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Special Tools: Literature ReviewJason C. Johnson, Sr.Liberty UniversityAbstractFor teachers to be successful in the twenty-first century, they need to become comfortable with using the rudimentary forms of technology, at the very least. Teachers are needed, but they need to keep up with the latest advances in education that students need to benefit from them. Students who are considered moderately or severely intellectually disabled may receive the funding for different types of assistive technology, but those that only have learning disabilities, such as Attention Deficit Disorder, may have a harder time proving the need for such equipment. It is helpful when teachers, parents, and others within the individual’s group of natural supports can offer insight into the abilities and limitations of the students. There are also times when it is more helpful for an outsider to observe the student from a neutral and unbiased perspective. By making specific pieces of training mandatory and available to teachers, there is accountability as well as the opportunity to complete the continuing education that they need to stay up to date. Students with disabilities have the right to reasonable accommodations needed to complete their work successfully. Keywords: access, adaptive equipment, assistive technology, disabilities, government, person-centered planning, professional development, teachers, special education, studentsSpecial Tools: Literature ReviewOne of the hot-button topics in education policy discussions in the twenty-first century is the access and use of adaptive equipment for students with disabilities. Some of the problems relating to students’ inability to use adaptive technologies have to do with employing teachers that are receiving inadequate training, school districts that do not receive funding for students with particular disabilities, and an overall scarcity of resources that students need. Many efforts have been made to solve these problems, including the Intellectual Disabilities Education Act, the Assistive Technology Act (ATA), and innovative solutions provided by organizations like the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) and Texas A&M University-Commerce (TAMUC).OverviewSpecial needs students were once overlooked. At one point in history, those with severe intellectual disabilities were locked away in facilities that could easily be called institutions of lower learning. As the world progressed and human rights became more of a priority, the attitude towards such individuals changed for the better. Students with disabilities now receive more funding and school support. Most of the institutions that they were confined to have since been abolished. Although there have been improvements made, there are still hurdles that need to be cleared. This writer will conduct a literature review which will provide a thorough analysis of some of the current adaptive tools that students are lacking and what are the proposed solutions to accommodate those students better.Theoretical FrameworkFor special education students to succeed in the classroom, they need a combination of adaptive tools tailored to their specific needs. Technology is a field that grows faster than the demand for its products. As soon as consumers learn about a new technology that they believe they need, there is an even newer one that has already made its debut. This trend is seen in the marketing of wireless phone technology. For special education, though, there is an even more considerable delay in adopting new and improved technologies. There is much red tape that needs to be cut through before students can access the best special needs tools available. Adaptive equipment is expensive, and for students to afford it, they often need the financial support of their state or local government. Since approval is needed before schools can spend money on new technologies, students will likely go without them if they are in a less-than-proactive school district. Money is not the only obstacle to students using the adaptive tools that they need. There are school districts where the lack of money is not a concern. Part of the problem is that the teachers who are supposed to introduce students to various technologies fail to do so. These teachers are either ignorant of the technologies or aware but unable to use them. If teachers do not use adaptive equipment, then neither will the students. Teacher compliance, or the lack thereof, is either the gateway or the closed door to special needs students’ success in the classroom. The Teacher’s ResponsibilityThe apostle James shares some sobering information about those who desire to teach others. He says, “Not many of you should become teachers, my fellow believers, because you know that we who teach will be judged more strictly (James 3:1, New International Version). In context, he is speaking about teachers of the scriptures. Special education teachers are not entirely off the hook, however. When God gives someone a platform, especially one as important as teaching children, it is vital that it not be taken lightly. A student is often only as good as their teacher, so if the teacher lacks understanding, there is a high probability that the student will also.Putman and Alexander make some excellent observations by stating that “Three teachers [Mary, Kate, and Sharon] had more than 20 years of experience and were not confident with using technology, although their confidence and willingness to use it had improved over time. Their comments indicated that using technology did not come naturally to them, resulting in limited technological knowledge (2019, p. 6). This lack of confidence that the authors speak of is understandable, given that some teachers began the profession long before the technology was considered a prerequisite for instruction. For teachers to be successful in the twenty-first