלית 'Audience' -.

להחליף מילה עברית במשפט אנגלי

לפעמים גם תרגום לעברית הוא קשה מדי, ואז הרבה פעמים אפשר פשוט לתאר את המילה החסרה בעזרת משפט שלם. זה הופך את הניסוח לפחות אלגנטי, אבל זה בהחלט ישיג את המטרה.

אם לקחת את הדוגמה הקודמת, אז במקום 'audience' אפשר לומר 'a group of people' או 'all the folks sitting in front of me'. לפעמים אחרי כמה פעמים כאלו המילה הנכונה תקפוץ מעצמה.

להקפיד על סדר ועל ארגון

טכניקות המבנה שנלמדות בקורסים שלי עוזרות להתגבר על פחד קהל בעברית דרך מניעת תקלות תחת לחץ. באנגלית הן חשובות עוד יותר בגלל שהרבה פעמים אנגלית קלוקלת ומבטא כבד מקשים על הקהל להבין מה אנחנו אומרים. במקרה כזה ההסבר בפתיחה ובסיכום של הנקודות העיקריות, והתזכורת לאורך הדרך של השלב בו אנו נמצאים יעזור לקהל שלא ללכת לאיבוד.

בנוסף, מבנה יעזור לנו להזכיר לעצמנו מה בעצם רצינו להגיד, ובמקרה חירום של בלק-אאוט יאפשר לנו לשאול את הקהל 'So where was I? ' ואם הצגתם בפתיחה את המבנה, הקהל יוכל לומר לא רק על מה דיברתם אלא גם על מה אתם אמורים לדבר בהמשך. מאד עוזר. מניסיון.

הקטנת פחד מכישלון

פחד קהל הוא בבסיסו פחד מפני כישלון, וככל שהאירוע גדול יותר, הנזק של הכישלון יהיה גדול יותר. לכן אפשר להוריד את הפחד גם באמצעות המעטה בערך הכישלון או בגודלו של האירוע. הרעיון נשמע די פשוט, אבל איך הוא עובד?

בפועל, מתברר שאפשר לצמצם את הפחד מקהל על ידי שלוש טכניקות שמתמודדות עם הנחת הבסיס של הסיכוי לכישלון - דרך אחת היא להנמיך ציפיות אצל הקהל (וגם אצל עצמנו), דרך שניה היא לראות את הנאום כחלק מתהליך ולא כפעולה יחידה וחשובה, ודרך שלישית היא עזרת פטאליזם: להניח שהכשלון כבר קרה ומכאן יכולה להיות רק הפתעה לטובה.

הנמכת ציפיות

זו דוגמה לטכניקה שעובדת הרבה יותר בקלות באנגלית מאשר בעברית. הסיבה לכך היא שהנמכת ציפיות היא דרך לעבוד על עצמנו דרך עבודה על הקהל - אנחנו מורידים את רף הציפיות של הקהל וכך מרגישים טוב יותר. הייתרון של לעשות זאת באנגלית הוא שיותר קל לנו להודות בחולשה כאשר המקור שלה הוא חיצוני ולא פוגע בדימוי העצמי שלנו.

העיקרון הוא כזה: ישנם אנשים שאצלם פחד מקהל נובע מהצורך לעמוד בציפיות. למעשה, הסיבה שבגללה הרבה מאד אנשים מוכשרים ומוצלחים שמגיעים לקורסים שלי (נגיד מנהלים בכירים, פוליטיקאים או רבנים ידועים) עם חרדה קיצונית מקהל היא שרף הציפיות שהם בנו לעצמם גבוה מאד - אם כי הבעיה הזו קיימת בכל האוכלוסיה.

הנמכת ציפיות נעשית על ידי פתיחה בהערה על כושר הנאום או על רמת האנגלית - מהסוג של 'תסלחו לי מראש על האנגלית' או 'בחצי שעה הקרובה אני הולך לשעמם אותכם במבטא כבד לגבי הדו"חות הכספיים" וכדומה. התבטאות מהסוג הזה גורמת לדובר להרגיש שהציפיות נמוכות יותר ולכן יהיה לו יותר קל לעמוד בהן. שתי תועלות נוספות שהוא משיג הן קודם כל שיפור באמינות שלו, ושנית הגדלת האמפטיה כלפיו - כי הוא מתמודד עם קושי, כי הוא מכיר בחולשותיו וכי הוא אנושי.

