Ideas and Movements, 19th century



Ideas and Movements, 19th centuryThe Progressive Movement was an effort to cure many of the ills of American society that had developed during the great spurt of industrial growth in the last quarter of the 19th century. The frontier had been tamed, great cities and businesses developed, and an overseas empire established, but not all citizens shared in the new wealth, prestige, and optimism. Efforts to improve society were not new to the United States in the late 1800s. A major push for change, the First Reform Era, occurred in the years before the Civil War and included efforts of social activists to reform working conditions and humanize the treatment of mentally ill people and prisoners. Others removed themselves from society and attempted to establish utopian communities in which reforms were limited to their participants. The focal point of the early reform period was abolitionism, the drive to remove what in the eyes of many was the great moral wrong of slavery. The second reform era began during Reconstruction and lasted until the American entry into World War I. The struggle for women's rights and the temperance movement were the initial issues addressed. A farm movement also emerged to compensate for the declining importance of rural areas in an increasingly urbanized America. As part of the second reform period, progressivism was rooted in the belief, certainly not shared by all, that man was capable of improving the lot of all within society. As such, it was a rejection of Social Darwinism, the position taken by many rich and powerful figures of the day. Progressivism also was imbued with strong political overtones, and it rejected the church as the driving force for change. Specific goals included: ? The desire to remove corruption and undue influence from government through the taming of bosses and political machines? the effort to include more people more directly in the political process? the conviction that government must play a role to solve social problems and establish fairness in economic matters.The success of progressivism owed much to publicity generated by the muckrakers, writers who detailed the horrors of poverty, urban slums, dangerous factory conditions, and child labor, among a host of other ills. Successes were many, beginning with the Interstate Commerce Act (1887) and the Sherman Antitrust Act (1890). Progressives never spoke with one mind and differed sharply over the most effective means to deal with the ills generated by the trusts; some favored an activist approach to trust-busting, others preferred a regulatory approach. A vocal minority supported socialism with government ownership of the means of production. Other progressive reforms followed in the form of a conservation movement, railroad legislation, and food and drug laws. The progressive spirit also was evident in new amendments added to the Constitution, which provided for a new means to elect senators, protect society through prohibition and extend suffrage to women. Urban problems were addressed by professional social workers who operated settlement houses as a means to protect and improve the prospects of the poor. However, efforts to place limitations on child labor were routinely thwarted by the courts. The needs of African Americans and Native Americans were poorly served or served not at all — a major shortcoming of the progressive movement. Progressive reforms were carried out not only on the national level, but in states and municipalities. Prominent governors devoted to change included Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin and Hiram Johnson of California. Such reforms as the direct primary, secret ballot, and the initiative, referendum, and recall were effected. Local governments were strengthened by the widespread use of trained professionals, particularly with the city manager system replacing the frequently corrupt mayoral system. Formal expression was given to progressive ideas in the form of political parties on three major occasions: ? The Roosevelt Progressives (Bull Moose Party) of 1912Politics and Public Service, 1912-1952The Progressive Party was a factor in the presidential campaigns of three men — Theodore Roosevelt, Robert La Follette, and Henry Wallace. There were a few Progressive Party organizations spanning this period of time but after the 1952 elections, they disappeared entirely. Its first incarnation came in 1912, when Theodore Roosevelt led progressive elements out of the Republican Party. Roosevelt had made no secret of his low opinion of President William H. Taft and felt he could not support the ticket. Taft had particularly angered Roosevelt, an ardent conservationist, by removing Gifford Pinchot as chief forester. Roosevelt struck out on his own and formed the first Progressive Party, saying he was as fit as a bull moose, from which came the colloquial name "Bull Moose Party." His platform called for tariff reform, stricter regulation of industrial combinations, women’s suffrage, prohibition of child labor, and other reforms. The new party nominated Roosevelt for president and Hiram Johnson for vice president. Although the Progressives finished well ahead of Republicans in the election, they lost to the Democratic candidate, Woodrow Wilson. When Roosevelt returned to the Republican fold in 1916, the Progressive Party vanished for a time. In 1924, liberals were so frustrated with conservative control of both major political parties that they formed the League of Progressive Political Action, better known as the Progressive Party. Robert La Follette of Wisconsin, a Republican, decided to run for president as an independent, but later accepted the nomination from the Progressive Party. Senator Burton K. Wheeler, a Democrat from Montana, was nominated