century, they need to become comfortable with using the necessary forms of technology, at the very least. Given that many more years may pass before teachers from the non-technological era retire, they may find this nagging frustration to be intolerable.For special education teachers, they may not have as much luck with avoiding the use of new technologies. There are many students whose Individual Education Plans require teachers to use certain types of adaptive technologies with them. For these teachers, they are inevitably placed at a sharp fork in the road. If they choose to ignore the need to learn newer technologies that were once not a part of their profession, they will be forced to find a new job or run the risk of being terminated. Older adults are most likely to find it hard to start over and so may be willing to change. Unfortunately, although the willingness is evident, the technical skills needed to support their students properly may be light years away from their practice or expertise. In order for these older teachers to adapt to new technologies for students, they will need assistance.Most jobs expect seasoned staff and faculty members to be leaders and innovators, not the ones who require the equivalent of a new-hire’s training during their first week of orientation. By law, employers are required to accommodate employees who have a physical disability, but no law requires employers to offer advanced training to seasoned employees who are already supposed to have an adequate amount of training, gained from a combination of special education licensure and years of experience in the field.It is important to note that it is not only older adults who may find it challenging to keep up with new technologies but even parents who have taken off a few months or years to raise newborn children. The authors of this article go on to mention that, “Sharon felt that she was a ‘technology immigrant,’ having missed a gradual introduction to technology when she stayed home with her children. When she returned to teaching, her classroom had a smartboard and computers, but she was not initially inclined to use them. She said, ‘I’ve come a really long way but...I was kind of dragged... kicking and screaming.’ Interestingly, these teachers drew a parallel between their struggles with technology and their students’ struggles with academic content” (Anderson and Putman, 2019, p. 6). Many educators feel like the woman Sharon mentioned in this story. Technology moves so fast that being out of it for just a few years may make teachers feel like novices in a field where they once appeared to have expertise.The authors of this article came to this conclusion based upon practice as opposed to theory. They observed real students and real teachers over some time and learned from this authentic experience. They were quickly able to see the types of obstacles to technological advancement that teachers were having.It is important to note that most teachers care about their students. As the above quote suggests, these teachers see the connection between their lack of technological savvy and their students’ underperformance in school. It is highly probable that they experience a sense of guilt due to their inability to prepare their students the way they should. Success in the classroom should be the goal for all teachers and administrators. So when they think they have not delivered effectively, these instructors may become discouraged and think that they cannot measure up. Teachers are needed, but they need to keep up with the latest advances in education that students need to benefit from them. Lack of AccessSpecial educators must wield the appropriate instruments so that they do not cause irreparable injury to the students that they serve. An article published in the journal?Intervention in School and Clinic?makes some excellent points about how teachers need to be better-equipped or else they will not be able to accomplish their teaching objectives. The authors explain, “Special education professionals have a responsibility to learn how, why, when, and for whom various tools and products work, and under what conditions. Special educators must be savvy users of special education technology to avoid causing unintentional educational harm” (Thomas, Peeples, Kennedy, & Decker, 2019, p. 295). It is not enough for an educator to say that they do not have the proper training needed to aid their students with obtaining and using suitable assistive pliance is a major problem in many different professions. A field as crucial as education cannot afford to cut corners. The article writers mention that “The responsibility to comply falls upon educators and developers. All students who are entitled to special education technology access should receive it as prescribed, and special education professionals must learn to facilitate this access” (Thomas, Peeples, Kennedy, & Decker, 2019, p. 298). To avoid losing funding or being penalized in other ways, schools need to do a better job with complying with local and federal laws designed to support students with disabilities. The authors insist that “In order to meet the letter and spirit of the law and to improve outcomes for student with disabilities, special educators, including those in higher education along with teachers in the field who directly make instructional decisions, need solid knowledge about special education technology” (2019, p. 301). Teachers and administrators have a responsibility to act in the best interest of students. If all that is needed is knowledge, then why does lack of compliance persist within the educational system?Part of the issue is that educators do not know where to turn for the right educational resources. However, there is little room for error because, according to the article writers, “People, including schoolchildren, with print disabilities have legal entitlements to AEM. Print disabilities include