An Instructor’s Manual to
An Instructor’s Manual to
Church History, Volume One:
From Christ to the Pre-Reformation, 2nd Edition
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Jeff W. Childers
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Foreword
I am grateful first of all to Everett Ferguson, who has supplied us with a splendid textbook on the history of the church in its first thirteen centuries. His remarkable erudition and long experience with the subject matter are evident in his work, making the task of designing a program of learning based on his textbook a pleasant one indeed. He and I share not only a great love for the subject matter, but also a desire to teach students as effectively as possible, so that they might learn to appreciate the rich narrative of church history as well.
The staff at Zondervan has been a delight to work with. I am especially indebted to Joshua Kessler for his constant assistance in bringing this material into publishable form.
Finally, I am grateful to Laura Locke Estes, for her diligent work proofing the manual and associated materials.
Jeff W. Childers, D.Phil. (Oxon.)
Graduate School of Theology
Abilene Christian University
Introduction
The following is a guidebook to assist teachers using the text, Church History, Volume 1: From Christ to the Pre-Reformation, by Everett Ferguson (2nd edition). Ferguson’s textbook is well organized, its material accessible, and its style engaging. Yet the facts of history and the theories by which they are interpreted can be difficult for students to comprehend, especially for periods and places far removed from their own experiences. The purpose of this manual is to help teachers prepare effective lessons more quickly. It seeks to suggest ways in which teachers might build connections between the material of the textbook and the knowledge and experiences of their students, thereby enhancing the learning that can occur as a result of using Ferguson’s text. Few teachers will want to use the material straight from this manual. But it is hoped that the manual will stimulate thinking about how to approach the material and how students might creatively engage, evaluate, and apply it in effective ways.
The first section lists websites that provide resources for the study of church history. In most instances, the websites are repositories of primary texts and other resources, such as images of art and architecture from different periods. The sites in this section are of general or broad interest. Following each chapter summary, further online resources are given, focused more narrowly on the topics of the appropriate chapter. Online resources are increasing at an astounding rate; users will undoubtedly want to complement and update what is given in this manual, especially once they have been introduced to the expanding breadth of online materials.
The second section has chapter summaries and highlights. Taking each chapter in turn, it provides lists of key terms, key points, chapter summaries, pedagogical suggestions, suggested essay questions, and other media resources (online resources, films, etc.). The reader will notice that much of the material has been inspired by the desire to help students think critically about the subject matter, synthesize it with other areas of knowledge, and explore the relevance of history for reflecting on contemporary culture, Christianity, and the church. It is presumed that most classes using the Ferguson textbook would want to stimulate learning at these higher levels, rather than focusing merely on the lower-level aims of mastering the facts. Critical and integrative learning priorities are especially prominent in the pedagogical suggestions, suggested essay questions, and in the selection of additional media resources. Teachers will want to be intentional and strategic in choosing from the ideas and resources presented.
The third section lists learning objectives for each chapter. They can help students focus their engagement with the material. The fourth section is a compilation of quizzes, one for each chapter. The quizzes include true/false, fill-in-the-blank, and multiple-choice questions, with answers supplied. The fifth section contains mid-term and final exams, based on the quiz questions from the previous section. Users will want to select essay questions to include in the exams, alongside the objective questions proposed.
The sixth and last section has outlines for two sample syllabi—one for a course taught in a Monday-Wednesday-Friday format, the other for a Tuesday-Thursday format. Teachers will want to complement the outlines by adding assignments and additional readings, such as primary source text selections from the lists of additional media resources in the second section.
Presentations in PowerPoint format and flashcards to accompany each chapter are also provided as part of this resource, to be found separately.
It is my hope that this material will save teachers time and help them prepare learning opportunities that will enhance students’ experience with the rich narrative of church history.
Table of Contents
Suggested Websites 4
Chapter Summaries and Highlights 6
Student Objectives 86
Chapter Quizzes 95
Mid-term and Final Exams 143
Sample Syllabi 151
Suggested Websites
The present section lists resources of mainly general or broad interest. The second section of the manual provides many suggestions of online resources and other media, arranged by chapter and focused on the specific subject matter and learning objectives of that chapter.
Primary Text Sources
• Christian Classics Ethereal Library: Site providing a wide range of classic Christian writings in English translation.
• Early Christian Writings: English translations of texts primarily from the first two centuries of Christianity.
• The Fathers of the Church: The New Advent collection of translated texts from the church fathers.
• Early Church Fathers: English translations of additional early Christian texts.
• Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Site providing a classified collection of texts from ancient history.
• Internet Medieval Sourcebook: Site providing a classified collection of texts from medieval history.
Pictures, Art & Archaeology
• Art History Resources: An assortment of annotated online resources illustrating the art from various periods.
• Major Museums: The following museums host online galleries of art, architecture, and other artifacts illustrating church history, often with splendid descriptions and many user-friendly features:
o Metropolitan Museum, New York:
o The British Museum, London:
o Vatican Museums, Vatican City:
o Louvre Museum, Paris:
• SmartHistory: Multimedia web book about art and history, with helpful discussions and many images.
Topical Online Resources
• New Testament Gateway: Mark Goodacre’s site, providing many links for the study of the New Testament.
• New Testament Canon: Collection of material related to the formation of the New Testament canon in the early Christian period.
• De Imperatoribus Romanis: Online encyclopedia on the rulers of the Roman Empire.
• Roman Coins: Gallery with representative coins depicting Roman emperors and exhibiting developing imperial symbolism.
• Byzantine Studies on the Internet: Compilation of courses and links related to Byzantine Studies and Eastern Christianity.
• The Labyrinth: Resources for medieval studies.
• Medieval Studies: Online reference book devoted to medieval studies.
• Bartholomew’s World: An NEH funded project hosted by Stanford University, introducing medieval Scholasticism, scholastic texts and authors, and strengthening Latin skills.
• Saints Lives: Compilation of resources on saints’ lives.
Other Resources
• Christian History Magazine: Publication of the Christian History Institute, with many themed issues and specific articles devoted to topics and persons covered by the textbook. Available in print and online.
• The Catholic Encyclopedia: Online edition of the 15-volume publication (1913). Contains many articles on the people, events, movements, doctrines, and other aspects of church history, as told from a pre-Vatican II Roman Catholic perspective.
• History in the Movies: Internet Sourcebooks’ annotated lists of films that can help students visualize the periods, events, and persons of church history.
o Ancient History:
o Medieval History:
• Theologian Trading Cards: Flash cards designed to aid study of important figures; modeled on baseball cards, organized into 15 different teams, with 288 major teachers, leaders, and troublemakers from Christian history.
• North American Patristics Society: Professional academic society devoted to the study of the church fathers. Hosts conferences, publishes a journal, and provides other resources.
• International Conference on Patristics Studies: Blog site dedicated to the major international conference devoted to the study of the church fathers.
• American Society of Church History: Professional academic society devoted to the study of church history. Hosts conferences, publishes a journal and other resources.
• International Congress on Medieval Studies: Site devoted to a major annual conference on medieval studies, hosted by Western Michigan University.
• International Medieval Congress: Site devoted to the largest European gathering on medieval studies, including links to various resources.
Chapter Summaries and Highlights
Chapter 1—The Setting for the Story’s Beginning
Key Terms
Imperial Cult, Hellenistic culture, Greco-Roman world, Diaspora, Septuagint
Key Points
Christianity began in a cultural setting defined by three circles of influence: Roman law and government, Greek culture, and Jewish religion
Christian attitudes, practices, and social norms showed the influence of pre-existing cultures, yet were worked out within a distinctively Christian frame of reference
Judaism provided the immediate religious context for Christianity
Chapter Summary
The setting in which Christianity began was primarily shaped by three key influences: the political rule of the Roman Empire, the cultural impact of Greek expansion, and the religious legacy of Judaism. These three not only shaped the world in which Jesus of Nazareth was born, lived, and died; they also provided the setting in which Early Christianity grew and flourished.
The Roman Empire defined the political and legal environment of the early church. Christians faced charges in Roman courts and their cases were adjudicated by Roman appointed judges. Latin was the official language of government and was especially in use in the western part of the empire.
Following the campaigns of Alexander the Great, Greek (Hellenistic) culture spread over much of the Mediterranean world and beyond. Greek was the language most commonly used throughout the Roman Empire. For centuries, Hellenistic standards were the primary influences on education, literature, and philosophy. As Christians developed their own theology, they did so mainly using the categories and terminology inherited from Greek philosophy. Christian practices were deeply shaped by the practices of the broader culture.
Jesus was born a Jew and his earliest followers were Jews. Although the Jewish homeland (Israel) was the scene of a number of revolts against Rome and was eventually taken away from the Jews, the principal elements of the Christian faith found their original significance in expectations shared by many Jews regarding the Messiah. Early Christian worship and leadership were modeled on that of the synagogue, and Christians used the Jewish scriptures, especially the Greek Septuagint. Christian ethics owed a great deal to Jewish principles.
One of the most remarkable aspects of the story of the church is to be seen in the transformation of a movement centered on a person of Jesus’ humble origins, to become the official religion of the empire and a decisive influence on western civilization and the world.
Pedagogical Suggestions
In class discussion, have students compare and contrast the main features of the setting of early Christianity as described in Chapter 1 with their own contemporary cultural setting.
In groups, have students access the Internet and read blog articles on the subject, “Why study Church History?” Discuss the class’s findings.
In class discussion, have students identify ways in which the expressions of contemporary Christianity with which they are most familiar have been shaped by context. To what extent are they un/comfortable with the influence of cultural context on the church?
Display pictures, graphics, or maps illustrating the expansion of Christian influence over the centuries, from a tiny movement to a contemporary global phenomenon. Have students describe and discuss varying kinds of responses one might encounter in relation to the spread of Christian influence—responses that may be positive, negative, or mixed. Discuss the role that assumptions and biases play in historiography and in the diverse reactions to church history.
Suggested Essay Questions
Describe the main circles of influence regarding the political, cultural, and religious context in which Christianity began.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Why Study Church History?: A brief essay by Don Sweeting, presenting the benefits of studying church history.
Why Study History through Primary Sources?: An explanation in the Medieval Sourcebook of the value of using primary sources in studying history.
A Sense of History: Some Components: A brief explanation of key components of doing history, by Gerald Schlabach.
Ancient History in the Movies: An annotated list of films dealing with ancient events, characters, and themes.
Chapter 2—Jesus and the Beginnings of the Church
Key Terms
Messiah, synagogue, Gentile proselytes, Judaizers, terms of Gentile acceptance, trophies of the Apostles, Johannine traditions, Syriac, Thomas traditions
Key Points
Christianity developed within the community of Jesus’ earliest disciples on the basis of core Jewish beliefs, as interpreted and exemplified according to Jesus’ teaching, ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection.
The most significant controversy in the very early Christian church concerned the terms by which Gentiles would be accepted into the community.
With the church’s expansion from Jerusalem, traditions about the work of particular apostles became associated with specific locales by the end of the first century, most notably: James in Jerusalem; Peter and Paul in Rome; John in Ephesus; and Thomas in Syria.
Early Christianity was not uniform, yet a common faith in Jesus and a common core of apostolic traditions helped shape a specifically Christian set of doctrinal commitments, worship practices, and ethical expectations.
Chapter Summary
Jesus’ first-century ministry of healing and teaching not only attracted large crowds, but he also gathered a number of disciples with whom he worked closely. Many acclaimed him as the Messiah, the Lord’s “anointed” who would deliver God’s people, Israel. After the Romans put Jesus to death as a political threat, reports of his resurrection led his disciples to become convinced that God had vindicated him as Messiah (Christ), and the events of Jesus’ atoning death and subsequent resurrection became the pillars of Christian faith. Early Christian beliefs, worship, and ethical practices owed much to the traditions of Judaism, to which were added distinctive Christian convictions about the role of Jesus Christ as the world’s savior.
The early church in Jerusalem consisted mainly of Jewish believers, though they were a diverse lot; some were Judaean, but many were Hellenistic Jews from the Diaspora. They looked to Peter and then James, the brother of Jesus, for leadership. Once persecution at the hands of the Jewish establishment broke out against Jesus’ followers in Jerusalem, the Hellenists in particular were scattered, taking the message of Jesus’ gospel (or euangelion, meaning “good news”) into the synagogues of many different cities of the Roman world. Soon, even large numbers of Gentiles were being attracted by the Christian message and lifestyle, causing the most significant controversy for the church of that era: the terms by which Gentiles should be received into the church. The Apostle Paul effectively championed a liberal position on the issue, with the result that Gentile Christians were in the majority by the end of the first century.
Fairly strong evidence supports the tradition that both Paul and Peter ended up in Rome and were martyred there under the emperor Nero. Peter probably played a significant leading role in the church at Rome, though the claims that Peter was the “pope” are anachronistic. Other locations came to be associated with the work of specific apostles, namely John in Ephesus and Thomas in Syria. The church at Ephesus may have been the most influential church of the mid- to late-first century, very likely the point of origin of some or all of the Johaninne literature of the New Testament. Strong traditions also place Jesus’ mother Mary in Ephesus, under the care of John. East of Antioch, the gospel spread among communities of Syriac-speaking people, whose traditions preserved certain Semitic features and a literature with strong ties to the name of the Apostle Thomas.
First-century Christian communities were diverse. Yet they enjoyed a significant measure of unity, due to a common faith in Jesus, a shared heritage in Judaism, a core of apostolic teaching, and habits of frequent travel and communication between churches. Out of this matrix arose characteristics that would come to distinguish churches far and wide, such as a shared commitment to interpret the Old Testament scriptures in light of Christ, baptism, the Lord’s Supper, Sunday assemblies, and moral emphases.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Divide the class into groups to debate either: a) the different positions that emerged regarding Gentile inclusion into the church, or b) the evidence for and against Peter and Paul’s traditional associations with Rome.
In class discussion, have students explain the uniting factors in early Christianity and the extent to which those same factors serve to unit or divide Christians today.
Invite students to investigate online resources in order to learn various popular understandings of the apostles’ lives and ministries, comparing what they discover with the textbook discussion.
Suggested Essay Questions
Compare and contrast first-century Jewish beliefs and practices with those of the early church.
Explain the arguments in support of the traditional associations of Peter and Paul with the church at Rome.
Discuss the role and impact of Jesus’ apostles on the formation of the church in different places.
Describe the diversity of first-century Christianity, along with the core aspects of early Christian beliefs and practices that were uniting factors.