לכל אותם אנשים חשובים בפני עצמם שאומרים 'אצלי בארגון אסור להפגין חולשה מהסוג הזה' אני מפנה לוידיאו והניתוח של נאום מאת ג'יי קיי רולינג באוניברסיטת הארווארד שמופיע באתר שלי וממחיש שגם במעמדים הכי חשובים וגם תחת הציפיות הכי כבדות אפשר להשתמש בקצת הומור עצמי להנמחכת ציפיות - מחברת הארי פוטר והאישה העשירה ביותר בבריטניה ללא ספק עומדת תחת רף ציפיות כבד ביותר, ובכל זאת היא פותחת בלומר "תודה לכם שהזמנתם אותי לכאן, חשוב לי שתדעו שהלחץ מלהופיע בפניכם גרם לי לבחילה ואיבוד מוחלט של התיאבון, וכך בזכותכם הצלחתי סוף סוף להוריד במשקל".

הסתכלות ספורטיבית

כאן הגישה להפחתת הלחץ היא על ידי הסתכלות על הערך של ההשתתפות מעל לערך של ההצלחה. הטכניקה יכולה לעבוד בשתי דרכים (ביחד או בנפרד): אפשר להגיד לעצמנו 'זה בסך הכל נאום, מה כבר יכול לקרות?' ובדרך זו לראות בכישלון חוויה מלמדת ולא סוף העולם. הדרך השניה היא להסתכל על כל התהליך ולראות שהנאום הוא רק חלק אחד ממנו.

אפשר להשתמש בטכניקה כזו במגוון תסריטים, בין אם מדובר הצגה של מאמר או סמינריון (שאז הדבר החשוב באמת הוא המאמר שאותו ייקראו בלי קשר) או מצגת מכירות (שאז החשוב באמת זה הפגישה בארבע עיניים עם המנהל) או דו"ח על פרוייקט (שאז מה שחשוב באמת הוא הפרוייקט עצמו).

פטאליזם

זו טכניקה שבה פשוט משלימים עם הכישלון מראש - למעשה זו גירסה קיצונית לטכניקת הנמכת הציפיות. הרעיון הוא להתחיל מהנחת עבודה שהנאום לא יצליח, ולהמשיך משם. הייתרון של הטכניקה בכך שהיא עוזרת מאד להוריד את הלחץ עוד לפני הנאום, לחץ שמכביד מאד על אנשים רבים (להבדיל מטכניקת הנמכת ציפיות שבאה לידי ביטוי רק בתחילת הנאום). החיסרון של השיטה בכך שהיא פוגעת ביכולת הנאום.

הבעיה בטכניקה זו נעוצה באופי הקאונטר-אינטואיטיבי שלה - היא עובדת הפוך-על-הפוך, בכך שרק אם תאמין שתיכשל תוכל להצליח ולעומת זאת אם תצפה להצליח תגרום לעצמך להיכשל. מהסיבה הזו השיטה לא מתאימה לכל אחד וחשוב לבחון אותה 'בקטן' לפני שמיישמים אותה על נאום גדול.

לימודי המשך

תלמידי ובוגרי הקורסים, שמעוניינים לרכוש כלים נוספים או לתרגל את הידע והמיומנויות שרכשו מוזמנים להשתתף במפגשי העשרה בהם נלמדים כלים מתקדמים לאמנות הנאום והשכנוע ויש הזדמנות לתרגל דיבור מול קהל.

• מועדון הדיון הציבורי – לקיים דיון מושכל עם אנשים חדשים - יום ב' הראשון בכל חודש

• סדנה לפחד קהל – תיגבור ותירגול מיוחד לשיפור בטחון מול קהל - יום ב' השני בכל חודש

• דיבור מול קהל באנגלית – ללמוד ולתרגל נאומים באנגלית - יום ו' השלישי בכל חודש

• בניית מצגות ו-PowerPoint למתחילים – יום ב' הרביעי בכל חודש

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קורס דיבור מול קהל למתקדמים

סידרה של 4 מפגשים המיועדת לבוגרי הקורס ומאפשרת לשדרג את הכלים שנרכשו (או לרענן, עבור מי שסיים את הקורס מזמן) וללמוד טכניקות חדשות. הקורס כולל כמות גדולה של תירגול בדרגות לחץ גבוהות יותר.

תכנים עיקריים: שיווק עצמי, העברת מצגות מתקדמת, נאומים באנגלית, דיון רב-משתתפים.