blindness, visual disabilities, physical limitations, and reading disabilities” (Thomas, Peeples, Kennedy, & Decker, 2019, p. 296). There are less clear laws about the necessity of various educational technologies; however, the principles regarding what students need to thrive still apply.The article highlights some of the challenges faced when attempting to provide students with proper educational technology. One of the most significant issues referenced to is “The mismatch between legal requirements and policy recommendations in contrast to the supports students with disabilities actually receive in schools” (Thomas, Peeples, Kennedy, & Decker, 2019, p. 297). Students who are considered moderately or severely intellectually disabled may receive the funding for different types of assistive technology, but those that only have learning disabilities, such as Attention Deficit Disorder, may have a harder time proving the need for such equipment.Transferable Skills for StudentsWhile teachers must be adequately educated and can assist students with appropriate technologies, students need some necessary skills to thrive first. Understanding time is a skill that may be taken for granted by most fully functional people. The writers of the article?Time Orientation Technologies in Special Education?make this keen observation about helping students, “Such human capacities end up building time orientation skill as an expression of more basic capacities, so it is expected that training improves such underlying capacities. In fact, our experience making time orientation tests with special education children shows their basic skill is far below expected, which in turn means they have a large adaptation and imitation capacity” (Guillomía, Falcó, Artigas and García-Camino, 2019, p. 2). What these journal writers are saying is that for students to learn how to orient differences between times is essential so that those skills can translate into other areas.Transferable skills are necessary for every type of field. It is no less imperative for special education students. The challenge that many teachers face is how to get students to not only obtain a skill but to build upon that skill so that they may advance to new areas. When teaching new technologies, there is a learning curve for students. It may be frustrating for teachers to teach a new skill if they believe that their efforts are fruitless. Some technical skills are prerequisites for other skills, and teachers must be skilled enough to teach them to students.The challenge for teachers as well as instructional designers is to create lesson plans that students with special needs will be able to use effectively. As it relates to time orientation tools, Guillomía, et al. speak about some of the different tools that have been introduced to students. One of those tools, as they mention, is the quarter-hour watch which, “represents events with pictures and the time remaining to the event shown as lighted points or dots [one point represents one quarter of an hour]. It is also used to inform about the estimated duration of a task, based in ‘dot concept’. It has made a great benefit to technical aids community in which many adopted the dot as a standard” (2019, p. 3). There is no need to reinvent the wheel when it comes to special education. Although the teacher’s approach must be person-centered, particular tools have been known to work already, and they should be considered. Once different types of tools have been proven not to work, then more innovation from teachers and administrators may be needed. This speaks to the importance of regularly meeting together with the students’ teams for individualized planning meetings. When teachers, parents, and administrators can get together and discuss how the students are progressing, they may then decide to keep one strategy or to replace it with a new one.A fundamental observation made by the authors of the above article is that it can sometimes be challenging to be objective when determining if a specific technology is most beneficial to students. The writers confess, “Assessment is here subjective and very personalized. Teachers know the children for months or years and have built a relationship with them through time: on one side, this makes them more suitable to detect changes from their common pattern, even subtle changes or changes that are not focused in the evaluation designed; on the other side, observation may be altered due to affection and projected expectations towards children” (Guillomía, Falcó, Artigas, & García-Camino, 2019, p. 16). It is helpful when teachers, parents, and others within the individual’s group of natural supports can offer insight into the abilities and limitations of the students. However, there are also times when it is more helpful for an outsider to observe the student from a neutral and unbiased perspective. Some people, even subconsciously, can alter or influence results based upon their prejudices, which come as a result of prior experiences with the student.How Bias Impacts ResearchConcerning teacher bias, it is important to note that this is a mental disposition. Many teachers mean well and have the students’ best interests in mind. However, when selecting the appropriate technologies for students, they may prove to be more hurtful to the inquisition than helpful. In the journal article, Cultural capital, Teacher Bias, and Educational Success, the authors exclaim, “This result suggests that cultural capital leads teachers to form biased perceptions of children’s academic ability, but only when their exposure to children’s cultural capital is brief, as is the case in a written or oral exam” (J?ger & M?llegaard, 2017, p. 131). Written and oral examinations cannot account for how well a student is doing in their class. The better test would be to determine whether their adaptive technology, which is a regular part of their academic day, is as effective