Sherer History



Islamic Gunpowder Empires: a comparisonThe Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottoman, Safavid, MughalCommon Elements:Nomadic Turkish conquerersMuslim piety a sign of legitimacy (Sufi influence on leadership)Autocratic ruleImperial family politics often involved deadly competitionInfluence of women within the Imperial family in spite of lack of public power for womenUse of?jizya?tax on?dhimmi?(protected non-Muslim) populationsDecline:Entrenched aristocracy replaces meritocracy.Religious tension: conservativismEconomic peripheralization; loss of tax revenuesCost of warfare and bureaucraciesFailure, sometimes deliberate, to maintain technological development“Cultural Insularity” and tendency towards chauvinismOttomanSafavidMughalFounding1289 – Osman Bey1501 – Shah Ismail (r. 1501-1524)1526 – Babur “the Tiger” (r. to 1530)IslamSunniWahhabi (Arabian)Twelver ShiismSufiAkbar’s “divine faith”Aurangzeb: SunniOriginAnatolia between Black Sea and MediterraneanIran (Tabriz)N. India (Kabul/Qandahar)Largest ExpanseYugoslavia/Greece, N. Africa, MidEast to Tigris River, Black SeaCentral Asia, from Tigris river to Gandahar, Caspian Sea to Persian Gulf and Indian OceanMost of India, except southern tipSignificant Dates1453 – Capture of Constantinople; renamed Istanbul1514 – Battle of Chaldiran (vs. Ottomans)Military Institutionsghazi?“sword of God”Janissaries?–?devshirme?slaves in the armyqizilbash?(“red heads”)“slaves of the royal household”Great LeadersMehmed II “The Conquerer” (r. 1451-1481)Süleyman the Magnificent (or “the Lawgiver”) (r. 1520-1566)Shah Abbas “the Great” (r. 1588-1629)Akbar (r. 1556-1605)Aurangzeb (r. 1659-1707)Cultural MonumentsTopkapi palaceSüleymaniye mosque complex (Istanbul)Isfahan (capital city)Taj Mahal (c. 1650)PopulationEntire Empire1500 – 9M1600 – 28M1700 – 24M1800 – 24MAnatolia1500 – 6M1600 – 7.5M1700 – 8M1800 – 9M1500 – 5M1600 – 6M1700 –1800 – 8M1500 – 105M1600 – 135M1700 – 165M1800 – 190MReligious Minoritiesmillet?system: Christians, Jews.Zoroastrians, Jews, ChristiansToleration varies: Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, Christians, SikhsExportsSilk, SpicesSilk, carpets, ceramics, craftsPepper, jewels, metal craft goodsVicesTobacco, CoffeeEndEnd of World War I (1919)1722, mostly absorbed by Ottomanslate 18c, mostly absorbed by British - source: Jonathan Dresner, Pittsburg State University?The Gunpowder Empires from: many West European preconceptions, the Near/Middle East was not a backwater of the world in the seventeenth century. ?In fact, three of the greatest empires (Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal) known to world history existed in the Near East and Southern Asia at that time, and it could be argued that all three were near their peak of cultural influence and political power--far more powerful than any country or kingdom existing in Western Europe in the seventeenth century.Scholars often use the term "gunpowder empire" to describe each of these three empires, focusing attention on their military exploits, which were, indeed, impressive. Each made use of newly-developed firearms, especially cannon and small arms, to create their empires.? And to equip their armies, each state developed a highly centralized administration that could mobilize the financial, manpower and natural resources necessary to purchase gunpowder arms and then supervise the deployment of those arms and the training of soldiers to use the weapons.But all three empires were also centers of impressive cultural (artistic, literary and architectural) achievements. ?In addition, each was also all based on Islam in one form or another.? In the Safavid Empire, for example, it was Shah Ismail I who really established the Shiite faith as the dominant religion of Iran/Persia.The?Safavid Empire?of Persia was a gunpowder empire set up by Shah Ismāīl I in the early sixteenth century.? The Empire, based at Isfahan, lasted until 1722, reaching its height under Shah Abbās the Great, at the beginning of the seventeenth centuries. Curiously, Shah Abbās used the help of an English soldier-of-fortune to help him reorganize and train his army.? He then went on to expand and solidify his empire.The Mughals--The word "Mughal" (sometimes "Mughul") is a corruption of the word for "Mongol"--led one of the world's most powerful empires. Babur (1483-1530), founder of the dynasty, led the invasion of India from Central Asia, a traditional invasion route that passed through Afghanistan. Despite overwhelming odds against him and only modest military means, Babur was able to consolidate power in Central Asia before capturing Delhi in 1526. His grandson, Akbar (1556-1605) was truly one of the greatest rulers that the world has ever