Salem lions



TRENCH WARFARE725246118745714972156210Trench Warfare in WWIgreecesocialstudies.kids. warfare is a form of warfare where both combatants have fortified positions and fighting lines are static. Trench warfare arose when there was a revolution in firepower without similar advances in mobility. The result was a slow and grueling form of defense-oriented warfare in which both sides constructed elaborate and heavily armed trench and dugout systems opposing each other along a front, with soldiers in both trench lines largely defiladed from the other's small arms fire and enclosed by barbed wire. The area between opposing trench lines (known as "no man's land") was fully exposed to small-arms and artillery fire from both sides. Attacks, even successful ones, often sustained severe casualties as a matter of course. Periods of trench warfare occurred during the American Civil War, the Russo-Japanese War, and reached peak bloodshed on the Western Front of World War I. Frontline trenches were usually about seven feet deep and six feet wide. The front of the trench was known as the parapet. The top two or three feet of the parapet and the parados (the rear side of the trench) would consist of a thick line of sandbags to absorb any bullets or shell fragments. In a trench of this depth it was impossible to see over the top, so a two or three-foot ledge known as a fire-step, was added. Trenches were not dug in straight lines. Otherwise, if the enemy had a successive offensive, and got into your trenches, they could shoot straight along the line. Each trench was dug with alternate fire-bays and traverses.Duck-boards were also placed at the bottom of the trenches to protect soldiers from problems such as trench foot. Soldiers also made dugouts and funk holes in the side of the trenches to give them some protection from the weather and enemy fire. The front-line trenches were also protected by barbed-wire entanglements and machine-gun posts. Short trenches called saps were dug from the front-trench into No-Man's Land. The sap-head, usually about 30 yards forward of the front-line, were then used as listening posts. Behind the front-line trenches were support and reserve trenches. The three rows of trenches covered between 200 and 500 yards of ground. Communication trenches, were dug at an angle to the frontline trench and was used to transport men, equipment and food supplies.276225753110MACHINE GUNS-276225831854400550162560 Machine GunsThe machine gun, which so came to dominate and even to personify the battlefields of World War One, was a fairly primitive device when general war began in August 1914.? Machine guns of all armies were largely of the heavy variety and decidedly ill-suited to portability for use by rapidly advancing infantry troops.? Each weighed somewhere in the 30kg-60kg range - often without their mountings, carriages and supplies.The 1914 machine gun, usually positioned on a flat tripod, would require a gun crew of four to six operators.? In theory they could fire 400-600 small-calibre rounds per minute, a figure that was to more than double by the war's end, with rounds fed via a fabric belt or a metal strip.The reality however was that these early machine guns would rapidly overheat and become inoperative without the aid of cooling mechanisms; they were consequently fired in short rather than sustained bursts.? Cooling generally took one of two forms: water cooled and, increasingly as the war developed, air cooled.? Water jackets would provided for the former (which held around one gallon of liquid) and air vents would be built into the machine gun for the latter.Water cooled machine guns would still overheat relatively quickly (sometimes within two minutes), with the consequence that large supplies of water would need to be on hand in the heat of a battle - and, when these ran out, it was not unknown for a machine gun crew to solve the problem by urinating into the jacket.Whether air or water cooled, machine guns still jammed frequently, especially in hot conditions or when used by inexperienced operators. Consequently machine guns would often be grouped together to maintain a constant defensive position. Estimates of their equivalent, accurate, rifle firepower varied, with some estimating a single machine gun to be worth as many as 60-100 rifles: a more consensual figure is around 80, still an impressively high figure.en.landships.152400867410POISONOUS GASES37052252667051435020955chemistry., Poison Gas in World War 1The use of poison gas was a major military innovation of the First World War. The gases used ranged from tear gas to disabling chemicals such as mustard gas and killing agents like phosgene. The killing capacity of gas was limited - only 3% of combat deaths were due to gas - however, the proportion of non-fatal casualties was high and gas remained one of the soldier's greatest fears. Unlike most other weapons of the period, it was possible to develop effective countermeasures to gas and hence in the latter stages of the war, as the use of gas increased, in many cases its effectiveness was diminished. History of poison gas attacks in WW1The early uses of chemicals as weapons were as a tear-inducing irritant (lachrymatory), rather than fatal or disabling poisons. The French were the first to employ gas, using grenades filled with tear gas (xylyl bromide) in August 1914. Germany retaliated in kind in October 1914, firing shrapnel shells filled with a chemical irritant against French positions at Neuve Chapelle though the concentration achieved was so small it was barely noticed. Germany was the first to make large scale use of gas as a weapon. On January 31, 1915, 18,000 artillery shells containing liquid xylyl bromide tear gas (known as T-Stoff) were fired on Russian positions during the Battle of Bolimov. Instead of vaporizing the chemical froze, completely failing to have an impact. Chlorine became the first killing agent to be employed by Germans when they began developing methods of discharging chlorine gas against enemy trenches. Chlorine was inefficient as a weapon. It produced a visible greenish cloud and strong odor, making it easy to detect. It was water-soluble so the simple expedient of covering the mouth and nose with a damp cloth was effective at reducing the impact of the gas. Chlorine required a concentration of 1,000 parts per million in order to be fatal, destroying tissue in the lungs. However, despite its limitations chlorine was an effective terror weapon