Other Media Sources/Websites
New Testament Gateway: Mark Goodacre’s site, providing many links for the study of the New Testament.
Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper: Image in the Web Gallery of Art.
The Apostles: Website devoted to the apostles and traditions associated with them.
Crucifixion of Saint Peter: Caravaggio’s depiction of the traditional account of Peter’s martyrdom, at the Art Renewal Center.
Vatican Necropolis under St. Peter’s Basilica: Informative and interactive virtual pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Peter.
Christian-Jewish Ties in the Catacombs: James Owen’s article “Catacomb Find Boosts Early Christian-Jewish Ties, Study Says,” in the National Geographic News.
Arch of Titus and Reliefs: Images and descriptions by Mary Ann Sullivan of this famous artifact commemorating Roman victory in the Jewish Wars.
Saint Paul Writing His Epistles: Valentin de Boulogne’s depiction of Paul at work (c.1618–20).
Chapter 3—The Subapostolic Age
Key Terms
subapostolic, Jewish Christianity, Ebionites, Nazoraeans, Elkesaites, Apostolic Fathers, manual of church life, apocalypse, presbyter, apocrypha, Docetic
Key Points
“Jewish Christianity” became less prominent during the subapostolic era due to mutual rejection of each other by many Gentile and Jewish believers, though distinctive strands of Jewish Christianity persisted briefly in such groups as the Ebionites, Nazoraeans, and Elkesaites.
The so-called “Apostolic Fathers” consist of a loose corpus of texts in different genres composed in the subapostolic era, addressing various issues of identity, moral practice, and church life.
Apocryphal literature and other forms of early Christian literature attest to the range of popular piety and doctrinal convictions of early Christian communities.
Debate exists as to whether the subapostolic literatures are best understood as testifying to the decay in the vitality of apostolic faith or simply as distinct adaptations to changing circumstance.
Chapter Summary
The deaths of key Jewish Christian leaders and the Roman suppression of the Jewish revolt in Palestine brought a new situation for the church in the last part of the first century. The proportion of Gentile Christian believers grew, as Jewish synagogues took steps to exclude Christians and the more extreme elements within each group polarized to the extent that common ground was difficult to find. By the middle of the second century, even the church in Palestine was largely Gentile. However, three strands of Jewish Christianity survived for at least a few generations, each characterized by distinctive features. The Ebionites, whose name was probably based on the Hebrew expression for “the poor,” revered Jesus as a prophet and Messiah, but denied the virgin birth. They observed ascetic practices and were concerned with purity issues. They expected Gentile believers to follow the Law of Moses. The Nazoraeans followed the Law of Moses but did not expect Gentile believers to do so. The Elkesaites followed the Gnostic revelations of the prophet Elkesai. Within orthodox Gentile churches, the influence of Jewish Christianity may also be seen in the use of texts heavily influenced by Jewish Christianity, including the Didache, the Pseudo-Clementines, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, and the Sibylline Oracles.
Out of the subapostolic period of the late first and early second centuries a number of texts collectively known as the Apostolic Fathers survive, supplying unique insight into early Christian thought and practice after the passing of the apostles. The Didache is a manual of church life. Dating from about the end of the first century, probably from Syria, this text focuses mainly on moral instruction for new converts and instruction regarding the conduct of worship practices and church order. Epistle of Barnabas dates from the first half of the second century and is primarily concerned with Christian identity. Barnabas argues that Christians are the legitimate heirs to the Old Testament covenant, particularly due to their figural interpretation of it, in contrast to the Jewish literal interpretation. 1 Clement was written in the 90s by one of the presbyters of the church in Rome, in response to leadership conflict in Corinth. The letter emphasizes the importance of stability and respect for appointed authority and includes rich imagery and theological reflection. 2 Clement is not actually by Clement, but is a homily of moral exhortation composed by an unknown author in the second century.
Shepherd of Hermas is a composite apocalyptic text from second-century Rome. It supplies helpful information about the organization and social location of the Roman church, but focuses on the issue of how to address post-baptismal sin. Ignatius was a bishop of Syrian Antioch who wrote a series of letters to different churches in the early second century, while en route to Rome to face trial and probable martyrdom. The letters depict a leader eager to offer testimony to his faith in the face of suffering and death, who is also concerned with stressing the importance of church unity in response to the threats of divergent beliefs. He is the first writer to attest to a three-fold ministry of bishop, presbyters, and deacons in each congregation. Polycarp wrote a letter to the Philippians in response to Ignatius; the letter is saturated with New Testament language. Papias of Hierapolis wrote five books of Explanations, commenting on the oracles of Jesus. Only fragments survive, offering a tantalizing glimpse into early traditions regarding the composition of the Gospels.
The second and third generations of Christianity also saw the production of New Testament Apocrypha—texts purporting to be from the time of the apostles, yet manifestly from different times and contexts. These include texts of various genres—Gospels, Acts, Epistles, and Apocalypses, for which a few examples illustrate the breadth of the literature. The Gospel of Thomas is an early collection of Jesus’ sayings, displaying an Encratite or Gnostic bent. The Gospel of Peter is a passion narrative with Docetic leanings. The Protoevangelium of James expands the narrative of Jesus’ birth, focusing on traditions regarding the Holy Family, especially Mary. Apocryphal Acts focus on the careers of the apostles, preserving early traditions about their ministries and deaths and often displaying ascetic tendencies. The anti-Gnostic 3 Corinthians was normally included with the Acts of Paul. In the Apocalypse of Peter, Jesus is depicted as offering a graphic description of the torments of the wicked in the afterlife. These texts provide insight into the popular piety of the second and third centuries, as well as clarifying the significant diversity that existed among Jesus’ followers.
Some debate exists as to the significance and use of the subapostolic literature. For some, they show the continuing development of Christian belief and practice along a consistent trajectory from the New Testament period. For others, they betray a decline in vitality and imagination, as church leaders focus more on structures, moralism, and legalism. In either case, they attest to the ongoing devotion of committed followers of Jesus, responding to changing circumstances and new situations.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Divide the class into groups and distribute different excerpts of selected Apostolic Fathers and apocryphal literatures to each group, asking them to 1) read the text together, 2) discuss their understanding of that text’s author and context, 3) formulate an explanation of how that text is a response to particular challenges, and 4) present the results of their discussion to the class.
Prepare a discussion of apocryphal literature, inviting students to find evidence in popular culture (e.g. online, in film, novels, etc.) of current interest in these “non-traditional” materials and attempting to explain the reasons for that interest.
Prepare a discussion in which students compare and contrast the contents and qualities of canonical and apocryphal literature (this discussion will anticipate information that will not be presented until Chapters 5 and 6).
Have students discuss the main features of the development of relationships between Jewish and Gentile Christians in the early centuries of Christianity. Based on information they can access online, have students discuss current major points of discussion between Jews, Christians, and “Jewish Christians.”
Suggested Essay Questions
Explain the decline of “Jewish Christianity” in the subapostolic period.
Choose either: Didache, Epistle of Barnabas, 1 Clement, or the Letters of Ignatius, describing the contents of the selected Apostolic Father, the likely context and circumstances of its origin, and explaining what it says about key developments in early Christianity.
Describe some examples of early Christian apocryphal literature, discussing their apparent purposes and functions in early communities of faith.
Compare and contrast the basic qualities of the surviving 2nd- and 3rd-generation Christian literature with the literature of the New Testament.
Discuss the use and significance of the subapostolic literature for understanding the development of Christianity after the apostolic era.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Apostolic Fathers: Texts of the Apostolic Fathers.
After the New Testament: The Writings of the Apostolic Fathers: A lecture by Bart D. Ehrman, in The Great Courses lecture series.
Apocrypha: Texts of the ancient apocrypha.
Odes of Solomon: Site of The Odes Project, dedicated to bringing the Odes into contemporary use.
What The Teaching Can Teach Us: William Varner’s Christianity Today article (2006), detailing the value of the Didache for contemporary reflection.
Jesus Out of Focus: Gary M. Burge’s Christianity Today article (2006), discussing the appeal and peril of popular fictionalized accounts of early Christian history.
The Gospel of Thomas: A program in the PBS “Frontline” series on the famous apocryphal Gospel.
Ignatius of Antioch: A pre-17th-century Russian icon of the passionate saint.
Chapter 4—The Church and the Empire
Key Terms
superstition, “obstinacy,” apologist, apology, logos Christology, martyr, martyr acts, martyr passions
Key Points
Popular opinion responded negatively to Christian aloofness, the strangeness of their beliefs and practices, and Christians’ unwillingness to worship pagan gods. Imperial authorities were bothered by the apparent obstinacy of Christian subjects unwilling to show political loyalty by worshipping the emperor and the gods of Rome.
Roman persecution of the church prior to the mid-3rd century was sporadic and localized, not systematic.
Christian apologists of the 2nd century responded to both popular and philosophical accusations against Christianity, employing the philosophy and rhetoric of the day in order to rebut accusations and promote Christian belief and practice.
The logos Christology of the 2nd-century apologists supplied Christian intellectuals with a way to address non-Christian concerns about Christian teaching, as well as providing the foundation for later Trinitarian speculation.
The surviving literature of 2nd-century martyrdom supplied stories and themes that permanently shaped the self-understanding of the Christian church.
A developing theology of martyrdom was expressed through several characteristic motifs, many of which helped connect the martyr’s experience with that of Jesus Christ.
Chapter Summary
Although persecution of Christians in the second century was sporadic and localized, the threat and occasional reality of its occurrence contributed greatly to the formation of early Christian identity. Popular opinion responded negatively to Christians for a number of reasons, including their aloofness, the strangeness of their beliefs and practices, and especially their refusal to honor the gods of Rome and the surrounding culture. Many non-Christian intellectuals found Christian belief to be ridiculous and criticized the social composition of the church. Imperial authorities were bothered by Christian stubbornness in refusing to demonstrate their allegiance to Rome by the usual means, i.e. worshiping the genius of the emperor and the gods of Rome. The legal basis for Roman persecution expressed Roman sensibilities of justice, but also strict Roman insistence on submission to imperial authority.
Christian apologists sought to respond to the critics of Christianity in a variety of ways, relying mainly on the philosophy of the day as a means by which to explain Christian belief. Some sought to clear up misunderstandings about Christian practice, stressing the virtues by which Christians lived. Others upheld the moral superiority of Christianity in comparison to pagan culture. Justin Martyr laid aside numerous popular charges against Christianity, sought to explain Christianity as the fulfillment of Judaism, and advocated an understanding of Jesus Christ that connected him to the principle of the Logos. This gave non-Christian intellectuals a framework in which to understand the significance of Christ and shaped early Christian belief.
Although martyrdoms were sporadic, their occurrence led to the celebration of their faithful acts, especially in the composition of accounts of their martyrdoms. These circulated throughout the churches, shaping Christian theology and liturgy as the church connected the martyr’s experience with that of Jesus Christ. Martyrs were understood to be faithful witnesses and heroic athletes, and the descriptions of their deeds were tinged with commonly occurring motifs, such as grace, Eucharist, baptism, the Holy Spirit, and eschatological hope. Christian self-understanding came to be pervaded by the ideals conveyed by descriptions of martyrs’ deeds.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Stage an in-class debate, in which one side represents the range of non-Christian accusations and arguments against early Christianity and the other represents the viewpoints of early Christian apologists.
Have students do online research in order to get a sense of the arguments non-Christians currently make against Christianity; in discussion (or blog posts), have them compare and contrast contemporary arguments with those of Christianity’s early critics.
Have students read online versions of Martyrdom of Polycarp and Acts of Perpetua and Felicitas. In class discussion, have students identify ways in which these texts illustrate the motifs of martyrdom and the bases for persecution as described in the textbook.
Have students watch the interview about the “myth of persecution” (Candida Moss). Continue the discussion in class, focusing on evidence for early Christian persecution and the implications of a “persecution mentality” for contemporary Christian self-understanding and cultural engagement.
Suggested Essay Questions
Explain either a) the reasons for official Roman persecution of Christianity in the 2nd century and the development of a legal basis for it, or b) the nature of popular opinion about and suspicion towards Christians in the 2nd century, especially regarding the accusations of “atheism, cannibalism, and incest.”
Does “true Christianity” always provoke persecution? Advance a claim regarding that question, drawing on early Christian evidence and any other theological, biblical, and historical data you wish to use.
From the various responses of the 2nd-century Christian apologists, characterize the general response to pagan accusations and suspicions.
Compare and contrast the logos Christology of the 2nd-century apologists with teachings about Jesus Christ and God’s Word in the Bible.
In what ways do the apologists mark an important development in the Christian intellectual effort? Illustrate from the surviving evidence.
Describe four of the eight motifs of martyrdom given in the textbook.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Christian Beginnings: Excerpts from Tacitus, Suetonius, and Pliny about early Christianity.
Justin Martyr, 1 Apology: The text of this important source to 2nd-century Christianity.
Martyrdom of Polycarp: The text of the influential martyrdom account.
Acts of Perpetua and Felicitas: The text of this striking and passionate martyrdom account.
Epistle to Diognetus: The text of an early Christian apology.
Celsus’ Views of Christians and Christianity: Excerpts taken by Origen from Celsus’ criticisms of Christianity.
Porphyry, Against the Christians: Text of an ancient pagan critique against Christianity.
Is the Christian Belief in Persecution a Myth?: An interview with Candida Moss in the “Conversations with Great Minds” series.