known. He ruled with a legendary sense of justice/fairness and had the unique ability to fuse together competing customs and religious traditions, which was no small feat on the South Asian subcontinent.The Ottoman Empire, often most familiar to students of Western European history because of the long, close contact between the Ottomans and Europe, lasted the longest of these three empires surviving all the way into the twentieth century (1299-1922). The Ottoman capture of Constantinople in 1453 finally brought an end to the fading glories of Rome and firmly cemented the Ottoman Turks as the power in the Eastern Mediterranean. Expansion continued through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries under sultans such as Selim I (1512–1520) and Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566). At its zenith, the empire controlled North Africa, most of the Eastern Mediterranean and also Eastern Europe and the Balkan Peninsula. In the last century of its existence, Western European diplomats began to call the Ottoman Empire the "the sick man of Europe" as it battled against nationalist uprisings in much of its territory and faced internal corruption problems.It seemed rather strange to me that despite my familiarity with the term "gunpowder empire," there was very little in terms of academic discourse about that phenomenon on the web. I knew that I had encountered the term years ago in the small pamphlet published by the American Historical Association (William McNeil,?The Age of Gunpowder Empires, 1450–1800). I also knew that I had repeatedly encountered the term in world history textbooks, where it is widely used, and I am also aware that supposedly Marshall Hodgson, the outstanding historian of the Islamic world, is credited with inventing the term, but I remain surprised that there has not been much extended debate over the terms and boundaries of the phrase "gunpowder empire.".?References:Gunpowder Empires?(entry from from the?Encyclopedia of World History)Steve Muhlberger,?The Gunpowder EmpiresRise of the Gunpowder Empires?(publisher's note)The OttomansThe Age of the Gunpowder Empires?(architecture notes)Additional Resources and contrast imperial expansion and consolidation in the Islamic “Gunpowder Empires” during the period c. 1450 to 1800 mon Elements:Nomadic Turkish conquerorsMuslim piety a sign of legitimacy (Sufi influence on leadership)Autocratic ruleImperial family politics often involved deadly competitionInfluence of women within the Imperial family in spite of lack of public power for womenUse of?jizya?tax on?dhimmi?(protected non-Muslim) populationsDecline:Entrenched aristocracy replaces meritocracy.Religious tension: conservativismEconomic peripheralization; loss of tax revenuesCost of warfare and bureaucraciesFailure, sometimes deliberate, to maintain technological development“Cultural Insularity” and tendency towards chauvinismPossible Categorical ArgumentsGunpowder Technologies and military conquest purchased from abroad (inability to manufacture their own leads to demise against the rising, competitive west) / continued expansion and “booty” fueled centralized bureaucracy – when conquests stopped so too did funding. excessive warring led to serious drainage at the same time Europe was ascending- ottoman janissaries and imported European military “experts” for Mughal conquest of Delhi- Ottoman’s gain more legitimacy as Sunni vs Safavid Shiacentralized bureaucracies including local elites (minority cultures)- devshirme in Ottoman with Armenians, Jews and Christians- created “cult followings” with the janissaries and Akbar’s “Devine Wind” religionruling as political / religious authority [Sultan / Shah] / adoption or enforcement- created absolute monarchies – succession issues show power of figurehead- steppe culture allowed for the bending of religion to fit the needs of their different emerging states- Ottoman ruled over mostly homogeneous population vs. Mughals as Islamic minority over a Hindu majority- Akbar selecting Hindu officials and removing jizya = peaceful / Aurangzeb revoking niceties = disintegration and collapse- Religion- Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires were religiously diverse- Gave religious minorities protection, known as dhimmi- Did not impose Islam, but taxed non-Muslims (jizya)- Allowed non-Muslims to run their own communitiesEncourage trade without controlling it is a large similarity / encouraged, protected and taxed urban, commercial centersarchitectural and artistic patronage to enhance legitimacyOttoman and Mughal probably easiest with two COMPS and a CONTRAST with respect to adopting religion of masses for legitimacy ................
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