and the sight of an oncoming cloud of the gas was a continual source of dread for the infantry. Gas masks and other reliefsThe Small Box Respirator featured a single-piece, close-fitting rubberized mask with eye-pieces. The box filter was compact and could be worn around the neck. The SBR could be readily upgraded as more effective filter technology was developed. The SBR was the prized possession of the ordinary infantryman; when the British were forced to retreat during the German Spring Offensive of 1918, it was found that while some troops had discarded their rifles, hardly any had left behind their respirators. It was not only humans that needed protection from gas; horses and mules, which were the main means of transport, were also vulnerable to gas and needed to be provided with protection.For mustard gas, which did not need to be inhaled in order to inflict casualties, no effective countermeasure was ever found. The kilt-wearing Highland regiments of Scotland were especially vulnerable to mustard gas injuries due to their bare legs. Some Scots battalions took to wearing women's pantyhose beneath the kilt as a form of protection. In 1915, when gas was relatively new, less than 3% of British gas casualties died. In 1916, the proportion of fatalities jumped to 17%. By 1918, the figure was back below 3%, though the total number of British gas casualties was now nine times the 1915 levels. Delivery systemsThe first system employed for the mass delivery of gas involved releasing the gas from cylinders in a favorable wind such that it was carried over the enemy's trenches. The main advantages of this method was that it was relatively simple and, in suitable atmospheric conditions, produced a concentrated cloud capable of overwhelming the gas mask defenses. The disadvantages of cylinder releases were numerous. First and foremost, delivery was at the mercy of the wind. If the wind was fickle, the gas could backfire, causing friendly casualties. Gas clouds gave plenty of warning, allowing the enemy time to protect themselves, though many soldiers found the sight of a creeping gas cloud unnerving. Also gas clouds had limited penetration, only capable of affecting the front-line trenches before dissipating. Finally, the cylinders had to be emplaced at the very front of the trench system so that the gas was released directly over no man's land. This meant that the cylinders had to be manhandled through communication trenches, often clogged and sodden, and stored at the front where there was always the risk that cylinders would be prematurely breached during a bombardment. A leaking cylinder could issue a telltale wisp of gas that, if spotted, would be sure to attract shellfire. Delivering gas via artillery shell overcame many of the risks of dealing with gas in cylinders. Gas shells were independent of the wind and increased the effective range of gas, making anywhere within reach of the guns vulnerable. Gas shells could be delivered without warning, especially the clear, nearly odorless one. There are accounts of gas shells, landing with a "plop" rather than exploding, being initially dismissed as dud or shrapnel shells, giving the gas time to work before the soldiers were alerted. The main flaw associated with delivering gas via artillery was the difficulty of achieving a killing concentration. Each shell had a small gas payload and an area would have to be subjected to a saturation bombardment to produce a cloud to match cylinder delivery. Mustard gas, however, did not need to form a concentrated cloud and hence artillery was the ideal vehicle for delivery of this battlefield pollutant. AIRPLANES89663059055history1900s.203166810795vlib.usIn 1914 it was important that aircraft be easy to fly, as the amount of training that pilots received was minimal, to say the least.? Louis Strange, an innovative pilot from the opening stages of the war, was an early graduate of the RFC (Royal Flying Corps) flight school.? He began flying combat missions having completed only three and a half hours of actual flying time.? For this reason aircraft were designed for stability.? By the end of the war stability had given way to maneuverability.? The famous Sopwith Camel was a difficult aircraft to fly, but supremely agile.Not only did aircraft become faster, more maneuverable and more powerful, but a number of technologies that were common at the start of the war had almost disappeared by the end of it.? Many of the aircraft in 1914 were of "pusher" layout.? This is the same configuration that the Wright brothers used, where the propeller faced backwards and pushed the aircraft forward.The alternative layout, where the propeller faces forwards and pulls the aircraft, was called a "tractor" design.? It provided better performance, but in 1914 visibility was deemed more important than speed.? World War One marked the end of pusher aircraft.Another technology that scarcely survived the war was the rotary engine.? In this type of engine the pistons were arranged in a circle around the crankshaft.? When the engine ran, the crankshaft itself remained stationary while the pistons rotated around it.? The propeller was fixed to the pistons and so rotated with them.? Rotary engines were air cooled, and thus very light. They provided an excellent power-to-weight ratio, but they could not provide the same power that the heavier in-line water cooled engines could.? Although they remained in use throughout the war, by 1918 Sopwith remained the last major manufacturer still using them.The rapid pace of technological innovation was matched by a rapid change in the uses to which aircraft were put.? If in 1914 there were few generals who viewed aircraft as anything more than a tool for observation and reconnaissance (and many of them had great reservation even to that use) by the end of the war both sides were integrating aircraft as a key part of their planned strategies.While the plane did not play the decisive roll that it was to play in later conflicts, the First World War proved their capabilities.? It was during this period that the key tasks that aircraft could perform were discovered, experimented with, and refined: observation and reconnaissance, tactical and strategic bombing, ground attack, and naval warfare.? With the growing importance and influence of aircraft came the need to control the air, and thus the fighter was born.Article contributed by Ari Unikoski-114300-76200The Bristol Fighter entered operational service in France at the beginning of 1917 with No. 48 Squadron RFC. Originally thought to suffer from structural weakness the aircraft was initially put into service as a gun platform. From experience the design was shown to be structurally sound and was then flown as a fighter and proved itself more than adequate for the task.19050235585RAILROADS & TRAINS2857506985Destroyed railroad during WWI-17145043180-171450408940en.