Artistic representations of martyrdoms:
o Polycarp:
o Polycarp:
o Polycarp:
o Perpetua:
o Perpetua:
o Perpetua:
Chapter 5—Heresies and Schisms in the Second Century
Key Terms
hairesis, schisma, Paraclete, New Prophecy, Montanism, cosmology, Marcionite, Gnosis, Gnosticism, Demiurge, pleroma, aeon, Encratism
Key Points
Early Christianity was characterized by a certain variety in belief and practice
A strategic and gifted administrator, Marcion led an effective movement that rejected Christianity’s Jewish roots, distinguished the creator god from the redeemer god, emphasized asceticism, and advocated an authoritative canon of Scripture based mainly on portions of Paul’s writings
In the 2nd century, Gnostic movements developed systems of belief that interacted and competed with catholic Christianity, combining Jewish, Christian, and pagan beliefs
In an attempt to achieve a philosophical-religious solution to the problem of evil, Gnostic groups taught complex cosmologies that tended to involve extreme dualism, a strong rejection of matter as evil, and redeemer myths
In rejecting Gnosticism, “orthodox” Christianity affirmed the oneness of God, the essential goodness of creation, the full incarnation of Jesus Christ, and bodily resurrection
Largely in response to perceived worldliness and formalization of the church, Montanism arose as an exuberant movement stressing prophecy, rigorous ethics, and eschatological enthusiasm
Encratism describes a tendency in some Christian circles towards extreme asceticism
The appeal to existing standards of belief and practice suggests that “orthodoxy” in some sense existed prior to Christian “heresy”
Chapter Summary
In the struggle to define boundaries of belief and practice, the early church grappled with the diversity to be found among those claiming to follow Christ. Early Christian doctrinal self-understanding took shape partly in response to these challenges. For instance, the wealthy shipbuilder Marcion rejected the Jewish roots of Christianity, teaching that the creator god and redeemer god are separate and that the savior Jesus is to be understood in a Docetic manner. He contended that Paul was the only true Apostle and put forward a canon of Scripture based on Paul that was highly selective and heavily edited. Despite the Roman church’s rejection of his teaching in 144, he effectively organized a movement of many Marcionite churches.
Gnosticism is an umbrella term that covers a number of different groups and teachings interacting with Christianity in the second and third centuries. Although our knowledge of Gnosticism was limited due to the shortage of ancient sources, modern discoveries have enriched our knowledge greatly—particularly the find in 1945 of a number of original Gnostic texts at Nag Hammadi in Egypt. Gnosticism drew on pre-Christian, Jewish, and Christian ideas, synthesizing them into fully developed Gnostic systems by the second century. Different teachers promoted distinct systems, each group being defined by its favored myth of origins, its sense of group identity, and its insider language. Common features included an account of a “fall” in the spiritual realm that resulted in the creation of matter, which is evil. A “redeemer” imparts knowledge (Gnosis) to save those with a spiritual nature, so that they may escape their material prison and be reunited with the divine in the spiritual realm. Valentinus was the most influential Gnostic teacher, but there were many teachers and groups. To escape material entanglement, most followed an ascetic ethic, though some may have been libertine instead. With its streamlined dualism and elitist mentality, Gnosticism’s mythological and philosophical answer to the problem of evil proved attractive to many in the Greco-Roman culture. In response, “orthodox” Christians taught that the creator God is the one true God and that creation is good. They insisted on the full incarnation of Christ and the salvific importance of his bodily death, the significance of history in revelation, and the resurrection of the body. Out of this conflict, a number of important lessons may be found for today’s church.
Montanus, Priscilla, and Maximilla began a prophetic movement in the churches of Phrygia in the 150s or 170s. Believing themselves to be the voices of the Holy Spirit (the Paraclete), the Montanists of “the New Prophecy” preached judgment, seeking to convict the established church of moral laxness and compromise with the surrounding culture. The movement may be seen partly as a reaction to growing institutionalism of the church in the generations following the Apostles. Montanism did not teach different doctrines, but their ascetic rigors and disruptive tendencies prompted negative reactions. The first known synods of bishops met in order to deal with the problem. Focusing on matters of authority, the synods emphasized the importance of Scripture and the place of bishop as authoritative teacher, resulting in the Montanists being declared as schismatic.
“Encratism” describes a movement or tendency among some early Christians towards extreme asceticism. Many surviving apocryphal texts promote asceticism and the Syriac church (e.g. Tatian) was characterized by this tendency.
A contemporary debate considers whether “orthodoxy” may be understood to have preceded “heresy,” or whether early Christianity was simply highly diverse at its origins. Though early diversity and a legacy of development are undeniable, the ability of the orthodox to make plausible appeals to existing standards indicates that there were inherited norms of belief and practice.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Engage the class in discussion about the terms “orthodox,” “heresy,” and “schism,” challenging students to define the terms.
Have a Rabbi or other expert in Judaism visit the class and discuss his or her perceptions regarding the compatibility of the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible with Christianity.
Distribute portions of so-called Gnostic texts for students to read, in order to fuel discussion about the similarities and differences between Gnostic narratives and the canonical Gospels.
Have students do online and media research in order to get a sense of popular understandings and presentations of ancient Gnostics and Gnosticism, comparing them with the information presented in the textbook.
Divide the class into discussion groups, giving each group one of the principle components of Gnosticism to discuss. Have groups determine whether and to what extent their assigned feature of belief would find ready acceptance in contemporary culture.
Have students debate the merits of personal and immediate revelation (e.g. Montanists) in comparison to relying on texts (e.g. Scripture) or institutional hierarchy (e.g. Bishops) for authority.
Stage a debate in which students argue whether orthodoxy preceded heresy, as the textbook contends. It may be useful for students to conduct online research related to the question in advance.
After having the students read articles on Montanism (see “Other Media Sources”), have them compose blog posts in which they advance their own arguments regarding the proper understanding of Montanism, exhibiting engagement with the assigned articles. Have them establish online conversations, responding to one another.
Suggested Essay Questions
Compare and contrast Marcion and Valentinus, in terms of their contexts, beliefs, and impact.
How have our knowledge and evidence for Gnosticism developed throughout the 20th century?
Identify two influential Gnostic teachers, explaining circumstances of their contexts and the particulars of their beliefs.
What circumstance in the ancient church contributed to the rise of Montanism? Illustrate from Montanist beliefs and practices.
In what ways were Gnostic beliefs suited to the culture of the 2nd and 3rd centuries?
Explain why Montanism and Encratism might be considered schismatic rather than heretical, such as Marcionitism and Gnosticism were. Illustrate with reference to beliefs and practices as described in the textbook.
On what basis might one argue that orthodoxy preceded heresy? Explain.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Irenaeus, Against Heresies: Numerous excerpts from Irenaeus, related to teachers mentioned in the chapter.
Gnostic Society Library: Website providing the texts of a number of ancient Gnostic sources.
Gnosticism: Edward Moore’s article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, providing a historical-philosophical view of the Gnostic phenomenon.
Gnostics and Other Heretics: A program featuring Gnosticism expert Elaine Pagels in the PBS “Frontline” series.
The Politics of Christianity: A video featuring Gnosticism expert Elaine Pagels, discussing the politics of ancient orthodoxy and heresy in the church.
Gnosticism Exposed: A GoodFight Ministries video purporting to refute basic Gnostic tenets, useful for reflection on the reasons why Gnosticism was and is controversial.
Marcionite Research Library: Virtual library with numerous resources related to the Marcionites.
Marcion and the Marcionites: Glenn Davis’s article on the New Testament canon of Marcion.
Pepouza and Tymion: William Tabbernee’s article, available online, about recent archeological discoveries related to Montanism. “Portals of the Montanist New Jerusalem: The Discovery of Pepouza and Tymion.” Journal of Early Christian Studies 11 (2003): 87–93.
Was the Church Right to Condemn Montanism?: Angus Stewart’s brief article, useful for prompting contemporary reflection on Montanism.
What Went Wrong with Montanism?: A provocative article evaluating Monatinism as a “failed reform” movement, useful to prompt contemporary reflection.
Chapter 6—The Defense against Rival Interpretations
Key Terms
apostolicity, monepiscopacy, apostolic succession, rule of faith, creed, canon, catholicity, Septuagint, New Testament/Covenant
Key Points
Partly in response to internal and external pressures, the early church developed a three-fold defense of what is apostolic: the episcopate, the rule of faith and creed, and the canon
The monepiscopacy grew out of practical leadership concerns and came to be associated with the idea of apostolic succession
The rule of faith and the creed were received as summaries of the apostolic teaching, for instruction and liturgical use
The Apostles Creed grew out of an earlier formula of baptismal confession used in Rome, attesting to an early practice of regularly reciting in worship a concise statement outlining key tenets of orthodox Christian belief
The formation and recognition of the New Testament canon underwent four stages: Scripture principle, canonical principle, closed canon, and recognition of the closed canon; several criteria of canonicity functioned in an interrelated way
The church did not create the canon but recognized it, putting itself under the authority of Scripture
Chapter Summary
Partly as a natural development in its identity formation and partly in response to rival expressions of Christianity, the church of the second and third century developed a “three-fold defense of “what is apostolic”: the monepiscopacy, the rule of faith and creed, and the canon. These interrelated components were understood to constitute reliable channels of apostolic authority as the church moved further away from the generation of the apostles themselves. Though aspects of each component exhibit signs of having been shaped by continuing interactions with “heretics,” they also convey beliefs and practices that were present prior to those controversies.
The bishop functioned as the authoritative teaching office and channel by which the apostolic message had been preserved. The evidence indicates that the earliest Christian communities were led by a plurality of elders or bishops, yet by the early second century a monepiscopacy is emerging, signaled first by the writings of Ignatius of Antioch. Having a single bishop over the local church allowed churches to address a number of practical leadership matters more effectively. By the late second century, the theory of apostolic succession was being developed by Irenaeus, deployed to demonstrate that the recognized teaching chair of a given church ought to be received as the custodian of apostolic truth as it had been handed down since the apostles’ time, from generation to generation. By the third century (Hippolytus), the idea had developed that bishops are successors to the apostles themselves.
The rule of faith and creed functioned as guides by which to interpret the essence of the apostolic message. The rule of faith was a summary of apostolic teaching, in a flexible form that varied somewhat from place to place. It guided the reader or hearer in discerning the basic plot and gist of proper Christian doctrine and behavior. The creed was more succinct and fixed in form, deriving from baptismal confession formulae for regular liturgical use. The fourth-century Apostles’ Creed from Rome stands as the heir to an earlier form, the Old Roman Symbol of the third century. The Roman church led the way in adapting baptismal confessions into a fixed creedal formula, and the Apostles’ Creed became a standard piece of liturgy throughout western churches.
The canon functioned as the repository of the content of the apostolic teaching. Christians inherited the idea of canon and the Jewish Scriptures from Judaism, though differences existed as to which text to use (Hebrew or Greek) and what the precise contents of the Old Testament should be. The church relied mostly on the Greek Septuagint, translating it into many other languages, and largely accepting the books and expansions circulating with Greek copies of the Old Testament. The development of the New Testament canon proceeded through four stages: the recognition of the Scripture principle (late first/early second century), the canon principle (by about 180), a closed canon (by the fourth century), the recognition of a closed canon (in the fourth/fifth centuries). The criteria by which books were received as canonical were their inspiration, their apostolicity, their antiquity, their catholicity, their use in public worship, and their right doctrine.
One persistent question under discussion concerns the relationship between the church and its channels of authority, particularly the New Testament canon. Whereas a process of development involving human activity is undeniable, the church did not create the canon so much as recognize it, and by doing so put itself under a separate authority rather than keeping its own power.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Have students read selections from Ignatius in support of the monepiscopacy and engage a discussion in which they attempt to explain and contextualize his points.
Engage the class in a discussion that explores parallels between ancient church authority structures and the culture of its Greco-Roman context, comparing and contrasting them with contemporary church polities with which they are familiar, in relation to power structures common to society today. If ancient Christian authority structures mirrored the power assumptions of their day, does the same occur in churches today?
Engage the class in a discussion about the stages of development in recognizing the New Testament canon, challenging students to differentiate them clearly.
Stage a debate in which students argue whether the church created and determined the canon or recognized and submitted to it.
Engage the class in a discussion about contemporary expressions of the “three-fold defense,” i.e. how and where are the functions of “episcopacy, rule of faith, and canon” being fulfilled in churches today?
Divide the class into discussion groups, giving each group selections from the Apostolic Tradition (AT) attributed to Hippolytus. After groups discuss the contents and apparent functions of their selections, engage the entire class in a discussion of the aspects of AT the groups found most puzzling or striking.
Examine the Apostles’ Creed together. Engage the class in a discussion, challenging students to identify parts of the creed they believe to be interacting with the positions of various “heretics” described in Chapter 5.
After having read one or more of the articles evaluating evangelical views on the canon
Suggested Essay Questions
Describe and explain the development of either a) the monepiscopacy, b) the rule of faith and creed, or c) the New Testament canon.
Explain the early Christian need to identify and define “apostolicity,” illustrating from the developments of episcopacy, creed, and canon.
Describe each of the four stages in the development of the canon.
Discuss the differences between the rule of faith and the creed, explaining their respective functions in the early church.
Either defend or argue against the claim that the church did not create the canon but recognized it. Draw on ancient evidence to support your case.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Canon: Excellent informational resource on Mark Goodacre’s New Testament Gateway, with links to many thoughtful articles and helpful sites.
The Development of the Canon of the New Testament: Glenn Davis’s informational site, with many links and information.
Complete List of Greek NT Papyri: A site by Wieland Willker, giving information about and links to images of the earliest surviving New Testament manuscripts.
Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.3–4: Portions of Irenaeus’ discussion of apostolic succession.
Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus of Rome: The text of this influential early manual of church order.
Apostles Creed: Text of the early creed.
Eusebius, Church History 6.25: A portion of the discussion in which Eusebius classifies different books in consideration of canon.
The Muratorian Fragment: Bruce Metzger’s translation of a controversial early canonical list and discussion.
Chapter 7—The Fathers of the Old Catholic Church and Their Problems
Key Terms
old catholic, recapitulation, double faith, laxist, rigorist, penance, Quartodeciman, Patripassianism, Modalist Monarchianism, Dynamic Monarchianism, Sabellianiasm, lapsi
Key Points
Though diverse and often judged inadequate by later standards, the fathers from the late second and early third centuries sustained the faith and decisively shaped later Christian thought and practice
In response to heresy, Irenaeus articulated the premises on which the old catholic church developed
Tertullian was the first Latin theologian and had great influence on western Christianity
Alexandria was a key Hellenistic Christian center; its teachers Clement and Origen developed the foundations of philosophical Christianity
The church struggled to define the nature of the church’s holiness, wrestling with problems evident especially in the career of Hippolytus and in conflict regarding the status of the lapsed
Debates about liturgical practice (Quartodecimans), church discipline (laxist vs. rigorist) and theology (Monarchianism) animated much theological reflection during the period
Due to its leadership, size, location, and role in the controversies of the age, the church at Rome rose in prominence to become the chief church by about the end of the second century
Chapter Summary
In contrast to the apologists of the second century, who attempted to explain the faith to outsiders, the fathers of the old catholic church undertook the task of addressing insiders, using philosophy and rational argument, along with the Bible and the Christian tradition they had inherited. These early formulators of Christian theology combatted heresy, yet some of them would eventually be found to be inadequate or problematic themselves, by later standards of orthodoxy. Yet they all had a hand in shaping Christian belief and practice in this formative period.
