Language Summaries - shsenglishstudies



Language Summaries

Checklist:

• Tenses

1. Sentence analysis

2. Parts of speech

3. Prefixes & Suffixes & Roots

4. Punctuation

5. Direct & indirect / reported speech

6. Active & passive voice

7. Concord (subject & verb agreement)

8. Synonyms, antonyms, homonyms & homophones

9. Degrees of comparison

10. Register & Levels of Language

11. Connotation & Denotation

12. Ambivalence & Ambiguity

13. Figures of speech (poetry & comprehension & language!!)

1. Tenses

| |Present |Past |Future |

|Indefinite |am/is/are + 3rd verb |was/were + 3rd verb |shall/will + be + 3rd verb |

| |1st verb |2nd verb |shall/will + 1st verb |

|Continuous |am/is/are + being + 3rd verb |was/were + being +3rd verb |shall/will + be + being +3rd verb |

| |am/is/are + 1st verb(ing) |was/were + 1st verb(ing) |shall/will + be + 1st verb(ing) |

|Perfect |has/have + been + 3rd verb |had + been + 3rd verb |shall/will + have been + 3rd verb |

| |has/have + 3rd verb |had + 3rd verb |shall/will + have + 3rd verb |

*tense recipe for passive voice & different forms of verb to be as used in the passive voice!

2. Sentences

• TYPES:

o Simple – has one finite verb.

▪ Stephen walked home.

o Compound – has two or more finite verbs (two or more simple sentences).

▪ Albert enjoys supper and likes cooking.

o Complex – has one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

▪ After she ate breakfast, Thandi went to school.

• Sentences are divided into a SUBJECT and PREDICATE.

o Subject = person / thing performing the action

o Predicate = starts with verb and expands on the subject

• Sentences can also be divided into clauses and phrases (Grades 10 – 12).

o Clause = a complete sentence containing a FINITE VERB

= divided into MAIN and SUBORDINATE clauses

o Phrase = group of words sensibly arranged within a sentence without a FINITE VERB

= provides more information about nouns or verbs

= divided into ADJECTIVAL, NOUN and ADVERBIAL phrases

The glorious sunset awed the onlookers while they were walking on Table Mountain.

3. Parts of speech:

|NAME |FUNCTION |CLUES |EXAMPLE |

|Noun |Naming word |Plural/singular |Cat, table, April, Pretoria, anger |

|(4 types) | |Takes an article | |

| | |Some take a capital letter | |

|Pronoun |Stands in place of a noun |Can be replaced by a noun |She, it, yours, whose, that |

|(6 types) | | | |

|Adjective |Describes the noun |Ask if it describes the noun or action! |A talented person has good manners. |

|Verb |Doing word |Ask “Can you …? |We work after we played. |

|(4 types) | |Different tenses | |

|Adverb |Describes the verb |Ask if it describes the noun or verb! |Yesterday he ran fast. |

|(3 types) | |Tells you when, where or how something is done |They learn at school. |

| | | |She sings loudly. |

|Conjunction |Joining word |Joins two words / phrases / sentences. |And, although, but, because, for, however, |

| | |Indicates time / cause / effect / comparison / |unless, while, if, or, neither, before, |

| | |contrast |hence, therefore |

|Preposition |Small word which relates 2 words / |Usually precedes nouns / pronouns or articles |She sat on a chair behind her desk. |

| |phrases | | |

|Article |Precedes nouns / adjectives |Can not be another part of speech!! |Indefinite: ‘a’, ‘an’ |

|(2 types) | | |Definite: ‘the’ |

|Interjection |Words used to express emotion. |No real grammatical function. |Wow! Ouch! Really? |

| | |Usually stands alone | |

4. Prefixes, Suffixes & Roots

• The meaning of a word can be changed by adding a prefix or suffix to the root.