-171450361569038100952500ARMORED TANKSmilitary.beute.narod.ru-5024755325755The tank was developed by the British in World War I as a solution to stalemate trench warfare. The first prototype of the Mark I tank was tested for the British Army on September 8, 1915. Although initially termed "land ships" by The Admiralty, to preserve secrecy the initial vehicles were referred to as "water-carriers" which was then shortened to "tanks".The French were not far behind the British in tank development and fielded their first tanks in 1917. The Germans on the other hand were slower with tank development, concentrating on anti-tank weapons rather than tanks.Initial results with tanks were mixed, with problems in reliability when getting the tanks into combat and on the move. The heavily shelled terrain was hard going, and only very mobile tanks such as the Mark I and FTs performed reasonably. The Mark I's rhomboid shape meant it could navigate larger obstacles, especially long trenches, better than many modern armored fighting vehicles.The tank would eventually make the trench warfare of World War I obsolete, and the thousands of tanks fielded by French and British forces made a significant contribution to the war.Initially, commanders and men found it difficult to adjust to these bulky monsters with their cumbersome design. However, tanks gradually gained respect as tactical weapons. They provided greater mobility and cover for infantry on the battlefield, and they could be used as supply carriers and artillery launchers. They were also used on the Eastern Front in Palestine from 1917.The Mark V tank was a great improvement on its predecessors. It had a powerful purpose-built engine, as well as a new steering mechanism. It was more reliable, mobile and easier to control. Crews had also improved: they were now better trained and more experienced.Major General John Monash was one of the main supporters of tanks and their potential in 1918. Since earlier models had proven ineffective in previous battles, many Australian soldiers were reluctant to try them again. To Monash's credit, he did, and he was rewarded. Tanks were used in a variety of roles: to protect infantry, to attack and fire on the enemy front line, to cut through wire entanglements, and to carry ammunition and supplies. A German tank captured at Villers-Bretonneux by the 26th Australian Battalion near Monument Wood, 14 July 1918.SUBMARINESen.A submarine is a watercraft that can operate independently underwater, as distinct from a submersible that has only limited underwater capability. The term submarine most commonly refers to large manned autonomous vessels, however historically or more casually, submarine can also refer to medium sized or smaller vessels, (midget submarines, wet subs), Remotely Operated Vehicles or robots. Submarine was shortened from the term 'submarine boat'.Submarines are referred to as "boats" for historical reasons because vessels deployed from a ship are referred to as boats. The first submarines were launched in such a manner. The English term U-Boat for a German submarine comes from the German word for submarine, `U-Boot`, itself an abbreviation for Unterseeboot ('undersea boat').Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century. Submarines were first widely used in World War I, and feature in many large navies. Military usage ranges from attacking enemy ships or submarines, aircraft carrier protection, blockade running, ballistic missile submarines as part of a nuclear strike force, reconnaissance and covert insertion of special forces. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection/maintenance. Submarines can also be specialized to a function such as search and rescue, or undersea cable repair. Submarines can also be used in tourism and for academic research.Submarines have one of the largest ranges in capabilities of any vessel, ranging from small autonomous or one- or two-man vessels operating for a few hours, to vessels which can remain submerged for 6 months such as the Russian Typhoon class. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers. Modern deep diving submarines are derived from the bathyscaphe, which in turn was an evolution of the diving bell.Most large submarines comprise a cylindrical body with conical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines this structure is the "sail" in American usage ("fin" in European usage). A "conning tower" was a feature of earlier designs: a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller (or pump jet) at the rear and various hydrodynamic control fins as well as ballast tanks. Smaller, deep diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layoutTECHNOLOGY OF WORLD WAR IName & Description of Technology:How could this new technology change how wars were fought?Advantages of new technology: Disadvantages of new technology: Name & Description of Technology:How could this new technology change how wars were fought?Advantages of new technology: Disadvantages of new technology: Name & Description of Technology:How could this new technology change how wars were fought?Advantages of new technology: Disadvantages of new technology: Name & Description of Technology:How could this new technology change how wars were fought?Advantages of new technology: Disadvantages of new technology: Name & Description of Technology:How could this new technology change how wars were fought?Advantages of new technology: Disadvantages of new technology: Name & Description of Technology:How could this new technology change how wars were fought?Advantages of new technology: Disadvantages of new technology: Name & Description of Technology:How could this new technology change how wars were fought?Advantages of new technology: Disadvantages of new technology: Summary: Were the new technologies beneficial in fighting the War? If so, in what ways? If not, support your answer. Use SPECIFIC examples from the pictures above to support your claim. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ................
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