Irenaeus of Lyons argued against Gnosticism, stressing the unity of God the creator and the unity of Jesus Christ. He presented Jesus as recapitulating human experience and bringing God’s plan of salvation to its climax. Appealing to the notion of apostolic succession as a way of guaranteeing the authority of recognized teachers, he underscored the orthodox legacy of the church of Rome. Tertullian wrote in Latin and had a profound influence on the shape of western Latin theology. He composed apologies and numerous treatises against heretics and defending orthodox belief. Suspicious of secular learning and the influence of culture on the church, Tertullian was a rigorist and eventually converted to Montanism.
The church in Alexandria was shaped by its context; it was in a center of Hellenistic culture and learning. The Christian teacher Clement encouraged an intellectual appropriation of the faith and he saw the value of pagan philosophy as a tool in Christian discussion. He opposed Gnosticism, writing works of apologetics, ethics, and reflection on various aspects of Christian faith. Origen was a brilliantly gifted Alexandrian teacher in the same tradition. He pioneered the scholarly study of scripture, wrote the greatest Greek apology of early Christianity, and composed the church’s first systematic theology. Some of his speculations were controversial and his personality and success sparked jealousy.
Hippolytus was probably a presbyter in Rome who went into schism when his rival Callistus was elected bishop. Though uncertainty exists as to Hippolytus’ true role and the full extent of his authentic literary legacy, a notable heresiological work and an influential book of church order are among the texts traditionally ascribed to him. The apparent career of Hippolytus highlights the way in which several factors were coming together to elevate the status of the church at Rome by the end of the second century.
In addition to responding to persecution and heresies like Gnosticism, the fathers of the old catholic church faced a number of challenges. The Paschal controversy involved the church in Rome and churches in Asia especially; it involved a dispute regarding the correct observance of Easter in the church calendar. Modalist and Dynamic Monarchian teachers in the church found different ways of defending monotheism, yet the resulting Christologies were deemed to be deficient and dangerous by orthodox theologians. The pressures of persecution had caused some Christians to lapse. Their desire to return to the church after the threat of persecution had passed created debates between “rigorists” and “laxists” about the nature of the church, the place of penance, and the proper exercise of episcopal authority.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Engage the class in a discussion about the early catholic fathers, focusing on the textbook’s description of them as basically orthodox yet taking “positions that were found inadequate by the standards of later thought.” In what ways does this characterization fit them?
Engage the class in a discussion about holiness in the church: which is more biblical, the rigorist view or laxist view? Which view explains best the growth of early Christianity? Which view is most prevalent in contemporary churches with which students are familiar, and what are the consequences of this?
Have students read portions of early catholic fathers online to prepare for in-class discussion. Using the textbook as a guide and reviewing the sources online, the teacher may prescribe portions according to particular interests, e.g. Trinitarian thought, biblical exegesis, prayer and spirituality, church discipline, Christianity and culture, etc.
Have students do online research to determine whether modern expressions of Monarchianism and Modalism exist, or the extent to which discussions about the proper observance of Easter (Quartodecimanism) are still going on.
Engage the class in a discussion about the theological and ecclesial significance of Monarchianism. What is at stake in this debate?
Have students do online research to explore contemporary discussions of Patripassianism. Engage the class in a discussion about the theological significance of the topic.
Suggested Essay Questions
Describe and explain the development and articulation of views about Christ among the early catholic fathers.
Compare and contrast the attitudes and work of Tertullian, on the one hand, with Clement and Origen, on the other.
Describe and explain the factors leading to the rise to prominence of the church at Rome.
Explain ancient Patripassianism and the early catholic response to it.
What was at stake in the dispute between Callistus and Hippolytus? Explain the origin of their conflict and its outcome.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen: Texts written by influential early Christian authors.
Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus of Rome: The text of this influential early manual of church order.
Hippolytus of Rome: Image of the reconstructed statue in the Vatican Library, on which the attribution of the Apostolic Tradition is based.
Recent Research on Hippolytus: John F. Baldovin’s article available online, surveying current scholarship regarding the identity of Hippolytus and the relevance of the statue associated with Hippolytus, “Hippolytus and the Apostolic Tradition: Recent Research and Commentary.” Theological Studies 64 (2003) 520–49.
The Quartodeciman-Easter Controversy: G. Reckart’s article arguing for contemporary observance of Christian Easter on Passover, illustrating the continuing discussion of an ancient debate.
Chapter 8—Church Life in the Second and Third Centuries
Key Terms
initiation, catechesis, catechumen, agape, Eucharist, deaconess, eschatological, chiliasm
Key Points
After an intensive and often lengthy period of preparation, converts were initiated into Christianity through a highly symbolic baptism ritual
Christians were in the habit of meeting on Sundays and other times for worship and instruction; celebrating the Eucharist was central to Sunday gatherings
The church was known for advocating high standards of personal morality, including sexual behavior and charity
Women were prominent in the story of early Christianity, as celebrated martyrs, in special roles of church service, and defining new social roles through celibacy
Christian hope of bodily resurrection supplied a powerful testimony. Christian expectations included chiliastic and non-chiliastic understandings of the end times.
Chapter Summary
Although early Christian practices exhibit the influence of their social contexts, they also display distinctive features and definitively Christian expressions. Christians took seriously the matter of initiation into the church, requiring converts to undergo an intensive period of instruction and preparation prior to baptism. Understanding of doctrine and the practice of Christian moral behavior were expected. The baptismal ritual itself showed great care and abundant symbolism. Although initially baptism seems to have been intended for those capable of making a mature commitment, in time infant baptism came to be a routine practice. Christian art depicting baptism illuminates our understanding of early Christian conceptions of this ritual.
Christians were in the habit of meeting on Sundays from the earliest times, in commemoration of Jesus’ resurrection. Weekly assemblies included the reading of Scripture, preaching, hymnody, prayer, and taking up collections for those in need, but centered on the celebration of the Eucharist. As a mystical participation in Jesus’ body and blood, the Eucharist functioned as an argument against Docetic and Gnostic interpretations of the incarnation. By the late third century, the unbaptized were excluded from the eucharistic portion of the assembly.
In addition to weekly assemblies, Christians met for worship and agape meals at other times. They observed regular fast days and had other personal devotions. The apologists stressed the high moral standards of Christians, pointing to their ethics as an argument for the truth of Christianity. Dependent partly on Jewish moral instruction, the moral philosophy of the day, and Jesus’ own teaching and example, Christians claimed a spiritual power to live extraordinary lives. Many early Christian texts focus on moral behavior, including celibacy as an expression of extreme devotion to God in Christ. Christian attitudes towards the state and military service remained ambivalent.
Women played a prominent role in the growth and stability of the early church. Many subverted social expectations by choosing to adopt lives of celibacy. Some became heroines as martyrs. Although women seem not to have been commonly involved in preaching and presiding at liturgical functions, in roles such as that of deaconess they served the church in key ways.
Christian attitudes towards death were very impactful as a part of the Christian witness. Christians observed many of the same burial practices as their Jewish and pagan neighbors, yet inscriptional and artistic evidence shows the hope with which Christians faced death. Partly as a matter of biblical interpretation and partly in response to Marcion and Gnostics, some Christian teachers held to a chiliastic understanding of the end, in which Christ would assume the rule of earth from Jerusalem for 1000 years after his return. The more pervasive view of the end saw the promised millennium as a more symbolic or spiritual event. Both groups taught the resurrection of the body and maintained the vindication of the righteous in the final judgment, resulting in heavenly reward.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Engage the class in a discussion about early Christian worship to compare and contrast it with contemporary Christian worship.
Engage the class in a discussion about the moral expectations of the early church. How do those expectations compare to those of contemporary Christianity? How do they seem in light of the common moral expectations of society today? What are the points of dis/agreement?
Engage the class in a discussion about the relative merits and problems of early Christian practices of catechesis and baptism in comparison to the contemporary practices with which they are familiar.
Have the class do online research to find contemporary expressions of chiliastic and non-chiliastic eschatology, comparing and contrasting the ancient and modern viewpoints.
Suggested Essay Questions
Describe the Christian assembly, illustrating from the early sources.
Compare and contrast the worship of early Christianity with contemporary Christian worship with which you are most familiar.
Explain the various ways in which baptism was practiced in the first few centuries of the church, illustrating from the early sources.
Describe the early Christian practice of the Eucharist and other meals, explaining the fundamental ideas and beliefs that shaped the practices.
Describe the basic devotional and worship habits of early Christians, taking into account the diversity and development of the first few centuries.
Describe the basic moral habits and expectations of early Christians, taking into account the diversity and development of the first few centuries.
Evaluate the moral expectations of the early church in light of the common moral expectations of contemporary society.
What may be said about the role/s and status of women in the early church?
Compare and contrast the chiliastic and non-chiliastic views of early Christians.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Christian Beginnings: Quotation from the governor Pliny regarding early Christian worship.
Didache: The text of a primitive manual of church order.
Justin Martyr, 1 Apology 65–67: Justin Martyr’s description of early Christian worship.
Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen: Texts written by influential early Christian authors.
Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus of Rome: The text of this influential early manual of church order.
Chapter 9—The Development of the Church during the Third Century
Key Terms
cult of martyrs, Sabellian, lapsi, catacomb, cubicula, loculi, orans, house church, domus ecclesiae, aula ecclesiae, Manicheism, Didascalia Apostolorum
Key Points
After a long history of enduring sporadic persecutions, the mid-third century saw the first systematic persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire
The cult of the martyrs developed in the last half of the third century, strongly impacting corporate and personal spirituality
Cyprian of Carthage engaged in a number of disputes regarding church order and discipline, composing treatises and letters that shaped western ecclesiology
Christian art and architecture began to flourish from the mid-third century, exhibiting styles and motifs common to the culture yet adapted to biblical stories and Christian purposes (especially funerary)
Manicheism posed a competitive threat to Christianity from the mid-third century
Texts such as Didascalia Apostolorum, and the work of leaders such as Gregory Thaumaturgus, Methodius, Lactantius, and Dionysius of Alexandria helped shape the church of the last half of the third century
Numerous internal and external factors appear to have contributed to the great success of Christianity in the third century
Chapter Summary
The third century was a time of tremendous growth for the church, although it faced some of the most severe challenges of its history. Under the emperors Decius and Valerian, Christianity was subjected to widespread and systematic persecution, resulting in numerous martyrdoms. Whereas the veneration of martyrs became a major feature of early Christian piety, the large number of apostates created a crisis in church discipline once the persecutions subsided. Cyprian of Carthage sought to find a middle way between the rigorist and laxist responses to those who denied Christ under threat of persecution, prescribing different manners of church discipline depending on the severity of the offense. Cyprian’s discussions of this matter and such things as the authority of the episcopacy made lasting contributions to church order and the practices of penance and church discipline in the western church.
The first identifiable Christian art appears around 200. Although much of it is funerary and therefore perhaps not entirely representative, surviving examples show that Christians adapted the motifs and style of their Greco-Roman context to create a body of highly symbolic art, much of which refers to biblical stories of rescue and themes of hope.
With its Christian elements and strong dualism, Manicheism posed a competitive challenge to the later third-century church. The later third century was also marked by a number of important texts, such as the Didascalia Apostolorum, and influential leaders, such as Dionysius of Alexandria and Gregory Thaumaturgus. Methodius and Lactantius wrote important texts that shaped the church of that era.
Scholars attempting to explain the success of Christianity in the third century adduce a number of external and internal factors contributing to the church’s growth and vitality. However, attempts to account for Christianity’s success turn out to be more descriptive than explanatory.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Spend time in class chronicling the attitudes of the second- to third-century emperors towards Christianity, up to Valerian, engaging the class in discussion to explain each emperor’s actions toward the church
Have the class read selections from Cyprian’s On the Lapsed; treating the situation as a case study in groups, have the class process the issues and prescribe an intervention for Cyprian’s church
Engage the class in a discussion about the rebaptism debates of the third century, attempting to make the best possible case for each side of the issue
Have the class “collect” images of early Christian art online. Collect contemporary Christian pieces of art as well. Compare and contrast the images, moods, and themes
Provide a list of the items discussed in the textbook as factors contributing to Christianity’s success. Have students join a discussion partner to analyze the factors, in light of their study of church history to date. Which seem the most impactful? Which seem least significant? What connections exist between different factors? How do these factors compare to factors that seem to contribute to the “success” of churches today?
Suggested Essay Questions
Explain the origins of Christian art and describe its primary expressions in the third century.
Discuss the circumstances of Christian persecution in the Roman Empire from the late-second through the mid-third century, explaining the effects of persecution on Christian piety (e.g. martyr’s cult and Christian art) and church discipline (e.g. the lapsed).
Describe the career of Cyprian of Carthage, discussing the major controversies in which he was embroiled and explaining his arguments on aspects of church order and practices of church discipline.
Explain the origin and major features of the cult of the martyrs.
Compare and contrast the contributions of Dionysius of Alexandria, Gregory Thaumaturgus, and Didascalia Apostolorum to the shape of third-century Christianity.
What factors do scholars adduce to explain the growth and success of the church in the third century?
Other Media Sources/Websites
Cyprian of Carthage, On the Lapsed: The text of Cyprian’s influential treatment of church discipline.
Bene Merenti. Inscriptions from the Roman Catacombs: A site featuring images, transcriptions, translations, and descriptions of ancient catacomb funerary inscriptions.
Out of the Depths—the Christian Catacombs of Rome: Joseph Byrne’s virtual tour of Roman catacombs, including images, descriptions, and discussion.
Art in the Christian Catacombs of Rome: Pictures and descriptions of early catacomb art.
The Church in the House in Dura Europos: Ben Witherington’s article, discussing and displaying images of the earliest known Christian church building.
Didascalia Apostolorum: Text of a rich source of information about early church organization and practice.
The Great Appeal: Online article associated with the PBS series, “From Jesus to Christ,” discussing the appeal of Christianity in the ancient Roman Empire.
Early Christian Art: SmartHistory article and images of early Christian art.
The Rise of Christianity. A Sociologist Reconsiders History: Two online book excerpts associated with the PBS series, “From Jesus to Christ,” discussing the appeal of the Christian message and of its social structure.