• Know the difference between pre/suffixes as well as their meanings.

o Root = core of a word

o Prefix = before root word; can create new words or antonyms

o Suffix = after root word; modifies words and change part of speech

5. Punctuation

• A sentence starts with a capital letter (A, B, C) and ends with a full stop (.) / question mark (?) / exclamation mark (!).

• Commas (,) create a pause and are used to separate words in a list or phrases. They are also used to separate additional information within a sentence.

• Semi-colons (;) create a longer pause and joins two complete sentences that are either balanced in importance OR indicates opposite ideas. They are also used to separate two main clauses where there is no conjunction.

• Colons (:) indicate that a list / explanation / idea is following. They also introduce a quotation and are used in script / dialogue writing.

• Parenthesis (brackets / commas / dashes) are used to separate additional information from the rest of the sentence.

• Quotation marks are used to indicate reported speech / quotations / titles / metaphoric uses. Single quotation marks (‘ ’) are used for titles and metaphorical use and double quotation marks (“ ”) are used for direct speech and quotations.

• Hyphens (-) links prefixes to words or links two words to form compound words. It helps to understand / differentiate meanings. When a word cannot be completed on one line then a hyphen is also used to link the two parts of the word.

• Dashes (–) are used to separate words / ideas / extra information / comments / afterthoughts from the rest of a sentence. It creates a pause and may be used to create a dramatic pause leading to a climax or anti-climax.

• Ellipses (…) are used to indicate that a sentence is incomplete or that something has been omitted from a quote. When used within a sentence it consists of 3 dots. When used at the end of a sentence it still consists of 3 dots, but a full stop must also be added ….

• Apostrophes (‘) are NOT used to indicate plurals! ( They either indicate singular or plural possession or contraction by omission.

← Possession:

▪ Singular nouns = ‘s (e.g. man’s, princess’s)

▪ Plural nouns ending on “s” = only ‘ (e.g.: cats’, men’s)

▪ Names from the Bible, classical history & Shakespeare’s plays ending on “s” only take ‘, e.g. Jesus’ teachings; Brutus’ plan

▪ NB: possessive pronouns, abbreviations and plural dates do NOT take apostrophes!

← Contraction:

▪ The apostrophe is placed where the omitted letter(s) would have been

▪ E.g.: didn’t, I’ll, aren’t

6. Reported speech:

E.g.: She said, “I am ill today.” → She said that she was ill that day.

• Always remove quotation marks and use “that” or appropriate question word to introduce reported speech. The rest of the changes depend on the introductory verb

• Identify the tense of the introductory verb!

o If PRESENT –only change pronouns!

o If PAST –change the following:

1. pronouns

2. time and place words

3. verbs jumps BACK one tense

← Time and Place words:

|here |( |there |Yesterday |( |the previous day / the day before |

|this |( |that |the day before yesterday |( |two days ago |

|now |( |then |Tomorrow |( |the following / next day |

|today |( |that day |the day after tomorrow |( |in two days’ time |

← NB: Interjections must be described. For example:

o “Ouch! I’ve stumped my toe,” screamed the girl. ( The girl screamed in pain that she had stumped her toe.

o The players shouted, “Hooray! We’ve won!” ( The players shouted with joy that they had won.

7. Active & Passive voice:

Active: The man ate an apple. → Passive: An apple was eaten by the man.

1. Determine subject (ask who/what + verb – Who ate? = the man)

2. Determine the object (take subject + verb and ask whom/what – the man ate what? = an apple)

3. Determine tense of the verb (ate = past indefinite).

4. Start with the object and use the tense recipe (p1 of notes) and add the subject as the agent!

(((((( NB: DO NOT CHANGE THE TENSE!!! ((((((

8. Concord rules:

S Singular = is/was/has; add an “s” to present tense verbs.

S Plural = are/were/have; use present tense verb as is.

S A pronoun must agree with the noun it is replacing and should not be changed within a sentence.

For example:

o One must always do one’s best. / He is doing his best. / The girls are doing their best.