for vice-president. The party advocated government ownership of public utilities and such labor reforms as collective bargaining. It also supported farm-relief measures, lower taxes for persons with moderate incomes, and other such laws. Although La Follette received 17 percent of the popular vote, he only carried Wisconsin’s electoral vote. In 1934, La Follette’s sons organized a progressive party in Wisconsin. Robert La Follette, Jr. was elected to the Senate but was beaten in 1946 by Joseph McCarthy. Yet another progressive party was formed in 1948. Former New Deal Democrats had become dissatisfied with the policies of Harry Truman and wanted their own party. They nominated Henry A. Wallace for president and Glen H. Taylor for vice president. They advocated liberal policies that included rights for minorities, curbs on monopolies, and the repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act. The party's platform should have appealed strongly to blacks, intellectuals, and labor union members, but the support given them by the Communist Party was used against them by both major parties. The progressives maintained their right to accept support from any group. This was high-principled but politically fatal. Wallace received only 2.4 percent of the popular vote and carried no state. In 1950, the party opposed America's decision to fight in Korea. Wallace split with the party's leadership on the issue and resigned from the party. The Progressive Party disappeared after the 1952 election. Only time will tell if another progressive party will be formed.Business and IndustryDuring the 1870s, farmers in the West and South were afflicted by falling prices, mounting debt and climbing interest rates. A response to these conditions was found in 1877 with the creation of the Southern Farmers’ Alliance (formally the national Farmers’ Alliance and Industrial Union). The SFA grew when the Grange movement was declining as a force for reform. During the 1880s, the SFA claimed more than three million members, many of them involved in cotton production. Only whites were accepted for membership; the blacks would form a similar, but separate group. The primary concerns of the Southern Farmers’ alliance were twofold: Purchasing Issues. Southern farmers attempted to band together to purchase equipment and supplies in bulk for price breaks. Marketing Issues. Farm prices had been declining since the early 1870s, which provoked farmers' increasing resentment of middlemen's fees. Impetus grew to discover ways to bypass them. The Alliance addressed these concerns by fashioning cooperatives and trade agreements, efforts that improved the lot of some farmers. Tension developed over the question of affiliation with a political party. Some members believed that cooperative ventures were less beneficial than an expansion of the currency, creating support for the greenback movement and later the free silver cause. The Alliance proved to be incapable of confronting the farm overproduction issue. The Alliance supported the Populist Party in the Election of 1892, but declined rapidly in its aftermath.Ideas and Movements, Capitalism in the Gilded AgeSocial Darwinism was the application of Charles Darwin's scientific theories of evolution and natural selection to contemporary social development. In nature, only the fittest survived—so too in the marketplace. This form of justification was enthusiastically adopted by many American businessmen as scientific proof of their superiority. Leading proponents of Social Darwinism included the following: Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Spencer was an English social philosopher and prime advocate of Darwin's theories, perhaps doing more than any other figure of his era to gain acceptance for the theory of evolution. Spencer also applied Darwinian theory to human development, arguing that wealth and power were signs of fitness and that mankind benefited from intense competition and removal of the weak and unfit. Spencer was widely popular among American capitalist leaders, but held a much smaller following in his homeland. William Graham Sumner (1840-1910). Sumner was a Yale-based sociologist and political economist who espoused an extreme laissez faire position, arguing that the government had absolutely no role in the economy's functions. Not only did he argue against antitrust legislation, but also against protective tariffs and government intervention on behalf of management in labor strike situations. To Sumner, the economy was a natural event and needed no guidance in its evolution. In 1907, Sumner published his most influential book, Folkways, in which he argued that customs and mores were the most powerful influences on human behavior, even when irrational. He concluded that all forms of social reform were futile and misguided. Sumner's views contrasted sharply with those of the advocates of the Social Gospel. Social IssuesThe term "muckraker" was taken from the fictional character in John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, a man who was consigned to rake muck endlessly, never lifting his eyes from his drudgery. People in the United States had long been displeased with the unsafe conditions, political corruption and social injustice of the industrial age, but it was not until the late 19th century that the proliferation of cheap newspapers and magazines galvanized widespread opposition. Writers directed their criticisms against the trusts (oil, beef and tobacco), prison conditions, exploitation of natural resources, the tax system, the insurance industry, pension practices and food processing, among others. Theodore Roosevelt, however, became angry when he read a bitter indictment of the political corruption of the day. The president, clearly one of the most fervent