Chapter 10—Diocletian and Constantine
Key Terms
diocese, Great Persecution, augusti, caesari, Chi-Rho monogram, Edict of Milan, Constantinian Church, Christendom, concord, pontifex maximus, Donatism, Circumcelliones, subordinationism, Arianism, homoousios, consubstantialis, ecumenical council, anathema
Key Points
During a period of imperial reform in the late third and early fourth centuries, Christians underwent the most severe and widespread persecution yet.
Though the person and motives of Constantine the Great are complex and somewhat mysterious, he achieved sole authority in the Roman Empire, ended the persecutions, favored Christianity, and ushered in Christendom.
The church was largely unprepared for the many challenges accompanying the change in church-state relations.
The Donatist controversy exemplified the way in which state involvement could affect church affairs, as rigorist and laxist factions faced off in North Africa and experienced the impact of imperial intervention.
Many bishops met in the first ecumenical council at Nicaea in 325 to debate the theological views of the subordinationist Arius, resulting in the Nicene Creed and signaling new developments in the ways church and state leaders would tackle issues affecting Christianity at large in the Roman Empire.
Chapter Summary
When Diocletian became emperor in 284, he undertook a reorganization of the empire, establishing a new provincial map and distributing power through a tetrarchy. His colleague Galerian instigated the “Great Persecution” of Christians, the most systematic persecution yet, culminating in an edict requiring that all sacrifice to the gods or suffer severe penalty.
After a period of civil war and continued internal strife, Constantine the Great emerged as the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. His mother Helena had been a Christian, and Constantine began to favor Christianity in his reunified empire. Various theories seek to explain Constantine’s motivations, with perhaps the most likely being those that correlate his personal piety with his desire to have concord in the empire—under his solitary and God-given reign. In any case, the persecutions stopped and Christians began to be favored in a variety ways by the state, inaugurating an era of Christendom for which the church was not especially well prepared. Constantine sponsored grand Christian building projects and got involved in church affairs, including the Donatist schism of North Africa. In Carthage, tensions between laxist and rigorist groups, exacerbated by personal issues, came to a head in the contested election of the bishop, resulting in the emperor’s intervention by means of the Synod of Arles (314), the first church council called by an emperor. The synod found in favor of the more laxist party, causing their rigorist Donatist opponents to fracture away from the catholic church and form a schism that was actually a majority force in some parts of the North African church—a schism very suspicious of Christendom.
More far-reaching was the Council of Nicaea (325), also called by the emperor as part of his strategy to find and maintain unity in church and empire. Although political rivalries between the churches in Antioch and Alexandria fueled the controversy leading to this council, the presenting problem had to do with the teaching of the subordinationist Arius in Alexandria, who taught that “there was (once) when Christ was not.” Various perspectives met to discuss the matter at Nicaea, the majority being suspicious of new formulae, wanting to preserve unity, and desiring to defend monotheism and the divinity of Christ. Therefore, Arius and his supporters were condemned, and a creed was prepared using the term, homoousios, by which the council sought to preserve the belief that God the Father and God the Son shared the “same substance.” Despite the council’s decisions, the creed, and the emperor’s backing, the politics of the emerging new situation ensured that the controversy would continue to gain traction through much of the rest of the fourth century.
As the first “ecumenical council,” Nicaea marked a shift in the way the church discussed and enforced decisions about doctrinal matters that were central to the church everywhere. It is symbolic of imperial involvement in church affairs, and it also marked an important development in doctrinal history, through its enforcement of the creed with anathemas for any who would reject it.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Have students do online research to gather “arguments for and against” the impact of Constantine, referencing Peter Leithart and others; engage in-class discussion or debate on the matter.
Treating the origins of the Donatist controversy as a case study, have students attempt to process the conflict and prescribe short- and long-term hypothetical solutions for the torn North African church.
Have students identify and collect evidence illustrating the impact of Christendom on modern global society and the contemporary church in particular.
Have students discuss or debate the dis/advantages of the “Constantinian church” in relation to the church prior to Constantine.
Engage students in a discussion about the controversy resulting in the Council of Nicaea (325), including an evaluation of the results of Nicaea as presented in the textbook.
Suggested Essay Questions
Discuss the circumstances of Christian martyrdom in the Roman Empire prior to 313, explaining the Christian response(s) and the effects of persecution on Christian piety, church discipline, etc.
Analyze different viewpoints regarding Constantine’s motivations and agenda for deciding to favor Christianity.
Describe and evaluate the impact of Constantine’s rise to power on the church and Christianity in the early fourth century.
Describe and explain the circumstances surrounding the development of the Donatist controversy.
Describe and explain the circumstances surrounding the Council of Nicaea (325).
Explain the major views present at the Council of Nicaea.
Describe and evaluate the textbook’s discussion of the importance of Nicaea for church history.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Eusebius, In Praise of Constantine 8: Text in which Eusebius describes some persecutions taking place prior to Constantine.
Division of the Roman Empire: Interactive map showing the geographical impact of Diocletian’s tetrarchy and Constantine’s reunification.
Eusebius, Conversion of Constantine: Text in which Eusebius describes the circumstances of Constantine’s alleged conversion.
Edicts of Toleration 311/313: Texts of documents granting Christians tolerance in the empire.
Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 10.5–7: Excerpts in which Eusebius details some of the privileges Constantine grants Christian clergy, including those that inflamed the Donatist controversy.
Constantine Founds Constantinople: The church historian Sozomen describes the founding of the new capital.
Chi-Rho (Christogram, Labarum) Symbol: A brief description of the symbol and its significance, including several ancient images illustrating its form and use.
The Wikipedia article, “Chi Rho,” also includes links to numerous images.
Philostorgius, Epitome, 2.2: In this summary of Philostorgius’ lost history of the Arian controversy, it is reported that Arius composed catchy jingles to advance his theology.
Between Babel and Beast: Interview with Peter Leithart, a controversial interpreter of Constantine, summarizing key points in his provocative thesis.
Church of the Nativity: Images and discussion of the Bethlehem church dating from the Constantinian era, on the Palestine Exploration Fund site.
Chapter 11—The Church in the Fourth Century: Doctrine, Organization, and Literature
Key Terms
homoousian, homoiousian, homoean, anomoean, Pneumatochian, Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed, consensus fidelium, synodos endomousa, ecclesial canons, doctors of the church, lectionary, chorepiscopus, patriarch, Vulgate
Key Points
In the period following the Nicene council—and especially after Constantine’s death—the Arian controversy continued to create disunity in the fourth-century church, which saw many councils and at least four different major positions on the relation of the Father to the Son.
Through the work of key figures like Athanasius and the Cappadocian Fathers, and the involvement of sympathetic emperors, Nicene orthodoxy came to be affirmed and generally accepted by the time of the Council of Constantinople (381).
Throughout the fourth century, church organization became increasingly formal and its clergy more distinct in role and status from laypersons.
The “great patristic century” (fourth–early fifth centuries) saw the production of great works of lasting influence on the part of several major writers and church leaders: in Greek: Athanasius, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa, and John Chrysostom; in Syriac: Ephraem the Syrian; and in Latin: Ambrose, Rufinus, and Jerome.
Chapter Summary
In the years following the Nicene council, the Arian controversy continued to create conflict in the church. Some felt that crucial positions had been betrayed, and the language by which consensus was supposedly achieved was open to varying interpretation. Hoping to achieve unity, Constantine sought to accommodate even some of those who had been condemned by the council; after his death, the division of his empire between his sons created further disruption, as they did not agree together on the Arian question. Throughout the fourth century, disputants settled into four major parties: the homoousians, who saw the Son as being of the same substance with the Father; the homoiousians, who saw them as being of similar substance; the homoeans, who would only go so far as to say that Father and Son are alike; and the anomoeans, who held that they are unlike. In a series of smaller councils, the Nicene Creed was repeatedly criticized, prompting its supporters to construct a coherent defense of its legitimacy and value.
Bishop Athanasius of Alexandria emerged as the most potent champion of Nicene orthodoxy through the middle years of the fourth century. His experience of enduring five exiles demonstrates the volatility of the period, as well as the role played by emperors in the conflict. Yet through his obstinate advocacy and his writings, he helped check the Arianizing positions and create support for Nicaea. In the last half of the fourth century, other church leaders and theologians—particularly the Cappadocians—helped consolidate support for Nicaea. Their efforts culminated in the Council of Constantinople (381), at which the Nicene position was affirmed. Theodosius I’s sponsorship of the council and his decree making Christianity Rome’s official religion (380) demonstrate the extent to which the empire would continue to be a major player in church affairs. Throughout the fourth century, church organization continued to become more formal and the roles and status of clergy more identifiably distinct.
The century and a half following Nicaea is the “Golden Age of Patristic Literature,” due to the number and quality of Church Fathers’ contributions to Christian thought. Although the various authors writing in Greek, Latin, and Syriac were diverse in personality and in the nature of their contributions, the literature they produced achieved a classic status within a short time and continued to inform Christian thought and practice for centuries.
Despite the burgeoning growth of material in the Christian tradition, the Bible continued to take pride of place as the central resource for the Fathers and their heirs.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Have students organize a debate with four sides, corresponding to the four major fourth-century views on the relationship between the Father and the Son. Using Scripture, tradition, and logic, have groups represent their positions as convincingly as possible.
Utilize digital images of coins and other art that depicts imperial symbolism from the period, in order to illustrate the changing imperial circumstances and their impact on the empire and the church.
Engage the class in discussing the significance of the Arian controversy after Nicaea, drawing on what we know about the players, their influence, and their arguments in order to explain why so many were so invested in its outcome. What factors were decisive?
Engage the class in a discussion comparing and evaluating the patristic authors studied in this chapter. Which Church Fathers made the most important contributions? Why?
Suggested Essay Questions
Compare and contrast four major fourth-century viewpoints on the relationship between the Father and the Son.
Analyze the principal phases in the Arian controversy after Nicaea, explaining major themes and identifying major players.
Describe the Council of Constantinople, explaining its theological and political background, including the roles played by significant figures.
Compare and contrast the careers of John Chrysostom and Ambrose of Milan.
Select three of the following major patristic figures, comparing their careers, roles, and contributions to Christian thought and practice: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom, Ambrose, Rufinus, and Jerome.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Roman Coins: Gallery with representative coins depicting Roman emperors and exhibiting developing imperial symbolism.
Athanasius, On the Incarnation: Text of Athanasius’ seminal defense of a Nicene understanding of the incarnation.
Patristic Texts: Accessible translations of many of the works of the Church Fathers discussed in the chapter.
Ephrem the Syrian: Sidney Griffith’s article unpacking the growing appeal and significance of a lesser known Church Father, “A Spiritual Father for the Whole Church: The Universal Appeal of Ephrem the Syrian,” Hugoye 1 (1998): 197–220.
Ambrose, Letter 21 and Letter 51: Correspondence illustrating Ambrose’s influence in the empire.
St. Ambrose Humiliates Theodosius the Great: Excerpt from Theodoret’s account of Theodosius’ penitent stance before Ambrose.
St. Ambrose Barring Theodosius from Milan Cathedral: Evocative painting by Anthony van Dyck (1619–20).
Codex Theodosianus: Legal collection, with excerpts on religion, illustrating the impact of Christianization on the late Roman Empire.
Saint Jerome Writing: Painting by Caravaggio (c. 1608).
Mosaic Portrait of Ambrose: A mosaic at Sant’Ambrogio, Milan, Italy, made not long after Ambrose’s death, possibly reflecting his actual appearance.
John Chrysostom and Aelia Eudoxia: An evocative painting by Jean-Paul Laurens.
Council of Constantinople 381: Byzantine illumination picturing the Council, from a 9th-century Greek manuscript of Gregory of Nazianzus’ Homilies.
Hagia Eirene: Photo gallery of the church of Hagia Eirene, the site of the Council of Constantinople, 381.
Codex Sinaiticus: Website showcasing one of the most famous Bible manuscripts, dating from the 4th century.
Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus: A SmartHistory podcast on this elaborate and informative Christian artifact, with images.
Chapter 12—The Church in the Fourth and Early Fifth Centuries: Monasticism, Expansion, Life, and Worship
Key Terms
monasticism, cenobite, anchorite, laura, abbot, catholicos, Christianization, infanticide, cult of the saints, martyria, relics, hagiography, pilgrimage, audientes, Sursum corda, Sanctus, Epiclesis, sacrament, mysterion, chrism, penitential discipline, ordination, church calendar, Pascha, Epiphany, basilica
Key Points
Under the influence of key leaders and through a variety of expressions, Christian monasticism shaped Christianity in significant ways.
The fourth and fifth centuries saw one of the most significant periods in Christian missions, with major expansion occurring in Syria, Persia, Armenia, Georgia, and Ethiopia.
Although Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the late fourth century, the Christianization of religious practices, moral behavior, and methods of rule was generally slow and gradual.
In the aftermath of persecution, the cult of the saints, observing saints’ days, the veneration of holy sites, and pilgrimage became major expressions of Christian piety.
In the fourth century Christian worship became more elaborate and the distinction between laity and clergy more pronounced. In particular, the sacraments of baptism, Eucharist, and chrismation received greater attention and significance.
Practices of penance, ordination, and the church calendar became more formal and more complex during the fourth and fifth centuries.
Chapter Summary
Although some disciples of Jesus adopted lifestyles of rigorous discipline from the earliest times, the fourth century saw dramatic developments in Christian asceticism and the widespread growth of monasticism. Numerous tributaries of pagan, Jewish, and Christian origin influenced the shape of monasticism. The solitary expressions of anchorites and hermits, typified by St. Anthony of Egypt, grew alongside the communal monastic expressions of the cenobites, of whom Pachomius was an influential pioneer. A number of other early leaders contributed to the theory and practice of Christian asceticism, some of whom, like Basil of Caesarea in the East and John Cassian in the West, helped the mainstream church appreciate the contributions of monasticism to Christian culture and leadership.
Alongside and often assisted by the expansion of monasticism, Christian missionary efforts established churches in lands beyond its primitive range, including Syria, Persia, Armenian, Georgia, and Ethiopia. In some instances, it is apparent that Christians had been present in these environments long before the fourth century, yet the changed political and social location of the church in the Roman Empire facilitated the adoption of Christianity among the social elite outside the boundaries of Rome. These efforts saw the translation of the Bible and other sacred texts into local languages and the development of distinct forms of liturgy, belief, practice, and polity.