as it should be.These writers of the above article suggest that some students pass through various classes because they have what is known as cultural capital. This cultural capital gives them an advantage in some situations more than in others. Depending upon a student’s background and how they or their parents present them may determine whether or not they pass their classes. In special education, especially with students who have more severe intellectual disabilities, some of the gradings may be more subject than objective. J?ger & M?llegaard write that “Specifically, we hypothesize that if cultural capital operates via teacher bias we expect it to have a stronger effect on the oral grade than on the written grade because in the oral exam the child has the ability to physically ‘show off’ her embodied cultural capital” (2017, p. 133). It is to be noted that the authors suggest that teachers may be facilitators of this cultural capital. Even parents may be the ones who are proponents of it: “bias in mothers’ reports of children’s cultural capital most likely has only a modest impact on our findings. Despite these practical limitations, we believe that our analysis makes an important contribution by demonstrating that individual cultural capital affects educational success even in a highly egalitarian context” (J?ger & M?llegaard, 2017, p. 140). If parents and teachers can be unbiased, they can offer much assistance to uncovering the true potential of their special needs students. However, even if they are unable to be unbiased, there are other ways to determine students’ level of ability to excel in the classroom with or without the adaptive tools prescribed for them. The Assistive Technology ActThere are many problems within special education, and adaptive tools are supposed to minimize some of the obstacles that stand between students and proper education. One of the solutions to the problems proposed earlier is found in the legislation of the Assistive Technology Act (ATA). The ATA is helpful to students by providing teachers with an awareness of specific adaptive equipment. ATA also gives teachers training by way of demonstrations for effective implementation of the tools (Center for Parent Information and Resources, 2010). In an article published by the?Journal of Special Education Technology, the author writes about the benefits of professional development for teachers. In order for students to get the right training, training is needed by the teachers first. As mentioned by the author, “Federal laws require teachers to understand the special needs of their students and provide the best possible education for them. However, many teachers have completed their preservice education without the requisite skills to implement assistive technology to support exceptional students” (Schaaf, 2018, p. 171). As mentioned previously, some special education teachers lack an understanding of how to use some of the newer adaptive technologies because many of them did not exist when they were first trained. The federal government has decided that although that is the case, it is not an excuse for teachers to forgo the usage of such technologies. Schaaf mentions that “Related to the lack of training, teachers reported they were dependent on school staff to ensure they were using the AT correctly. Much of this relates to the fact that technology is constantly changing. Teachers must maintain knowledge on existing technology and understand that technology changes” (2018, p. 180).?Some teachers feel like they are not properly equipped to do the job that they once loved and possibly still do. If teachers are left to figure it out on their own, they may be less likely to seek out training to fulfill their professional development requirements. Thousands of years of human nature evaluation proves that people usually do not do what they do not have to do. The solution is found within ATA, which focuses first on teachers to give them a place of technological refuge and training so that they can pass on what they have learned to their students.Some teachers may not know where to turn when asked to keep up with all of the latest adaptive equipment that their students could be using. The ATA also provides a solution to this problem. Schaaf offers the following recommendation: “All state-funded PD courses should be included in the teacher’s education plan along with complete descriptions of the course objectives. Schools should also take advantage of the technology specialist within the district and the state. Additionally, each school should develop a quarterly AT newsletter identifying best practices for AT devices currently employed by teachers to address the limitations identified by the ESE teachers” (2018, p. 179). By making certain training mandatory and available to teachers, there is accountability as well as the opportunity to complete the continuing education that they need to stay up to date. Conferences, education courses, and even automated webinars for those unable to attend in person are all available to teachers that they may be the best that they can be for their students. This solution is helpful because then teachers are not required to do the work of finding or creating the pieces of training themselves; there is an approved and available place they can go.Innovation in Assistive TechnologyThe Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) is one of the leading agencies that promote adaptive equipment for students with disabilities. According to a recent article published by their executive board, “Researchers, developers, and practitioners continue to contribute relevant scholarship, innovative practices, and technology-based solutions to improve the growth and development of individuals with disabilities” (Smith, 2018, p. 143). CEC announced that they would be making some organizational changes. They discuss how, because they are beginning to do a lot more