S Two nouns forming ONE IDEA = singular.

S “Excluding” prepositions (or/ either … or / neither … nor / not … but) = look at noun/pronoun closest to verb.

e.g.: Either the teacher or the LEARNERS ARE going on a field trip.

S “Inclusive" prepositions (with / together with / including / as well as / like) = look at first noun/pronoun.

e.g.: The TEACHER together with her students IS going on a field trip.

S Amount / distance / time = singular

S A part of ONE thing = singular (two thirds of the class is absent)

S A part of MANY things = plural (half of the sandwiches are eaten)

9. Synonyms are words that have the same meaning (Synonyms = Same).

e.g.: active = energetic

Antonyms are words with opposite meanings (Antonyms = Anti).

e.g.: above ( below

Homonyms are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings.

e.g.: A dog’s bark vs a tree’s bark.

Homophones are words that sound the same but are spelled differently.

e.g.: We talk aloud vs We are allowed to leave.

10. Degrees of comparison:

E.g.: Nice (positive) – nicer (comparative) - nicest (superlative)

• When a word has 3 or more syllables use more and most; (more beautiful – most beautiful)

• When comparing 2 = comparative form (Joan is the taller of the two women.)

• When comparing 3+ = superlative form (Ann is the fittest of all four women.)

11. Register

This refers to how formal or informal language is used.

Register can be either FORMAL or INFORMAL.

Informal Language:

← Colloquialism = ordinary, everyday speech of a specific place and time period (braai, lekker, mate)

← Slang = made-up language, very informal, considered ‘bad grammar’ (gonna, wanna, ain’t, y’all)

← Jargon = insider language used exclusively by specific groups of people or professions (byte ( IT language, bogeys ( golf language)

12. Denotation = dictionary definition of a word

Connotation = emotions attached (connected) to the word

e.g: “gang” denotation = group of people; connotation = angry, violent group

13. Ambivalence = a piece of writing with an intentional double meaning

Ambiguity = a piece of writing with an unintentional double meaning

14. Figures of speech

Comparisons: These figures of speech vividly describe one thing by comparing it to another.

← Simile – describes something it to something else, using the words AS or LIKE.

o He is as tough as steel.

← Metaphor – describes one thing in terms of another using a statement without the use of AS or LIKE.

o She is a fish in water.

← Personification – gives human qualities to inanimate objects or abstract ideas.

o The wind danced over the river.

← Apostrophe – addressing or speaking to an abstract idea / inanimate object / dead person as if it were human.

o Hello Darkness, my old friend, I’ve come to talk to you again.

← Allusion – a direct or indirect referral to a particular aspect.

o He was a real Romeo with the ladies.

Sound Devices: These depend for their effect on the sounds of letters and words, either to echo or reinforce the words or to just create a musical effect.

← Alliteration – repetition of consonant sounds in a line or stanza. Helps to create rhythm or mimics a specific sound.

o Katie called Candice to kill the cockroach.

← Assonance – repetition of vowel sounds in a line or stanza. Helps to create rhythm.

o The rough stuff was not enough.

← Onomatopoeia – written words that describes a sound.

o Tick-tock, bang, sizzle

Contradictions: These involve statements that seem to contradict each other, or are the opposite of the writer’s intended meaning. They often only make sense when you think about them carefully.

← Irony – implies the opposite of what is being said. The intention is for the opposite to be understood.

o I cannot wait for detention.

← Sarcasm – like irony but with the purpose of insulting, humiliating or hurting.

o You had to work really hard to end last.

← Satire – sharp wit, irony or sarcasm used to expose or ridicule human, social or political weaknesses.

o Cartoons like Madam & Eve.

← Oxymoron – two contradictory words used next to each other.

o That was a pretty ugly sight!

← Paradox – a contradictory statement which is found to be true after examination.

o She is only happy when she has something to worry about.