The dramatic growth of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the fourth and fifth centuries set the stage for an exchange of influence, in which the church impacted society and society impacted the church. Most emperors saw themselves as patrons of the church and sought to support the church and reform society according to Christian principles. Reforms in sexual ethics, the theater, and violent games were accompanied by the establishment of charitable institutions and provisions that discouraged paganism and limited Jews. Yet Christianity did not deeply impact fundamental economic structures or the often brutal practices by which the imperial office governed. The rigors of church discipline and moral standards relaxed, providing further impetus for the adoption of monasticism on the part of many believers who sought radical expressions of commitment to Christ.
With the end of persecution in the empire, monks and bishops came to be venerated alongside the martyrs as saintly exemplars. The cult of the saints grew to become a major expression of popular piety in the late antique church. Saints’ days, the building of martyria over saints’ tombs, the increased circulation of saints’ lives, and the veneration of relics all expressed enthusiasm for the saints as models and aids to faith and life. Pilgrimage to holy sites also became more common in the fourth and fifth centuries.
During this era, corporate worship practices became more elaborate, adapting to the changed circumstances of much larger congregations, an elevated social location, and worship spaces modeled on the basilica style. The outline of Christian liturgy took a form that would have lasting influence for centuries. Procedures associated with the sacraments of baptism, the Eucharist, and chrismation became more formal and complex. Catechetical and mystagogical texts from the period reveal a high degree of deliberate reflection on the meaning and significance of the sacraments and corporate worship for individual faith and in the life of the church. Alongside pastoral concerns, the need to confess orthodox belief about the incarnation shaped practices and theology. The church calendar, previously oriented largely around Easter and Pentecost, developed so that Epiphany, Palm Sunday, and the birth of Jesus (Christmas) were more prominent.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Engage the class in discussion regarding the positive and negative effects on society and the church following Rome’s turn towards Christianity.
Have individual students do library or online research related to specific saints venerated by the fifth century and make reports on their findings to the class or in a class blog.
Have the class discuss the Outline Summary of Some Common Features of Sunday Liturgies in the chapter, comparing it to outlines of the Sunday services with which they are most familiar.
Engage the class in a discussion about the sacraments described in the chapter, comparing and contrasting them to contemporary practices with which they are familiar, in terms of ritual, theology
If possible, visit a local congregation of one of the national churches mentioned in the chapter, or invite a representative from such a church to visit the class and share information about their heritage. Alternatively, have class groups do online research in order to learn about contemporary expressions of the churches described.
Visit a local monastery in order to learn more about the monastic heritage and life, or invite a monk or nun to visit the class in order to share with the class the reasons for and significance of their monastic vocation.
Suggested Essay Questions
List and explain the factors impacting the ascendancy of Christian monasticism in the fourth and fifth centuries.
Compare and contrast different forms of monasticism that became current by the fourth-fifth centuries, describing principal leaders associated with each form.
Evaluate the effects on society and the church after Rome made Christianity the official religion of the empire.
Discuss and explain the significance of the Cult of the Saints and the development of the church calendar on Christian piety and corporate worship.
Describe the development of the sacraments in the fourth-fifth centuries, focusing on aspects of ritual, rationale, and theology.
Describe the growth of Christianity in two (2) of the “national” churches discussed in the chapter.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Athanasius, Life of Anthony: Text of a seminal work of monasticism.
John Cassian, Conferences: Easily excerptable accounts of conversations with Desert Fathers, as told in this classic of western asceticism.
Palladius, Lausiac History: Easily excerptable accounts of monastic exploits, as told in this classic of Eastern asceticism.
Mar Saba Monastery: An online tour the great laura of Palestine, near Jerusalem.
Q’alat Siman, Syria: The ruins of the establishment that grew up around the pillar of the famed ascetic Symeon the Stylite.
Hypatia. Ancient Alexandria’s Great Female Scholar: The story of Hypatia as told in this Smithsonian publication offers an alternate perspective on late antique Christianization.
Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lecture 7: Text in which Cyril explains the significance and practice of baptism.
Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lecture 23: Text in which Cyril explains the significance and practice of the sacred liturgy and communion.
Gregory Thaumaturgus, Canonical Epistle: Text detailing the ancient practice of penance.
Saints Resource: Website with information on saints lives and the traditions that grew up around the saints.
Calendar of Saints Days: Website providing information about the church calendar, particularly traditional saints days.
Basilicas: Images of pre-Christian and fourth-century Christian basilicas.
Late 4th-Century Christian Art: Gallery with representative architecture and art in various media.
Santa Maria Maggiore: A SmartHistory podcast on this ancient Roman church, with images.
Santa Sabina: A SmartHistory podcast on this ancient Roman church, with images.
National Churches: The following websites are affiliated with current expressions of the national churches mentioned in the chapter:
o Syriac
o Armenian
o Georgian
o Ethiopian
Chapter 13—Christological Controversies to Chalcedon (451)
Key Terms
Antiochene, Alexandrine, Apollinarianism, theotokos, miaphysite, Tome of Leo, Nestorianism, Eutychianism, “Robber Synod,” Twelve Anathemas, physis/natura, persona/hypostasis, Monophysite
Key Points
Each of the four ecumenical councils contributes a distinct piece to the Christian doctrine of the incarnation, functioning to preserve mystery within certain parameters.
The Antiochene and Alexandrine theological traditions differed in significant ways, producing different interpretations of Nicaea that were difficult to reconcile and triggered widespread Christological controversy.
The backgrounds and circumstances of the Christological controversies demonstrate the shifts occurring in how major religious conflict would be handled in the late empire. The consequences would include deposition of leaders and condemnation of entire traditions.
The clash between Nestorius and Cyril in the Council of Ephesus (431), the results of which were played out further in the “Robber Synod” of 449 and the Council of Chalcedon (451), highlighted the terms of debate between the Word-flesh Christology of Antioch and the Word-man Christology of Alexandria.
Chalcedon established a compromised definition, affirming the two natures (human and divine) in the one person of Jesus Christ.
Chalcedon and its canons impacted the church’s understanding of the role of ecumenical councils, the relationship of monks to the ecclesial hierarchy, and underscored the tensions between Constantinople and Rome as prestigious sees.
Chapter Summary
The ecumenical councils of the early church sought to clarify Christian beliefs about God and Jesus Christ. In particular, the first four ecumenical councils affirmed both God’s essential unity and the Trinity; they affirmed the unity of Jesus in one person and his duality in two natures, human and divine. Ostensibly, the councils attempted to preserve a large degree of mystery in the Christian understanding of the divine, while guarding against apparently extreme positions.
The Councils of Nicaea (325) and Chalcedon (451) are especially significant watersheds in the process—Nicaea laying the crucial groundwork, and Chalcedon culminating a lengthy process of discussion regarding the implications and boundaries of the Nicene formulation. The process involved numerous factors, including strong personalities, theological exploration through debate, specialized terminology, and the politics of church and empire; yet the church believed the power of God to be active in the process.
The process was complicated by diverse understandings of divinity and of Jesus Christ, especially those of the Antiochene tradition, typified by Theodore of Mopsuestia and Nestorius, and the Alexandrine tradition, typified by Cyril of Alexandria, Eutyches, and Dioscorus. These two traditions were distinct in a number of ways. As their representatives disputed the best ways to describe the incarnation, bishops and emperors alike felt compelled to achieve unanimity of belief. The ensuing controversies resulted in great difficulties, including imperial enforcement of orthodoxy, the depositions of bishops, the condemnation of dissenting branches of the church, and lasting estrangement between those branches. A broad consensus of belief was achieved by the Definition of Chalcedon (451), held by much of the church in East and West to be the definitive interpretation of Nicaea. Yet it was unable to contain those of a more miaphysite persuasion, who have been routinely called “monophysites;” and those with an even more striking dyophysite leaning (so-called “Nestorians”) had previously been alienated from the fold by the Council of Ephesus (431).
Chalcedon was important not only dogmatically, but also had conciliar, monastic, and constitutional aspects that achieved lasting impact in the church.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Discuss the differences between the Alexandrine and Antiochene traditions, according to the categories given in the chapter. After having explored the differences in historical context, analyze the two traditions according to contemporary expressions with which students are familiar. Are contemporary churches more Alexandrine or Antiochene? Schools?
Stage a debate in class between miaphysite and dyophysite positions. Assign roles to individuals or groups to represent political, ecclesial, and biblical-theological interests on both sides.
Many academic, ecclesiastical and even personal websites discuss the significance of Chalcedon. Have the class do online research to determine common current understandings of Chalcedon, comparing them to its significance in historic context.
Suggested Essay Questions
Describe and explain the circumstances surrounding the Council of Chalcedon (451), indicating points of dispute, major players, and theological implications of the issues.
Explain the debate between Nestorius and Cyril of Alexandria, highlighting the terms of the debate and discussing the role played by the distinct schools of thought that each represented.
Explain the significance of each of the first four ecumenical councils, describing their backgrounds, the theological points at issue, major players, and basic consequences of each.
Have the class do web research into contemporary churches commonly designated “Monophysite” (e.g. Syrian Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox), in order to see what they claim about themselves with respect to monophysitism and Chalcedon. Discuss in class.
Choose three (3) of the following on which to write a brief essay, comparing and contrasting their significances for the history of the Christological controversy: Theodore of Mopsuestia, Apollinaris of Laodicea, Eutyches, Cyril of Alexandria, Nestorius, John of Antioch, Theodosius II, Dioscorus, Leo I of Rome, Theodoret of Cyrus.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Cyril & Nestorius: Text of the Twelve Anathemas of Cyril and Correspondence between Cyril and Nestorius.
Nestorius, Bazaar of Heracleides: A rare surviving representation of Nestorius’ actual thought.
Tome of Leo: The text of Leo, To Flavian, (i.e. the Tome of Leo), explicating Roman Christology.
Narsai, Exposition of the Mysteries: A hymnic representation of the Antiochene thought of Nestorius and Theodore, preserved in the Church of the East, emphasizing the duality of Christ.
Definition of Chalcedon: The text of the famed Chalcedonian formulation.
Christology Study Area: Website with various resources to help students understand Patristic Christology, including personalities, texts, art, and articles.
Monophysitism Reconsidered: A brief essay by Fr. Matthias Wahba, claiming that churches such as the Coptic Orthodox should not be called “monophysite” as they commonly are.
Faith of the [Ethiopian] Church: A series of articles on the question of whether the Ethiopian church is properly monophysite, and on relationships with Chalcedonians.
Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon: Painting by Vasily Surikov (1876).
Chapter 14—Augustine, Pelagius, and Semipelagianism
Key Terms
Pelagianism, Semipelagianism, Confessions, City of God, ex opera operato, original sin, predestination, foreknowledge
Key Points
Augustine of Hippo came to be one of the most influential thinkers in western Christianity, shaped by a variety of life experiences culminating in his dramatic conversion to Christianity.
Augustine left a voluminous quantity of writings that have become classics in western Christianity, addressing theology, ecclesiology, exegesis, and spirituality.
In response to Donatism, Augustine formulated influential understandings of the sacraments and the church
In response to Pelagianism, Augustine formulated controversial but impactful understandings of divine predestination and election, salvation, and human sexuality
Pelagius and Celestius were moralizing reformers whose views on human free will prompted fierce controversy, especially in Rome and North Africa, resulting in their condemnation in multiple councils
John Cassian, Vincent of Lerins, and others reacted to Augustine’s extreme views on divine election, holding to a position that allows a greater role for human free will in salvation, a view known as “Semipelagianism”
Chapter Summary
Due to the personal reflections he composed, we know more about Augustine’s life background and journey to Christian faith than we do most other patristic writers. His voluminous corpus of works illuminates our understanding of his pastoral career as bishop of Hippo and of the critical controversies of his setting. His writings have had a profound effect on western Christianity in most of its facets, covering theology, spirituality, exegesis, and numerous items involving pastoral care.
In response to Donatist emphases on purity, Augustine argued for an objective understanding of the sacraments’ effectiveness. He taught that a sacrament properly done, with the correct words spoken, was fully effective to the activity of God, irrespective of the purity of the administrator or the faithfulness of the church. Originally formulated to address the damaging effects of the Donatist schism, Augustine’s objective view of the sacraments became standard in western Christianity until challenged during the Reformation.
Pelagius was a moralizing reformer from Britain who taught in Rome and Palestine; his follower Celestius was also in Rome, in North Africa, and Sicily. They taught that humans had freedom of will to choose the good, that Adam’s sin laid down a bad example but did not convey actual guilt or weakness to other people, that it is possible for humans to do what is right and that some had in fact lived without sin, even before Jesus Christ. In response, Augustine formulated doctrines of original sin and divine election that came to exercise deep influence throughout the Middle Ages. He taught that Adam’s sin involved the entire human race in a fall, transmitting original sin through sexual activity, so that people are incapable of acting good or even exercising true faith on their own, without the intervening grace of God. In his grace, God elects some for salvation, working in their souls to trigger faith and restore their free will. Augustine points to the church’s tradition of infant baptism as evidence for his doctrine of original sin.
Though Pelagius, Celestius, and other followers of Pelagianism were condemned in multiple councils, not everyone followed Augustine’s extreme understandings of divine election either. Leaders such as John Cassian and Vincent of Lerins represent a “semipelagian” position, which allows a greater role for free will in human salvation. Cassian was also known for formalizing the fourfold method of reading scripture and Vincent for formulating the classic statement of the church’s doctrine on the role of tradition, both of which exercised great influence throughout the Middle Ages.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Engage the class in a discussion of the differences between the kinds of issues that preoccupied the Western church during this period, in comparison to the Eastern church.
Is it appropriate that a person’s personal experiences and historical circumstances could affect their beliefs and teaching as deeply as they did those of Augustine? Engage the class in discussion.
Prescribe readings from Augustine that illustrate the development of his views on salvation and human nature. Discuss the texts, the apparent development, and their consequences in class.
Assign different readings from Christian History Magazine #67, on Augustine, and have students present reports to the class.
Divide the class into Augustinian, Pelagian, and Semipelagian factions, staging a debate on the subjects of salvation, divine election, free will, and human sexuality.
Have the students compare and contrast contemporary theological conclusions about salvation and human nature with Augustinianism, Pelagianism, and Semipelagianism. have the students present evidence for their arguments.
Have the class apply Vincent of Lerins’ understanding of tradition’s role in establishing orthodoxy to the major items of orthodox doctrine they have encountered in the text so far. How fitting is Vincent’s “rule” in affirming the doctrinal positions of the early church and the patristic period?
