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Comma (,) Use

1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

• The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.

• The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.

• Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.

2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.

a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma includeafter, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.

• While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.

• Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.

• If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.

• When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.

However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).

• INCORRECT: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.

• CORRECT: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is correct, because it is an example of extreme contrast.)

b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).

• Having finished the test, he left the room.

• To get a seat, you'd better come early.

• After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.

• The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.

c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.

• Well, perhaps he meant no harm.

• Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.

• However, you may not be satisfied with the results.

3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.

Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:

• If you leave out the clause, phrase, or word, does the sentence still make sense?

• Does the clause, phrase, or word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?

• If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?

If you answer "yes" to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:

• Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.

• Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.

• Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.

4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.

• That clauses after nouns:

o The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.

o The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.

• That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:

o She believes that she will be able to earn an A.

o He is dreaming that he can fly.

o I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.

o They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.

• Examples of other essential elements (no commas):

o Students who cheat only harm themselves.

o The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.

o The candidate who had the least money lost the election.

• Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):

o Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.

o My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.

o The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.

o Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.

o Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow.

o Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.

o It is up to you, Jane, to finish.

o She was, however, too tired to make the trip.

o Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.

5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.

• The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.

• The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.

• The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.

6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.

Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:

• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?

• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?

If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:

• He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)

• They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)

• She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate)

• Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate)

The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.)

The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)

7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.

• He was merely ignorant, not stupid.

• The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.

• You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?

• The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.

8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)

• Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)

• INCORRECT: Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)

• Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)

• Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)

 

9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.

• Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.

• July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue,Washington, DC?

• Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.

(When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: "The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")

 

10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.

• John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."

• "I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."

• In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"

11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.

• To George, Harrison had been a sort of idol.

Comma Abuse

Commas in the wrong places can break a sentence into illogical segments or confuse readers with unnecessary and unexpected pauses.

12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.

• INCORRECT: An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult.

• INCORRECT: The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.

13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.

• INCORRECT: We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.

• INCORRECT: I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.

14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.

• INCORRECT (compound subject): The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married.

• INCORRECT (compound object): Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.

15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).

• INCORRECT: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.

• CORRECT: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (This comma use is correct, because it is an example of extreme contrast)

Semi-Colons (;)

1. You can use a semi-colon to join two independent clauses. Joining two independent clauses this way implies that the two clauses are related and/or equal, or perhaps that one restates the other.

• Seinfeld was definitely my favorite television show during the 1990s; in fact, it is my favorite television show of all time.

• I am going to visit Anna in St. Louis next weekend; we’ll get to see the Arch, Busch Stadium, and the Landing.

2. Use semi-colons between items in a list that already involve commas.

• I have lived in Chicago, Illinois; Kansas City, Missouri; and Omaha, Nebraska.

• The sweaters I bought today were purple, blue, and green; yellow, white, and red; and pink, black, and grey.

Colons (:)

1. Use a colon after an independent clause when introducing a list.

• The catering facility offers the following entrees: fried catfish, grilled chicken, pan-seared salmon, and sirloin steak.

2. Use a colon after an independent clause when introducing a quotation.

• My teacher’s remark on my final essay was very complimentary: “This essay coherently analyzes musical trends of the late 20th century.”

3. Use a colon between two independent clauses when you want to emphasize the second clause.

• I don’t understand why everyone shops at that store: everything there is so expensive.

Quotation Marks (“ ”)

1. Put quotation marks around direct quotes. Make sure to put punctuation (commas, periods, etc.) before the first quotation mark and inside of the closing quotation mark.

• My mom asked, “What would you like for dinner?” and I answered, “soup and salad.”

• Jared said: “My favorite part of Thanksgiving Day is football.”

TIP: Remember that 95% of the time the comma or period go TO THE LEFT (think Beyonce) of the quotation mark.

2. Use quotation marks around short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.

• My dad and I danced to “When a Man Loves a Woman” at my wedding.

• For my literature class, we are reading Shirley Jackson’s short story “The Lottery.”

Commas versus Semi-Colon Exercise

DIRECTIONS: Each of the following sentences needs either a comma or a semicolon. Put in the necessary punctuation.

1. Many companies make sugar-free soft drinks, which are flavored by synthetic chemicals the drinks usually contain only one or two calories per serving.

2. Mr. Leyland played the viola professionally for many years and he now conducts a community orchestra.

3. The crab grass was flourishing but the rest of the lawn, unfortunately, was dying.

4. The hill was covered with wildflowers it was a beautiful sight.

5. As I turned around, I heard a loud thump for the cat had upset the goldfish bowl.

6. The artist preferred to paint in oils he did not like watercolors.

7. The house was clean, the table set, and the porch light on everything was ready for the guests' arrival.

8. He looked carefully in the underbrush but he failed to notice the pair of green eyes staring at him.

9. The foundations of the house had been poured but, to his disappointment, nothing else had been done because of the carpenters' strike.