← Antithesis – ideas are compared and contradicted within a sentence.

o You’re easy on the eyes yet hard on the heart.

← Litotes – a negative and a positive is used together to understate what is intended.

o He is no Einstein.

Exaggeration & Understatement: These convey a message by either over- or understating the real situation.

← Innuendo – a remark which hints at something without stating it directly, usually disapproving.

o He has the perfect face for radio.

← Hyperbole – an over-exaggeration that is not meant to be taken literally.

o I have explained this a million times!

← Climax – a build-up of ascending ideas reaching a peak.

o I saw, I stared, I screamed.

← Anti-climax (bathos) – the deliberate arrangement of ideas in a descending order, ending up in something trivial.

o He dedicated his life to working for the city, his beloved family and his tennis club.

← Euphemism – an unpleasant/uncomfortable situation is expressed in a more sensitive manner.

o Our pet went to heaven.

Other:

← Pun – a clever play on words.

o Atheism is a non-prophet organisation.

← Rhetorical question – no answer is expected.

o Are you really that stupid?

← Anaphora – using a specific clause at the beginning of each sentence or point to make a statement.

o “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times….”

← Tautology / Redundancy / Pleonasm – unnecessary repetition of meaning within a sentence; a statement that says the same thing twice in different ways.

o She was all alone by herself.

← Malapropism – unintentional use of incorrect but similar sounding words.

o He had to use a fire distinguisher.

← Spoonerism – mixing up of the initial sounds of spoken words.

o I like red belly jeans.

← Metonymy – a simple or easily understood object is used to express a more complex idea. A word that has a very similar meaning can be used for another.

o The pen is mightier than the sword.

o He spoke in a foreign tongue.

o Using the word “crown” for “royalty” or “lab coats” for “scientists”

← Synecdoche – a part of something is mentioned when it actually means the whole.

o Let’s go for a drive. I have a new set of wheels!

When asked to “comment on the effectiveness of the figure of speech” this is what you do:

ð Identify the relevant figure of speech.

ð State what is being compared/contrasted/exaggerated/other relevant to the text.

ð Explain what the figure of speech means – give the figurative meaning.

Writing a Summary

M Read the INSTRUCTIONS carefully and follow them!

⇨ Word count?

⇨ Point form / paragraph / numbered sentences?

⇨ Overview summary / specific details?

M Read the passage to get an overview.

M Highlight the main ideas. – find the topic sentence of each paragraph.

M Write a rough draft from the highlighted ideas.

M Combine similar ideas and avoid adjectives and adverbs.

M Edit the draft:

⇨ Remove repetition and unnecessary details.

⇨ Leave out examples, explanations and quotations.

⇨ Combine sentences if possible.

⇨ Use your OWN words and correct spelling & grammar!

⇨ Check your word count!

M Cross out all planning!

M Rewrite a neat, final copy, add a title if required and provide a correct word count.

Answering a Comprehension Test

S Skim through the passage to get an overview and take note of the following:

⇨ Title – may offer a clue to the content & intention of the passage

⇨ Author – may help you identify the era & style

⇨ Introduction – creates atmosphere and setting

⇨ Conclusion – ties up the intention

S Read through the questions carefully. This step may also be done FIRST!

S Read the passage again with a highlighter and mark all answers you spot.

S Read the questions again – check the QUESTION WORDS and KEY WORDS and INSTRUCTIONS to make 110% sure you know what is being asked.

S Go back to the passage to find all the answers, paying attention to WHAT you must answer and HOW you must answer. Now only do you start to answer!

S Very important: answer in full sentences unless specified otherwise!

S Never copy directly from the passage UNLESS you are asked to quote! And when asked to quote, remember to use “quotation marks”!

S Remember that spelling and language count!

-----------------------

subordinate clause

main clause

adverbial phrase

noun phrase

No capital letter!

Introductory verb

Comma introduces direct speech.

End punctuation falls within quotation marks.

No quotation marks!

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