Suggested Essay Questions
Describe the life of Augustine, explaining the ways in which his experiences impacted his religious beliefs and theological teachings.
Compare and contrast Pelagianism with Augustine’s views and with Semipelagianism, indicating major players in the controversy and the fundamental points of contention.
Describe Augustine’s views on human free will, salvation, and divine election, explaining their development.
Explain the development of Augustine’s views on ordination, the church, and sacraments in response to Donatism. What were the long-term consequences of his teaching?
Select two of the following works to describe, indicating their authors, the circumstances of their composition, their teachings, and their impact: Confessions, Commonitorium, City of God, On the Trinity.
Other Media Sources/Websites
Augustine: A number of articles Christian History Magazine, issue 67, focusing on different aspects of Augustine’s life, work, and legacy.
St. Augustine: Site dedicated to Augustine’s life, works, and influence.
Augustine of Hippo: Extensive site dedicated to Augustine.
Augustine Artwork: A great many depictions of Augustine are available to see on the Internet and may readily be found using any web search.
John Cassian, Conferences 13: Text of Cassian’s statement on grace and free will.
Pelagius & Celestius: This website attempts to reconstruct certain aspects of Pelagius’ work and thought, largely on the basis of fragments quoted in other works.
The Pelagian Controversy: BBC 4 radio program in the “In Our Time” series (2011), in which the panelists discuss the Pelagian controversy and its implications.
Vincentian Canon: Text clarifying the official western view on the definition of orthodoxy.
Chapter 15—Transitions to the Middle Ages: Germanic Migrations, Doctrinal Developments, and the Papacy
Key Terms
Goths, Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Suevians, Vandals, Lombards, filioque, Proprietary Church/Eigenkirche, Semiaugustinianism, anno domini, Pope, the apostolic see, vicar of Peter
Key Points
The church was one of the principal institutions in Western Europe to survive the collapse of the ancient Roman Empire.
Ulfilas converted many Goths to a Christianity that was largely Arian, and its church exhibited distinctive features of organization, belief, and practice as a result of its Germanic context.
The movements and conquests of German tribes transformed Western Europe during the fifth and sixth centuries, the most impactful being the Franks under Clovis and the Ostrogoths under Theodoric.
The Germanic invasions had lasting effects on society and the churches; a number of Christian authors sought to explain the significance of the Germanic conquests in different ways.
The Augustinian-Pelagian controversy was practically resolved in favor of a “Semiaugustinianism” championed by Caesarius of Arles, a compromise view that would come to dominate the Western medieval theology.
A combination of circumstances and strong leadership contributed to the elevation of the role of Roman bishop (pope) to a status of primacy among Western bishops.
Chapter Summary
Various dates are proposed for the beginning of the Middle Ages, and different views exist as to why the Western Roman empire collapsed, but historians agree that deep transitions occurred in society and the church in connection with the empire’s decline. The church was the principal institution to survive the end of the empire.
Ulfilas brought an Arian interpretation of the Gospel to the Goths, translating the scriptures into their language, and adapting early Germanic Christianity to its context. Clergy organized according to the clan culture, functioned as military chaplains, and supported “proprietary churches” closely associated with lay patrons.
Different tribes moved into various parts of Europe in the fifth and sixth centuries. The Vandals settled in North Africa, persecuting catholic Christians and threatening Italy. The Visigoths dominated Spain, where a synod in Toledo added the filioque clause to the creed, fortifying the Son’s divine status. The Franks settled in what would become Northern France. Their king Clovis and his men converted to catholic Christianity in the late fifth century; his long and effective rule strengthened the Merovingian dynasty. The Ostrogoths moved into Italy. Under Theodoric, they preserved aspects of the late Roman culture they admired. For instance, statesmen and scholars such as Boethius, Dionysius Exiguus, and Cassiodorus helped transmit the learning of past generations into the Middle Ages. The Lombards moved into Italy in the late sixth century.
Literary responses to the barbarian invasions exhibit three basic viewpoints: that of Augustine, who held that political success and failure are irrelevant to God’s purposes; that of Orosius, who held that Christianity was meant to be the guarantor of the empire’s welfare; and that of Salvian, who saw the invasions as an expression of God’s punishment of the empire. Germanic incursion had marked effects on society and on the church. The church disappeared from some places, yet where it had been well established it adapted to the emerging rural economy, took over many public services, and supplied a universal sphere of authority that transcended that of local kings.
The Pelagian-Augustinian controversy culminated in the formulation of “Semiaugustinianism,” championed by Caesarius of Arles and upheld in the Synod of Orange (529). This view became the prevalent medieval view. It confirmed original sin and the need for prevenient grace, yet it held that baptism renews the ability of human beings to choose and do good, thereby supporting a pastoral emphasis on the efficacy of good works.
The fourth and fifth centuries saw dramatic development in the role and status of the bishop of Rome, i.e. the papacy. The need for strong leadership in Rome became especially acute as the structures of empire dissolved. Over time, the pope came to be elevated above other bishops, acquiring the status of appellate court, the highest teaching office, and the vicar of Peter, responsible for pastoring the other bishops. These conceptions were more compelling in the Western church, and largely contested or ignored in the East. The church and especially the papacy enjoyed a greater independence of action and status from the state in the West. Leo I was “the first pope;” his methods, policy, and ideals outline the powers and role of the future papacy.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Divide the class into groups, representing the Vandals, Visigoths, Franks, Ostrogoths, and Lombards. Have each prepare a two-minute brief to boast of their conquests, respective territories, and particular contributions in the early Middle Ages to the church and society (including influential authors in their territories, etc.).
Have the class discuss or debate the chapter’s discussion of the effects of the barbarian invasions on literature, society, and the churches. What were the gains/losses? Have students substantiate their evaluations.
Perhaps in combination with Chapter 14, divide the class into Augustinian, Pelagian, Semipelagian, and Semiaugustinian factions, staging a debate on the subjects of salvation, divine election, free will, and human sexuality.
Engage the class in a discussion of the papacy, comparing and contrasting contemporary popular views of the papal role and power with the developments in that office from the fourth–sixth centuries.
Suggested Essay Questions
Compare and contrast the relationships that the Franks and Visigoths had with Christianity and the church in the fifth and sixth centuries.
Describe and explain the distinctive characteristics of early Germanic Christianity in its beliefs, practices, and church organization.
How did the bishop of Rome come to be as powerful and significant as it was by the beginning of the sixth century? Discuss the major players and relevant events and circumstances.
In what ways would Augustine and Pelagius have agreed or disagreed with Caesarius of Arles and the synod of Orange (529) on the matter of human free will and salvation?
Other Media Sources/Websites
Project Wulfila: Site providing images and texts of the Gothic Bible, only vestiges of which have survived.
Conversion of Clovis: Two accounts of this major turning point in the history of Western Europe and the church.
Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks: Excerpt revealing the circumstances of an incident at Soissons, involving Clovis’ “barbaric” defense of the church.
Sidonius Apollinaris on Theodoric: Excerpt describing the celebrated ruler of the Visigoths.
Boethius, Consolation of Philosophy: Excerpt of this influential Christian-philosophical meditation.
Leo I and Attila the Hun: Two accounts of the momentous encounter of the pope and the Hun.
Cassiodorus: A thematic study of an intriguing intellectual figure, by James J. O’Donnell.
Council of Orange (529): Text explaining the settlement reached at Orange on the issue of predestination.
Barbarians and Romans: An assortment of early medieval artifacts, interpreted.
Art History Resources. Early Medieval Art: An assortment of online resources illustrating the art from the period.
Medieval History in the Movies: Annotated list of films dealing with medieval themes and characters.
Chapter 16—Eastern and Western Churches in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries
Key Terms
communicatio idiomatum, Henophysite, Henoticon, affirmative theology, negative theology, superlative theology, Theopaschite, Origenism, Three Chapters, Jacobites, kontakion, Mariology, mater dei, ecumenical patriarch, Pastoral Rule, Mass, Missal, Sacramentary
Key Points
After the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon, the Eastern church experienced a three-way split between the Church of the East (“Nestorians”), Chalcedonians, and Miaphysites/Henophysites, each with its key leaders and trajectory of later development.
During the emperor Justinian’s reign, the empire experienced its first flourishing of Byzantine culture.
Justinian sought to achieve unity in the empire, involving himself in the Theopaschite, Origenist, and Three Chapters controversies, without accomplishing lasting theological unity.
Justinian’s Byzantine culture saw marked developments in law, reconquest of territories, architecture, liturgy, art, theology, and popular devotion.
The monastic legacy of Benedict of Nursia and the “monkish papacy” of Gregory the Great combined to establish structures, practices, and expectations that would characterize ecclesial leadership through the Middle Ages.
The great liturgies were formalized in the sixth–seventh centuries, with the result that several distinct families were in use in different areas.
From the time of the barbarian invasions of the fifth century, Eastern and Western expressions of Christianity may be distinguished according to different theological emphases, organization, and engagement with society.
Chapter Summary
Before Justinian came to power, in the aftermath of the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon, three different groups could be clearly distinguished in the Christian East. The Church of the East rejected Ephesus in favor of a stronger emphasis on the duality of Jesus Christ (“Nestorians”). The Chalcedonians adhered to the formulation of 451 and enjoyed a strong measure of imperial support. The Henophysites/Miaphysites (“Monophysites”) understood themselves to be more faithful followers of Cyril of Alexandria. They upheld an emphasis on Christ’s unity, rejecting Chalcedon and thereby prompting official repression. Each of the three streams experienced distinct processes of development, guided and informed by its own leaders. The Church of the East flourished in Persia and outside the Roman Empire. Within the empire, attempts on the part of emperors and church leaders to find a formulation that would satisfy Henophysites and Chalcedonians were ultimately unsuccessful.
Justinian’s rule (527–65) saw the first flowering of Byzantine culture, with major developments in law, art, liturgy, architecture, and theology. His efforts to regain lost territory brought Byzantine influence into Western provinces. In the face of continued disunity, Justinian got involved in several theological controversies, culminating in the Fifth Ecumenical Council (553), the result of which was the condemnation of the Three “Nestorian” Chapters. His efforts to reconcile Miaphysites were unsuccessful. Justinian’s time was marked by the construction of grand church buildings and monasteries, creative developments in art and liturgy, and the growth of Mariology.
In the West, the career and influence of Benedict of Nursia (d. 540) supplied the foundation of Western monasticism for centuries. With papal support, the Benedictine style of monasticism, with its emphasis on stability, authority, and moderation, came to be adopted throughout Western Europe. Gregory the Great (590–604) brought monastic ideals to the papacy and established lasting patterns for the functioning of the papal office and the Roman church. Combining ascetic discipline and strong administrative capabilities, Gregory’s leadership was characterized by a strong sense of the need for pastoral care.
The great liturgies arose in the fourth-fifth centuries and were formalized in sixth-seventh centuries. A number of factors favored the use of fixed liturgies, and several different families developed in both Eastern and Western churches. More pronounced than liturgical differences were the deep differences between the Eastern Orthodox and the Western Roman Catholic churches. Partly due to the impact of barbarian invasions in the West, the two branches of Christianity proceeded along different trajectories, in theological emphasis, organization, and conceptions regarding the proper place of the church in its social context.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Have students read samples from key writers representing the Church of the East (e.g. Narsai) and Miaphysite positions (e.g. Philoxenos of Mabbug, Severus of Antioch); engage students in a discussion analyzing the authors’ different teachings and emphases.
Show examples of early Byzantine art and architecture in class; discuss the characteristic styles and motifs.
Have students read the Orthodox liturgy. In class discuss the primary moods and themes of the liturgy. Taking into account the chapter’s discussion of factors favoring liturgy, have students compare and contrast the Orthodox liturgy with contemporary free-church worship—what are the advantages/disadvantages of each?
Have students compare and contrast Gregory’s example of clerical leadership with predominant contemporary models of pastoral leadership.
Have students read Gregory’s Pastoral Rule. Discuss how one would translate and apply his principles today.
Have students read Benedict’s Rule, or portions of it. Discuss its primary themes, addressing the question of its applicability in principle to the ways in which communities of faith organize their lives today.
Find examples of different liturgical families, as described in the chapter, and have students compare and contrast key parts of the liturgies. Alternatively, have students read and discuss early kontakia.
Have students identify and define the key differences between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, according to the chapter, substantiating their points by offering examples.
Suggested Essay Questions
Explain the three-way split that occurred in the Christian East after the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon, indicating major players and events.
Describe the significance of Justinian’s reign for the ongoing development of the Christological controversies in the Christian East.
Explain Justinian’s legacy and the flowering of Byzantine culture under his rule.
Describe the careers of Benedict and Gregory the Great, highlighting ways in which they impacted the church and piety of Western Christianity.
Select three of the following figures, comparing and contrasting their contributions to the development of Christianity in the fifth and sixth centuries: Severus of Antioch, Pseudo-Dionysius, Benedict of Nursia, Justinian, Gregory the Great.
What are the main differences between Eastern and Western theology, organization, and attitudes regarding church and culture?
Other Media Sources/Websites
Henoticon: Text of the formula attempting to gain christological compromise and unity, as given in Evagrius Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History, 3.14.
Severus of Antioch, Letters 1–4: Text explicating Severus’ miaphysite Christology.
Pseudo-Dionysius: Text of On the Divine Names, and The Mystical Theology, highly influential mystical-theological texts in western and eastern Christianity.
Canons of the Second Council of Constantinople, 1–6: Text from the findings of the ecumenical council.
Procopius, Secret History, 7, 11: Excerpts from Procopius’ unflattering “alternative” account of Justinian and Theodora.
Procopius’ Description of Hagia Sophia: Excerpt from De Aedificiis, describing the magnificence of Justinian’s church.
Byzantine Art: San Vitale, Ravenna: A SmartHistory podcast on one of the best surviving examples of Byzantine art, with images and article.
Byzantine Art as Propaganda. Justinian and Theodora at Ravenna: Images and discussion posted by Patrick Hunt, clarifying the rhetorical purpose of much Byzantine art.
Dematerialization at Hagia Sophia: A SmartHistory article, with images, explicating the meaning of Hagia Sophia’s construction.
Hagia Sophia: Images of the great church.
Sant’Apollinare in Classe: A SmartHistory podcast, with images, exploring the architecture and art of this Byzantine masterpiece in Ravenna, Italy.
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia: A SmartHistory podcast, with images, exploring the architecture and art of this Byzantine masterpiece in Ravenna, Italy.