reformers, believed that some of the writers were going too far, and cited the muckraker image in a speech criticizing the excesses of investigative journalism. The writers, many of whom had been Roosevelt's ardent supporters, harshly criticized him for apparently deserting their cause. Originally used in a pejorative sense, the term muckraker soon developed a positive connotation in the public mind. Leading writers of this genre included: Lincoln Steffens, an investigator of corruption in state and municipal governments, published Shame of the Cities in 1904 Edwin Markham published an exposé of child labor in Children in Bondage (1914) Jacob Riis depicted the misery of New York City slums in How the Other Half Lives (1890), an early advocacy of urban renewal Ida Tarbell wrote a series of magazine articles detailing the business practices of Standard Oil, which appeared in McClure's and later were published in book form as The History of the Standard Oil Company (1904) David Graham Phillips' Cosmopolitan article, "The Treason of the Senate," a bitter indictment of political corruption, provoked President Roosevelt's wrath, but created momentum that would culminate in the adoption of the 17th Amendment Henry Demarest Lloyd's Wealth against Commonwealth (1894) chronicled the rise of John D. Rockefeller and Standard Oil Ray Stannard Baker examined the sad state of race relations in America in Following the Color Line (1908) Brand Whitlock expressed his opposition to capital punishment in the novel The Turn of the Balance (1907), while serving as the reform mayor of Toledo, Ohio Samuel Hopkins Adams won fame from his muckraking exposés of the patent medicine industry Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906) was largely responsible for federal legislation regulating food and drug practices; he was later a failed Socialist political candidate, a founder of the American Civil Liberties Association, a prolific fiction writer and Pulitzer Prize winner. Public interest in the writings of the muckrakers began to wane around 1910; however, the momentum they created would continue to influence legislation for many more years.Federal Government, 1887 - The First Cleveland AdministrationDuring the 1870s, many Americans (particularly farmers) began to resent the apparent stranglehold the railroads exerted over many parts of the country. However, the postwar presidents and many in Congress resisted intervention in economic matters. Early efforts to bring some form of regulation to the giants were made at the state level, but those measures were later struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1887, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act which created the Interstate Commerce Commission, the first true federal regulatory agency. It was designed to address the issues of railroad abuse and discrimination and required the following: Shipping rates had to be "reasonable and just" Rates had to be published Secret rebates were outlawed Price discrimination against small markets was made illegal. Although the law granted the Commission power to investigate abuses and summon witnesses, it lacked the resources to accomplish its lofty goals. Later presidents would assure that reform would not go too far, by appointing pro-railroad commissioners.Acts, Bills, and Laws, 1890The last third of the 19th century witnessed the development of business conglomerates or trusts. Many people believed that this new form of business organization stifled competition and led to manipulation of prices. State governments, mostly in the West and South, passed laws to regulate corporate behavior, but the wily trusts simply established themselves in friendly states such as Delaware and New Jersey. The Sherman Antitrust Act, the first federal antitrust law, authorized federal action against any "combination in the form of trusts or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade." In the eyes of many Congressmen, the measure would look good to the public, but be difficult to enforce. Lack of specificity in the act's wording led the courts to struggle for years before they could agree on the meanings of "trust", "combinations," and "restraint of trade." In the first 10 years of the law's existence, many more actions were brought against unions than big business. The first meaningful challenge to this legislation came in the E.C. Knight case in 1895. Provisions of the act A: Trusts, etc., in restraint of trade illegal; penalty "Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal. Every person who shall make any contract or engage in any combination or conspiracy hereby declared to be illegal shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $10,000,000 if a corporation, or, if any other person, $350,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding three years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court." B: Monopolizing trade a felony; penalty "Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $10,000,000 if a corporation, or, if any other person, $350,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding three years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court." C: Trusts in Territories or District of Columbia illegal; combination a felony "Every contract, combination in form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce in any Territory of the United States or of the District of Columbia, or in restraint of trade or commerce between any such Territory and another, or between any such Territory or Territories and any State or States or the District of Columbia, or with foreign nations, or between the District of Columbia and any State or States or foreign nations, is declared illegal. Every person who shall make any such contract or engage in any such combination or