work towards the development of adaptive equipment than only media production, they will be changing their name from the Technology and Media (TAM) division to something that better reflects their mission. The new name proposed is Innovations in Special Education Technology (ISET). ISET president and professor of special education at Kansas University, Sean J. Smith, Ph.D., also mentions that “Over the past several years, the TAM leadership, in collaboration with many of its members and the broader field, has discussed the evolution of instructional and assistive technologies. With the proliferation of one device per student initiatives, extensive state and local educational agency investment in technologies, the diversity of the hundreds of thousands of apps, and the technology innovations that continue to redefine what is possible” (2018, p. 143).Much can be said about the great work that CEC is doing to assist students with disabilities through their newly named ISET department. About the one device per student initiative, it is a big step in the right direction. Many students could benefit from the use of certain adaptive equipment, but funding for it may not be approved in their district, and so they are forced to do without it. Students with disabilities have the right to reasonable accommodations needed to complete their work, so CEC has been working to make sure that adaptation can become a reality for every student.CEC has done much to celebrate their new initiative by demonstrating how innovative they can be. The article references to how they desire to be “at the forefront of advances in technology, pedagogy, research, and application within the field” and they also mention that “To accompany our name change, ISET is in the process of rolling out several products and resources to serve better our members. One of these products includes a new and improved Assistive Technology [AT] Wheel” (Smith, 2018, p. 143). Such innovations will be able to assist many students with disabilities to thrive in their schools. The Technology LaboratoryThe number of students with disabilities has drastically increased over the years. Once the then called ‘mental retardation’ institutions started shutting down, and people with disabilities began to be seen as people, local and national governments could finally recognize how much support is truly needed. According to the?Education Sciences?Journal, “The U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education reported that 5,944,241 students ages 5–21 were provided special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA], Part B in 2016” (Jones, Williams, and Rudinger, 2018, p. 1). The IDEA legislation has opened up many doors for students with disabilities.Problems of lack of teacher training were mentioned previously. One of the ways to combat that, according to Jones, Williams, and Rudinger, is to create a place where teachers can receive the proper training. The writers explain, “Due to this need for teacher preparation regarding AT, an Assistive Technology Lab was started at Texas A&M University-Commerce (TAMUC) through a self-funded, collaborative effort” (2018, p. 1). Not only are students impacted indirectly by this technology lab, but they can experience it firsthand. The author’s explain, “In addition to providing resources for students in teacher preparation programs, the lab allows for students with disabilities to arrange times to use devices, and the lab eventually hopes to allow access to families from the community” (2018, p. 1). The article goes on to explain the great tools provided at the lab and how it has impacted students and teachers in a profound way.SummaryTeachers and school administrators have been slow to adopt newer special needs technologies. However, as they have become more aware and adequately trained, students with disabilities now have access to more tools than ever before. Teachers have a responsibility to students to stay up to date with the newest technologies. This technological competence is necessary so that teachers can accomplish the educational objectives that they have set out to fulfill within their lesson plans. Teachers no longer need to feel unprepared as there are resources to train them properly. Advances in educational technology have only begun, and there is much more ahead in the future. Educators and government officials must do their best to provide easy access to adaptive technology tools for students because the world will be a much better place for it.ReferencesAnderson, S., & Putman, R. (2019). Special Education Teachers’ Experience, Confidence, Beliefs, and Knowledge About Integrating Technology. Journal of Special Education Technology. for Parent Information and Resources. (2010, October 9). Assistive Technology Act. Retrieved from ía, M. A., Falcó, J. L., Artigas, J. I., & García-Camino, M. (2019). Time orientation technologies in special education. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 19(11) doi:, M. M., & M?llegaard, S. (2017). Cultural capital, teacher bias, and educational success: New evidence from monozygotic twins. Social Science Research, 65, 130-144. doi:, B., Williams, N., & Rudinger, B. (2018). Designing and implementing an assistive technology lab for postsecondary education. Education Sciences, 8(1), 11. doi: , D. N. (2018). Assistive Technology Instruction in Teacher Professional Development. Journal of Special Education Technology, 33(3), 171–181. , S. J. (2018). Message From the Executive Board: Technology and Media Division Now Innovations in Special Education Technology. Journal of Special Education Technology, 33(3), 143–144. , C. N., Peeples, K. N., Kennedy, M. J., & Decker, M. (2019). Riding the Special Education Technology Wave: Policy, Obstacles, Recommendations, Actionable Ideas, and Resources. Intervention in School and Clinic, 54(5), 295–303. ................
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