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קורס למורים: איך להחזיק כיתה

ניהול אקלים כיתה, טיפול בבעיות משמעת, והיכולת לגרום לתלמידים להקשיב ולהבין - אלו הכלים שנלמדים בקורס ייחודי שפותח בשיתוף עם ד"ר אליעזר יריב - מומחה לבעיות משמעת ומחבר הספרים "שקט בכיתה בבקשה" ו"שיחת משמעת". הקורס מיועד למורים הסובלים מבעיות משמעת ומרגישים צורך לשפר את כישורי הדיבור, השכנוע וההסבר שלהם.

[pic] מועדון הדיון הציבורי (debate)

ללמוד להציג עמדות וללבן סוגיות בתחום ספציפי המתחלף ממפגש למפגש. לשפר את רמת השיח הציבורי תוך עבודה על נאומים ורטוריקה. נשים דגש על ניתוח מעמיק והתנסחות חדה תוך הימנעות מהתלהמות ודמגוגיה.

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קורסים לקבוצות וארגונים

חברות וארגונים רבים מחפשים לשפר את כושר הביטוי של עובדיהם. בין אם מדובר במהנדסים שקשה להם להציג את התוכניות שלהם או באנשי מכירות שרוצים לשפר את האפקטיביות שלהם. קורס כזה מותאם לאופי המיוחד של הארגון וללוח הזמנים של העובדים.

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אימון אישי (קואצ'ינג)

כושר שיכנוע הוא לא תכונה שרוכשים בבית ספר או באוניברסיטה ולכן אני מציע למנהלים ובעלי תפקידים סדנה לשיפור כושר השכנוע שלהם. בפגישה אישית, פעם בשבוע, אפשר לרכוש כלים לשיפור כושר הניסוח והניתוח, וללמוד להעביר מסר באופן מדוייק ובהיר.

נהלי איחורים, חיסורים וביטולים

מדיניות החיסורים, האיחורים והביטולים נובעת ישירות ממגבלות גודל הקורס ומספר המשתתפים.  מכיוון שכל משתתף בקורס מהווה גם קהל עבור המשתתפים האחרים קיים צורך במספר מספיק של משתתפים כדי ליצר קהל גדול מספיק.  כמו כן מכיוון שכל משתתף חייב לתרגל מול כל הכיתה כל שיעור ישנה מגבלה על מספר המשתתפים.  כדי להשיג איזון בין שתי המגבלות נעשה כל מאמץ להגיע לקבוצה ובה 15 משתתפים, שהוא מנסיון המספר האידיאלי לקבוצה (בהינתן שמשתתפים נאלצים להיעדר לפעמים).

תנאי תשלום

ניתן לשלם לקורס בכרטיס אשראי, בצ'ק או במזומן. תשלום במזומן נותן 10% הנחה. תשלום בצ'ק נותן 5% הנחה (לצ'ק יחיד, למועד פתיחת הקורס). תשלום בכרטיס אשראי נותן אפשרות לשלושה תשלומים ללא ריבית. ללא הוראה אחרת יחוייב כרטיס האשראי בתשלום אחד.

מדיניות איחורים

מכיוון שהקורס כולל העברת כמות גדולה של חומר, וכן מחייב כמות גדולה של תירגול, יש חשיבות להגעה בזמן, במיוחד מכיוון שתחילת רוב השיעורים משמשת לחזרה על שיעורים קודמים.  אין 'עונש' על איחור, אבל לא ניתן להבטיח תירגול למשתתף שאיחר. כמו כן משתתף שהירבה לאחר לא יוכל לקבל החזר על הקורס אם הוא לא מרוצה.

מדיניות חיסורים

חיסורים עשויים לפגוע משמעותית בהתקדמות התלמיד, ולכן מומלץ לכל תלמיד שהחסיר שיעור לעשות מאמץ להשלים אותו. ישנן 4 דרכים להשלים שיעור, והן (לפי סדר יעילות):

• קריאת החומר התיאורטי - זה המינימום המצופה ממי שהחסיר שיעור, בהחלט לא מספיק.

• הצטרפות לשיעור של קבוצה אחרת - משתתף שהחסיר שיעור מוזמן להצטרף לשיעור של קבוצה מקבילה, וכך לשמור על מומנטום של תירגול.  ההשתתפות ללא תשלום (במגבלת מספר משתתפים) אך מחייבת הודעה מראש.

• השתתפות בסדנת  העשרה  - מדי פעם (לרוב פעמיים בחודש)  מתקיימות סדנאות ריענון והעשרה לבוגרים.  תלמידי הקורס יכולים להצטרף לסדנאות אלו בהנחה משמעותית כדי להשלים שיעור שהוחסר או להוסיף מעבר לקורס הרגיל.