conspiracy, shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $10,000,000 if a corporation, or, if any other person, $350,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding three years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court." D: Jurisdiction of courts; duty of United States attorneys; procedure "The several district courts of the United States are invested with jurisdiction to prevent and restrain violations of sections 1 to 7 of this title; and it shall be the duty of the several United States attorneys, in their respective districts, under the direction of the Attorney General, to institute proceedings in equity to prevent and restrain such violations. Such proceedings may be by way of petition setting forth the case and praying that such violation shall be enjoined or otherwise prohibited. When the parties complained of shall have been duly notified of such petition the court shall proceed, as soon as may be, to the hearing and determination of the case; and pending such petition and before final decree, the court may at any time make such temporary restraining order or prohibition as shall be deemed just in the premises." E: Bringing in additional parties "Whenever it shall appear to the court before which any proceeding under section 4 of this title may be pending, that the ends of justice require that other parties should be brought before the court, the court may cause them to be summoned, whether they reside in the district in which the court is held or not; and subpoenas to that end may be served in any district by the marshal thereof." F: Forfeiture of property in transit "Any property owned under any contract or by any combination, or pursuant to any conspiracy (and being the subject thereof) mentioned in section 1 of this title, and being in the course of transportation from one State to another, or to a foreign country, shall be forfeited to the United States, and may be seized and condemned by like proceedings as those provided by law for the forfeiture, seizure, and condemnation of property imported into the United States contrary to law." G: Conduct involving trade or commerce with foreign nations "Sections 1 to 7 of this title shall not apply to conduct involving trade or commerce (other than import trade or import commerce) with foreign nations unless-- 1. such conduct has a direct, substantial, and reasonably foreseeable effect-- 1. on trade or commerce which is not trade or commerce with foreign nations, or on import trade or import commerce with foreign nations; or 2. on export trade or export commerce with foreign nations, of a person engaged in such trade or commerce in the United States; and 3. such effect gives rise to a claim under the provisions of sections 1 to 7 of this title, other than this section. If sections 1 to 7 of this title apply to such conduct only because of the operation of paragraph (1) (B), then sections 1 to 7 of this title shall apply to such conduct only for injury to export business in the United States." H: "Person" or "persons" defined "The word 'person,' or 'persons,' wherever used in sections 1 to 7 of this title shall be deemed to include corporations and associations existing under or authorized by the laws of either the United States, the laws of any of the Territories, the laws of any State, or the laws of any foreign country. Presidents, The Theodore Roosevelt AdministrationIt had long been believed in the United States that the supply of new lands and natural resources was unlimited. In 1890, however, the Director of the Census announced that a western frontier no longer existed. The last remaining reserved area, the Oklahoma Territory, had been opened for settlement in the previous year. Other remaining unoccupied lands were largely either arid or mountainous. A bitter debate followed—and continues today—between those who argued that America should exploit its resources to the fullest for as long as they last and those who favored conservation as a means to sustain supply over a longer time and preserve natural beauty. By the turn of the century, several things were evident: Forests throughout the country were depleted; some estimates indicated that only about 20 percent of the original woodlands remained in 1900 Much of the nation’s farmland, particularly in the South and East, had been exhausted by overuse and was marginally productive Extractive industries such as oil, gas, and minerals were proceeding at an unfettered pace Water rights were increasingly coming under the control of private parties, who often operated without concern for flood control or the preservation of natural features. Theodore Roosevelt, a sportsman and naturalist, sided emphatically with the conservationists. Legislative effort was devoted to changing the way America used its land, especially in the West. The Newlands Act of 1902 placed the federal government in an activist role in the areas of water management and reclamation. The president, with the aid and encouragement of Chief Forester Gifford Pinchot, worked to preserve more than 170 million acres, mostly in the West, in the forms of national parks and monuments. The following constitute a portion of Roosevelt’s legacy: ItemLocationRemarks1902Crater LakeNational ParkOregonThe act that created this park was the result of a 17-year effort by William G. Steel.1903Wind CaveNational ParkSouth DakotaAlso designated a National Game Preserve - August 10, 1912.1904SullysNational ParkNorth DakotaRe-designated a National Game Preserve, March 3, 1931. 