10. The computer could perform millions of operations in a split second however, it could not think spontaneously.

11. I thought registration day would be tiring but I didn't know I'd have to stand in so many lines.

12. The dog, growling and snarling, snapped at me I was so frightened that I ran.

13. The snowstorm dumped twelve inches of snow on the interstate subsequently, the state police closed the road.

14. Professors are supposed to be absent-minded and I've seen plenty of evidence to support that claim since I've been in college.

15. The suspect said that he had never met the victim however, the detective knew that he was lying.

16. In the first place, it was snowing too hard to see the road in the second place, we had no chains.

17. I have read Soul on Ice but I have not read The Invisible Man.

18. San Francisco is my favorite city in fact, I plan to spend two weeks there this summer.

19. The quarterback made a brilliant pass and the end crossed the goal line for the winning touchdown.

20. Large supermarkets fascinate me I can find everything from frozen chow mein to soybean flour in one place.

21. Ron and Mike were both in English class this morning they gave an interesting presentation on their research.

22. The obstacles are not insurmountable but they are real and formidable.

23. Riding a bicycle is excellent exercise I ride mine every day.

24. I am not interested in a trip to Asia this year however, I would like to go to Europe.

25. Not all highly educated people enjoy traveling, but many world travelers are particularly well educated.

26. Jack worked overtime to pay off his education debts at least, that was his explanation for his long hours.

27. Katherine has given up smoking about five times but she cannot seem to break the habit.

28. His work may be almost totally forgotten but he would certainly be surprised to see how much current scholarship simply echoes his ideas.

29. Our dog seems to have a built-in alarm clock he wakes us up at exactly the same time every morning.

30. The passengers on the plane were initially alarmed by the loss of altitude but the pilot and the crew kept them calm.

31. I realized at once that something was wrong I was not, however, the only person who was concerned.

32. I had to complete the assignment by Friday otherwise, I would have failed the course.

33. Ralph decided to be a chemist but he changed his mind after taking Chem. 121.

34. I finished reading The Nation and then I went to bed.

35. We always go to the mountains in the fall they are at their prettiest at that time of year.

36. Tim went to the candy store quite often the clerk even knew his name.

37. Criticism of capitalist expansionism does not surface in most discussions of the worldwide ecological crisis indeed, proposed solutions rarely deviate from a basic message of further technological "progress."

38. The president has pledged to cut taxes repeatedly and the public has responded enthusiastically.

39. The office was closed consequently, I could not pay my bill.

40. The air was beautifully clear it was a lovely day.

The Apostrophe (’)

The apostrophe has three uses:

1. To form possessives of nouns

2. To show the omission of letters

3. To indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters

1. Forming Possessives of Nouns

To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase. For example:

• the boy's hat = the hat of the boy

• three days' journey = journey of three days

If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed!

• room of the hotel = hotel room 

• door of the car = car door 

• leg of the table = table leg

Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one.

• add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):

the owner's car 

James's hat (James' hat is also acceptable. For plural, proper nouns that are possessive, use an apostrophe after the 's': "The Eggleses' presentation was good." The Eggleses are a husband and wife consultant team.)

• add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:

the children's game 

the geese's honking

• add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:

two cats' toys

three friends' letters

the countries' laws

• add 's to the end of compound words:

my brother-in-law's money

• add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:

Todd and Anne's apartment

2. Showing omission of letters

Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:

• don't = do not 

• I'm = I am 

• he'll = he will 

• who's = who is 

• shouldn't = should not 

• didn't = did not 

• could've= could have (NOT "could of"!) 

• '60 = 1960

3. Forming plurals of lowercase letters

Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the plural of a lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors, teachers, and professors still prefer them). Here are some examples:

• p's and q's = minding your p's and q's is a phrase believed to be taken from the early days of the printing press when letters were set in presses backwards so they would appear on the printed page correctly. Although the origins of this phrase are disputed, the expression was used commonly to mean, "Be careful, don't make a mistake." Today, the term also indicates maintaining politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and thank-yous."

o Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.

• three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4

o There are three G4s currently used in the writing classroom.

• many &s = many ampersands

o That printed page has too many &s on it.

• the 1960s = the years in decade from 1960 to 1969

o The 1960s were a time of great social unrest.

o The '60s were a time of great social unrest.

Don't use apostrophes for personal pronouns, the relative pronoun who, or for noun plurals.

Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already show possession—they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive pronouns. However, indefinite pronouns, such as one, anyone, other, no one, and anybody, can be made possessive. Here are some examples:

INCORRECT: his' book 

CORRECT: his book

CORRECT: one's book

CORRECT: anybody's book

INCORRECT: Who's dog is this?

CORRECT: Whose dog is this?

INCORRECT: The group made it's decision. 

CORRECT: The group made its decision.

(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a possessive pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out = it is raining out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact that you don't use an apostrophe for the possessive his or hers, so don't do it with its!)