• הצטרפות לקורס אחר - לתלמידים שהחסירו יותר משני שיעורים ברצף או שלושה בסה"כ מומלץ לסיים את הקורס עם קבוצה נוספת. ההחלטה הסופית של התלמיד.

שיעור שהתבטל בגלל המרצה יושלם במפגש העוקב (כלומר הקורס ייתארך בשבוע). ומעבר לכך ייעשה מאמץ לקיים את המפגש עם מורה חלופי במועד המקורי, או עם אותו מרצה ביום אחר מעל ומעבר למכסת השיעורים של הקורס.

מדיניות ביטולים

כדי להשיג קהל בגודל מתאים נעשה כל מאמץ להבטיח השתתפות מספר מתאים, ובמיוחד להימנע מרישום יתר (אובר-בוקינג).  לכן מדיניות הביטולים  נוקשה ומחייבת שיקול דעת מראש (מתעניינים הרוצים להתרשם מוזמנים לבקר, ללא תשלום, במפגש של קבוצה אחרת). תנאי החזרי התשלום הינם כדלקמן:

• ביטול עד 72 שעות מפתיחת הקורס - ללא קנס

• ביטול עד יום פתיחת הקורס - ייגבו דמי ביטול של מחיר 2 השיעורים הראשונים.

• ביטול לאחר פתיחת הקורס מותנה במציאת משתתף חלופי. ללא משתתף ייגבה מלוא הסכום.

משתתף שנאלץ לבטל את השתתפותו בקורס יוכל להשלים את הקורס עם קבוצה נוספת במועד שייבחר בכפוף לשיקולי מקום וזמינות.

אם קורס ייתבטל ביוזמת המרצה יזוכה כל משתתף בכל סכום ששילם. כעיקרון מדיניות הגביה היא לחייב את התלמידים רק לאחר השיעור הראשון, ולפיכך בעיה זו אינה אמורה להתרחש.

מדיניות החזרים

משתתף שנכח בכל השיעורים במלואם, ואיננו מרוצה מהקורס מכל סיבה שהיא יוכל לקבל החזר מלא של שכר הלימוד.

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Tips For Hebrew speakers

Speech: In support of Euthanasia

I want to talk to you today about Euthanasia, also known as mercy killing. Let's try and understand what is Euthanasia and the look at why, with all the sadness involved, it is sometimes the right thing to do for the patient and for society.

So first of all, what is Euthanasia?

It is any medical act of terminating treatment for a patient with a terminal illness when there is not medical procedure that could save his life, who suffers from pain and who has knowingly expressed his will to terminate his life. Euthanasia should be subject to an organized procedure to verify that the patient is indeed dying and that he has indeed requested to end his life out of his own free will after understanding the implications.

In some countries such as The Netherlands and Switzerland, for example, one can sign a special will notarized by a doctor and an attorney to order termination of life extending treatment.

So why Euthanasia good for the patient

It is important to understand that the final stages for a disease such as cancer or diabetes are painful beyond imagination. Chemotherapy often feels like it is 'burning' the veins and the tumors themselves are excruciatingly painful in every organs to which they metastasize.

Beyond the physical pain, the patient suffers emotionally from his physical deterioration, his total dependence which precludes any sort of freedom and often also from his family's burden and distress. This leads many patients to ask for end to their suffering and we are obligated to honor their request.

Next let us see why Euthanasia is in society's interest

What we must understand is that we have a limited number of doctors, nurses and beds, and that our hospitals are already overextended and operate at full capacity and beyond. In this situation we often deny the best treatment from patients who could be saved and who want to be saved, because the necessary equipment and medical personnel are occupied pointlessly extending the excruciating lives of terminal patients against their will.

It is an uncomfortable truth, but a truth nevertheless, that the doctors who took care of Ariel Sharon all these years could have saved many lives during that time, and it is very hard to say that Sharon gained anything from their treatment.

So to conclude

We saw that Euthanasia is a noble way to help suffering people who want to end their misery do so, and we have also seen that it is good for their families and for society at large.

Therefore I recommend that you all sign a 'living will' to ensure that when the day come, you and your loved ones will not have to suffer beyond what is necessary.

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Sample Outline: Euthanasia

A. What is Euthanasia

• Definition

• Safeguards

B. Good for Patients

• Physical pain

• Emotional pain

C. Good for Society

• Limited resources

• Pointless (ex: Sharon)

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