1905??Creation of U.S. Forest Service1906PlattNational ParkOklahomaNoted for its numerous cold springs.Mesa VerdeNational ParkColoradoThe cliff dwellings here represent the last 75 to 100 years of occupation at Mesa Verde.Devil’s TowerNational MonumentWyomingThe nearly vertical monolith known as Devil’s Tower rises 1,267 feet above the meandering Belle Fourche River.El MorroNational MonumentNew Mexico"Inscription Rock" is a soft sandstone monolith, rising 200 feet above the valley floor, on which are carved hundreds of inscriptions.Chaco CanyonNational MonumentNew MexicoChaco Canyon was a major center of ancestral Pueblo culture between AD 850 and 1250.Petrified ForestNational MonumentArizonaThe park features one of the world's largest and most colorful concentrations of petrified wood.Montezuma CastleNational MonumentArizonaNestled into a limestone recess high above the flood plain of Beaver Creek in the Verde Valley stands one of the best-preserved cliff dwellings in North America.1907Cinder ConeNational MonumentCaliforniaLater would become part of Lassen Peak Volcanic National Park.Lassen PeakNational MonumentCaliforniaLater would become part of Lassen Peak Volcanic National Park.Gila Cliff DwellingsNational MonumentNew MexicoA glimpse of the homes and lives of the people of the Mogollon culture who lived in from the 1280s through the early 1300s.TontoNational MonumentArizonaHome to the prehistoric Salado people, named in the early 20th century after the lifegiving Rio Salado, or Salt River.??1908Grand CanyonNational MonumentArizonaTR acted to prevent construction of railway along rim; 1919 became Grand Canyon National Park.PinnaclesNational MonumentCaliforniaLater transferred to Department of the Interior.Jewell CaveNational MonumentSouth DakotaWith more than 127 miles surveyed, Jewel Cave is recognized as the third longest cave in the world.Natural BridgesNational MonumentUtahWhere meandering streams cut through the canyon walls, three natural bridges formed: Kachina, Owachomo and Sipapu.TumacacoriNational MonumentArizonaComprises the abandoned ruins of three ancient Spanish colonial missions.WheelerNational MonumentColoradoA few hundred acres of enchanting rock formations. Monument later abandoned.1909Mount OlympusNational MonumentWashingtonTR acted two days before leaving office.Acts, Bills, and LawsThe Interstate Commerce Act (1887) had long proved insufficient in safeguarding the interests of those dependent upon the railroads. Two major efforts were made to improve conditions: Elkins Act (1903). The Elkins Act ended the common practice of the railroads granting rebates to their most valued customers. The great oil and livestock companies of the day paid the rates stated by the railroads, but demanded rebates on those payments. The giants paid significantly less for rail service than farmers and other small operators. The railroads had long resented being extorted by the trusts and welcomed the Elkins legislation. The law provided further that rates had to be published and that violations of the law would find both the railroad and the shipper liable for prosecution. This measure brought some improvement, but other abuses needed to be addressed. Hepburn Act (1906). The Hepburn Act strengthened existing railroad regulations in the following ways: Increased the size of the Interstate Commerce Commission from five to seven members Gave the ICC the power to establish maximum rates Restricted the use of free passes Brought other common carriers (businesses that transport goods or information for a fee), such as terminals, storage facilities, pipelines, ferries and others, under ICC jurisdiction Required the adoption of uniform accounting practices for all carriers In appeals situations, placed the burden of proof on the shipper, not the ICC; this was a major change from the previous practice in which the railroads had blunted regulations by lengthy appeals. President Roosevelt was a major factor in securing passage of this measure; he countered the furious opposition of the railroads and many other parts of the business community.Acts, Bills, and Laws, 1906 - The Theodore Roosevelt AdministrationThe muckrakers had successfully heightened public awareness of safety issues stemming from careless food preparation procedures and the increasing incidence of drug addiction from patent medicines, both accidental and conscious. Scientific support came from Dr. Harvey W. Wiley, the Department of Agriculture's chief chemist, who published his findings on the widespread use of harmful preservatives in the meat-packing industry. The experience of American soldiers with so-called “embalmed beef” during the Spanish-American War added impetus to the movement. Public pressure forced a reluctant Congress to consider a Pure Food and Drug bill in 1906. Provisions of the measure included the following: Creation of the Food and Drug Administration, which was entrusted with the responsibility of testing all foods and drugs destined for human consumption The requirement for prescriptions from licensed physicians before a patient could purchase certain drugs The requirement of label warnings on habit-forming drugs. Passage of the measure in Congress was not assured. The lobbying association representing the medicine makers was vocal and well-funded, as were representatives of the “beef trust” and other food producers. Some members of Congress, especially a number of Southern senators, opposed the bill as constitutionally unsound. The active involvement of Theodore Roosevelt, who was repulsed by slaughterhouse practices described in Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, successfully overcame the lawmakers’ reluctance. The first casualty of this legislation was the patent medicine industry; few of the nostrums gained certification from the FDA. The law was strengthened in 1911 when additional provisions were added to combat fraudulent labeling. Companion legislation was directed squarely at the meat-packing industry in the Meat Inspection Act of 1906. ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download