INCORRECT: a friend of yours' 

CORRECT: a friend of yours

INCORRECT: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket. 

CORRECT: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.

Exercise: Apostrophes

DIRECTIONS: Punctuate the following sentences with apostrophes according to the rules for using the apostrophe.

1. Whos the partys candidate for vice president this year?

2. The fox had its right foreleg caught securely in the traps jaws.

3. Our neighbors car is an old Chrysler, and its just about to fall apart.

4. In three weeks time well have to begin school again.

5. Didnt you hear that theyre leaving tomorrow?

6. Whenever I think of the stories I read as a child, I remember Cinderellas glass slipper and Snow Whites wicked stepmother.

7. We claimed the picnic table was ours, but the Smiths children looked so disappointed that we found another spot.

8. Its important that the kitten learns to find its way home.

9. She did not hear her childrens cries.

10. My address has three 7s, and Tims phone number has four 2s.

11. Didnt he say when he would arrive at Arnies house?

12. Its such a beautiful day that Ive decided to take a sun bath.

13. She said the watch Jack found was hers, but she couldnt identify the manufacturers name on it.

14. Little girls clothing is on the first floor, and the mens department is on the second.

15. The dogs bark was far worse than its bite.

16. The moons rays shone feebly on the path, and I heard the insects chirpings and whistlings.

17. Theyre not afraid to go ahead with the plans, though the choice is not theirs.

18. The man whose face was tan said that he had spent his two weeks vacation in the mountains.

19. I found myself constantly putting two cs in the word process.

20. Johns 69 Ford is his proudest possession.

Hyphen Use (-)

Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the same listings for the following compounds:

• hair stylist

• hairsplitter

• hair-raiser

Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Compounding is obviously in a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen offered here are generally agreed upon.

1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:

• a one-way street

• chocolate-covered peanuts

• well-known author

However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:

• The peanuts were chocolate covered.

• The author was well known.

2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers:

• forty-six

sixty-three

• Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.

3. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:

• re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)

• semi-independent (but semiconscious)

• shell-like (but childlike)

4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:

• ex-husband

• self-assured

• mid-September

• all-inclusive

• mayor-elect

• anti-American

• T-shirt

• pre-Civil War

• mid-1980s

5. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only between syllables:

• pref-er-ence

• sell-ing

• in-di-vid-u-al-ist

6. For line breaks, divide already-hyphenated words only at the hyphen:

• mass-

produced

• self-

conscious

7. For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself:

• plan-ning

• run-ning

• driv-ing

• call-ing

8. Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:

• lovely (Do not separate in a way which leaves ly beginning a new line.)

• eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end of a line.)

Dash ( – )

Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.

• Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and yet so transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications.

• In terms of public legitimacy—that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents, donors, and university administrators—English departments are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught.

• The U.S.S. Constitution became known as "Old Ironsides" during the War of 1812—during which the cannonballs fired from the British H.M.S. Guerriere merely bounced off the sides of the Constitution.

• To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary.

Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.

• The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.

Exercise : Punctuation Exercise ( hyphens #4, 7, 19)

DIRECTIONS: Put in semicolons, colons, dashes, quotation marks, Italics (use an underline), and parentheses where ever they are needed in the following sentences.

1. The men in question Harold Keene, Jim Peterson, and Gerald Greene deserve awards.

2. Several countries participated in the airlift Italy, Belgium, France, and Luxembourg.

3. There's no room for error, said the engineer so we have to double check every calculation.

4. Judge Carswell later to be nominated for the Supreme Court had ruled against civil rights.

5. In last week's New Yorker, one of my favorite magazines, I enjoyed reading Leland's article How Not to Go Camping.

6. Yes, Jim said, I'll be home by ten.

7. There was only one thing to do study till dawn.

8. Montaigne wrote the following A wise man never loses anything, if he has himself.

9. The following are the primary colors red, blue, and yellow.

10. Arriving on the 8 10 plane were Liz Brooks, my old roommate her husband and Tim, their son.

11. When the teacher commented that her spelling was poor, Lynn replied All the members of my family are poor spellers. Why not me?

12. He used the phrase you know so often that I finally said No, I don't know.

13. The automobile dealer handled three makes of cars Volkswagens, Porsches, and Mercedes Benz.

14. Though Phil said he would arrive on the 9 19 flight, he came instead on the 10 36 flight.

15. Whoever thought said Helen that Jack would be elected class president?

16. In baseball, a show boat is a man who shows off.

17. The minister quoted Isaiah 5 21 in last Sunday's sermon.

18. There was a very interesting article entitled The New Rage for Folk Singing in last Sunday's New York Times newspaper.

19. Whoever is elected secretary of the club Ashley, or Chandra, or Aisha must be prepared to do a great deal of work, said Jumita, the previous secretary.

20. Darwin's On the Origin of Species 1859 caused a great controversy when it appeared.

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