Romanos, Kontakion on the Nativity of Christ: Ephrem Lash’s translation and explication of Romanos’ Kontakion (1995).
Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom: Text of the standard liturgy of Eastern Orthodoxy.
Gregory, Pastoral Rule: Text of an enduring classic on pastoral care, written by one of the greatest popes on his appointment to the role.
Chapter 17—The Eastern Church from the Seventh to Eleventh Centuries
Key Terms
monergism, monotheletism, Ekthesis, Maronites, Paulicians, Key of Truth, Islam, Muslim, Middle Byzantine, iconoclasm, iconodulism, Photian Schism, Menologion
Key Points
The monotheletism promoted by church leaders and emperors as a means by which to accomplish unity was condemned in the Sixth Ecumenical Council, Constantinople III (680–81), defeated by a lasting reticence to revise Chalcedon and by the Christology typified in Maximus the Confessor.
The rise of Islam and its dramatic spread in the seventh and eighth centuries transformed the shape of the empire, posed significant challenges to the church, and prompted a series of Christian responses.
The iconoclasm sponsored by military emperors in the eighth and ninth centuries was refuted in the Seventh Ecumenical Council, Nicaea II (787), defeated by popular piety and by the incarnational theology typified in John of Damascus.
The Photian Schism illustrates the complexities of Byzantine church politics and the growing differences between Byzantine and Roman expressions of Christianity and church.
Middle Byzantine culture saw developments in monasticism, literature, liturgy, popular piety, art, and architecture that would characterize the Byzantine church from that period forward.
Byzantine missionaries and missionaries from the Church of the East established Christianity in Moravia, Bulgaria, Russia, Central Asia, China, India, Korea, and Japan.
Chapter Summary
During the era of the great emperor Heraclitus, continuing efforts to unify Chalcedonian and Miaphysite Christians in the empire led to the proposal of monotheletism, emphasizing the unity of will in Jesus Christ. The view was ultimately rejected in the sixth ecumenical council, Constantinople III (680–81), at which the Christology of Maximus the Confessor was adopted instead, becoming deeply influential in Orthodox theology. The Roman church worked to affirm the orthodox legacy of monothelete-leaning Pope Honorius.
The rise of Islam was sudden and devastating to the Byzantine Empire and church. As a preacher of radical monotheism, Muhammad attracted many followers, who conquered large portions of Persian, Byzantine, and even Roman territory. Christian response to Islam shows a rapid process of development in thought and engagement. Certain militaristic Byzantine emperors adopted iconoclastic policies for the sake of purifying Christian practice, though the lengthy and difficult battle over the use of icons as objects of devotion resulted in the affirmation of icon veneration at the seventh ecumenical council, Nicaea II (787). John of Damascus’ incarnational theology prevailed, shaping Eastern Orthodox attitudes towards icons, religious art, and worship.
The Photian Schism resulted from the complexities of Byzantine church politics and conflicts between Orthodox and Roman churches. It illustrates the deepening differences between Byzantine and Roman expressions of Christianity and church.
The Middle Byzantine period saw a dramatic flourishing of culture, expressed in Orthodox asceticism, church buildings, mosaic art, iconography, literature, and liturgy. In contrast to Roman missions, Eastern missionary efforts allowed churches to organize themselves along national or ethnic lines, in terms of language and polity. During the seventh–eleventh centuries, churches were established in many different regions, including Moravia, Russia, Hungary, India, China, Central Asia, Korea, and Japan.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Challenge students (perhaps in groups) to formulate two-minute oral “sales pitches” for the following positions: monotheletism, iconoclasm, icon veneration. To increase variety, change the prospective audiences: e.g. adult laypersons, high school students, middle school students.
Have students compare and contrast the Christian response to early Islam as described in the chapter with the range of typical Christian responses to Islam evident in popular and academic sources today.
The Photian Schism highlighted key differences between Eastern and Western churches. Have students discuss these differences in class and present any others they notice; challenge them to cite evidence from their reading and the course material to illustrate their points.
Show examples of Middle Byzantine art and architecture in class; discuss the characteristic styles and motifs.
Spend time in class analyzing one or more icons, artistically, historically, theologically, and in terms of personal piety.
Visit an Orthodox church. If possible, experience worship there and invite the clergy to provide explanation and answer questions.
Have students do web research on the current circumstances of historic Christian communities in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Egypt. Have them reflect on those circumstances in a discussion, blog posts, etc.
Suggested Essay Questions
Discuss the backgrounds, circumstances, and outcomes of the sixth and seventh ecumenical councils.
Explain the rise and defeat of monotheletism, highlighting major players, crucial doctrines, and key events.
Explain the arguments for and against icon veneration that emerged during the iconoclastic controversy.
Summarize the distinct Christian responses to Islam during its first two centuries.
Explain the Photian Schism—its background and outcomes. What does the Schism say about the deep differences between Eastern and Western expressions of Christianity?
Describe the major features of Middle Byzantine culture, especially as they pertain to the church.
Contrast Eastern missions with those of the Roman church and summarize Eastern missionary efforts to three different nations or regions during the 7th–11th centuries.
Other Media Sources/Websites
• Sixth Ecumenical Council. Constantinople III, 680–681: Key excerpts from the ecumenical council.
• Selected Sources: Byzantium: An online collection of texts related to many aspects of Byzantine history, culture, and religion.
• External References to Islam: Excerpts from Robert Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It [1997], that illustrate early Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian reactions to Islam.
• Iconoclast Council, 754: Excerpt from the discussions of the iconoclastic council of Hieria.
• John of Damascus, In Defence of Icons: Excerpt from the principal theological supporting icon veneration. .
Iconoclasm: A SmartHistory article, with images, describing the history and issues of iconoclasm.
Icon of the Triumph of Orthodoxy: A SmartHistory podcast, with images, using a famous icon to tell the story of the triumph of iconodulism.
Icons and Iconoclasm in Byzantium: An online exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum in New York.
Decree of Second Council of Nicaea, 787: Excerpt from the text of the findings of the ecumenical council, affirming icon veneration.
Religions of the Silk Road: Site dedicated to providing information about the historic evidence for different religions along the Silk Road, including Christianity.
The Nestorian Tablet: The text of the famous monument detailing the coming of Christianity to T’ang Dynasty China.
The Nestorian Stone: A podcast explaining the finding and significance of the famous stele monument, and the tale of the early missions in China.
Eastern Orthodox Christians and Iconography: A contemporary Orthodox explanation of icons and their significance.
Byzantium: Byzantine Studies on the Internet: A listing of internet resources on Byzantine culture, history, and religion.
Byzantium in the Movies: An annotated list of films dealing with settings, characters, and themes from Byzantine history.
Hesychasm: Selected brief readings explaining influential eastern Christian contemplative practices associated with the doctrines of Simeon the New Theologian.
Chapter 18—The Western Church from the Seventh to Ninth Centuries
Key Terms
Celtic Christianity, penitential, Synod of Whitby, Carolingian, capitulary, Donation of Pippin, Heliand, archbishop, canonical clergy, regular clergy, secular clergy, Carolingian minuscule, realistic identification, Libri Carolini, Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals
Key Points
In the clash between Celtic and Roman styles of Christian expression, a hybrid form emerged, loyal to Rome and Roman forms yet retaining many elements of the Celtic spirit.
Missionary-monks from Ireland and England helped restore, reform, and expand the church on the European continent.
The reign of Charlemagne and the Carolingian dynasty marked a season of relative peace and stability for much of Western Europe, with significant developments in Christian expansion, church-state relations, Benedictine monasticism, scholarship, theology, and church organization.
By the ninth century, Christian ritual and belief was coming to pervade the daily lives of many in medieval Europe, though various non-Christian elements persisted.
The Carolingian period saw a number of theological controversies, including debates about predestination, the Eucharist, the filioque, and religious art.
In the seventh–ninth centuries, the papacy moved decisively towards a papal monarchy, and the groundwork was laid for the medieval synthesis of church and state.
Chapter Summary
Though Christianity came to Britain prior to the collapse of the western Roman Empire, the withdrawal of Roman troops and subsequent invasions did not allow for its continued flourishing there. A Celtic form of Christianity came from Ireland to impact Scotland and northern England in the sixth century. Its clash with the Roman mission in England, brought by Augustine of Canterbury in 596, resulted in a sort of hybrid form of Christianity, combining Roman loyalties, structures, and liturgy with Celtic elements of passion, mission-mindedness, and a concern for purity. Anglo-Saxon missionary-monks like Winfrid (Boniface) ventured to the European continent, gaining the patronage of kings and popes in order to accomplish the work of restoring and reforming the church in some areas, while converting pagans in others. In many respects, they and their monastic foundations acquired the task of Christianizing the many converts from paganism, who struggled to distinguish the requirements of their Christian identity from the practices and attitudes of their pre-Christian society.
In the eighth century, Frankish power shifted from the kings of the Merovingian dynasty to the descendants of the Mayor of the Palace, Charles Martel, i.e. the Carolingians. An alliance between the pope and Martel’s son Pippin III, confirmed by papal anointing in 754, culminated in the Pope Leo III’s crowning of Pippin’s son Charlemagne as emperor in Rome on Christmas day, 800. Charlemagne was an ambitious and capable ruler, inspired by Augustine’s City of God, who saw his temporal role as integral to the purposes of God’s kingdom in the world. As a result of Carolingian rule, a period of peace and stability enabled wide-ranging developments in church organization, art, architecture, literature, and theology. The Carolingian renaissance saw the creation of schools, especially the court school at Aachen under the scholar Alcuin, as well as numerous other intellectual developments. These included several theological controversies, including debates about predestination, the true nature of the elements in the Eucharist, the filioque, and the place of religious art in worship. Charlemagne required the baptism of Saxon infants, assisted the church in such tasks as the collection of tithes, and took an active role in appointing church leaders, defining organizational boundaries, and settling theological disputes.
While the Carolingians consolidated power and influence, the papacy also moved towards a papal monarchy, assisted by the extensive claims of the mostly forged Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals. The partnership between the pope and Carolingian rulers was occasionally tense, yet it served to synthesize further the aims of church and state, blending the character of political and religious offices. By the end of the ninth century, the foundations for medieval Christian Europe had been laid.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Engage students in a discussion of the contemporary fascination with ancient Celtic culture and spirituality. Referring to websites and other cultural artifacts, compare the contemporary appreciation of ancient Celtic culture with its historic Christian expressions.
Divide the class into groups and have each group discuss the question, “Who was the most important influence on the church in Western Europe in the seventh-ninth centuries (except Charlemagne)?” Have groups choose their candidates, then present arguments supporting candidates to the class.
Engage the class in a discussion that compares and contrasts the experiences and practices of Christians in churches of the seventh-ninth centuries with Christians today.
Have students debate the pros and cons of the church-state arrangement that came to dominate political and ecclesial expectations by the end of this period. Invite students to propose workable alternatives that would fit the historic context.
Have students do web research to find an image that encapsulates the story of the church during this period—an artifact, art, an item of architecture, etc. Have students present and explain their find, in class or on a blog.
Suggested Essay Questions
Compare and contrast Celtic and Roman styles of mission and church in the early Middle Ages.
What strategies were used to convert and Christianize people in Western Europe in the seventh-ninth centuries?
How did church-state relations develop in the seventh–ninth centuries? Identify persons, events, policies, and documents in order to explain your answer.
Describe two major theological controversies that occurred in the Carolingian Empire in the seventh-ninth centuries. Explain the backgrounds, major players, points at issue, and results.
In your estimation, what were the most crucial factors in the construction of the foundation for medieval Europe that was laid in the seventh-ninth centuries? Substantiate your answer with reference to persons, events, developments and any other data you find necessary to explain your answer.
Other Media Sources/Websites
• The Labyrinth. Resources for Medieval Studies: A website with a wide range of resources and links.
• Medieval Art: Web gallery hosted by the Cleveland Museum of Art, with many images and descriptions.
• Confession of St. Patrick: Text purporting to be Patrick’s own telling of his life story.
• Life of St. Columbanus: Text of the life of an influential early missionary.
• The Rule of the Céli Dé: Edward Gwynn’s translation of a medieval Celtic monastic rule.
• CELT: Online Corpus of Electronic Texts (Irish texts).
• Einhard, Life of Charlemagne: Excerpts from the life story of Charlemagne, including Einhard’s version of his coronation.
• Coronation of Charlemagne: An image commemorating the coronation, and three different accounts.
• Capitulary for Saxony: Statement of Carolingian policy regarding the conversion of Saxons.
• Capitulary of the Missi 17: Statement illustrating Charlemagne’s concern to promote monasticism in his realm.
• Charlemagne: History Channel stories and videos about Charlemagne.
• Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies: Site dedicated to providing information, links, and resources promoting medieval studies.
• The Coronation of Charlemagne: Raphael’s masterpiece, painted 1516–17 and adorning the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican.
• Charlemagne: An informative Christian History Institute module on the influential ruler.
• Images of Medieval Art and Architecture: Maps, buildings, and art from the early Middle Ages.
• Carolingian Medieval Art: An assortment of Carolingian Christian artifacts, with images and interpretations.
• Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel: A two-part documentary exploration of the design and significance of Charlemagne’s chapel, illuminating many aspects of the period.
• St. Benedict’s Rule: Excerpts from the most influential medieval monastic guidebook.
• The Venerable Bede: BBC 4 Radio program in the “In Our Time” series (2004), in which the panelists discuss the British scholar, his times, and his impact.
• Lindisfarne Gospels: British Library site with excellent images of this Celtic treasure.
• Book of Kells: Digital exhibition of an Irish treasure; search Digital Collections for “Book of Kells” to see all the images.
Chapter 19—Decline and Renewal of Vitality in the West: The Ninth to Eleventh Centuries
Key Terms
“Dark Ages,” Norsemen, Viking, Cluniac, regular clergy, priors, Peace of God, Truce of God, Nicolaitanism, simony, Ottonian Dynasty, Salian Dynasty, college of cardinals, ecumenical patriarch, papal bull
Key Points
After a period of marked decline in the ninth and tenth centuries, revival in the institutions of monasticism, the imperial office, and the papacy set the stage in the eleventh century for the medieval synthesis.
The Norse and Viking invasions disequilibrated medieval culture, though the invaders were converted and Christianized in the tenth and eleventh centuries.
Church structures, especially the papacy, descended more deeply into feudalism during the ninth and tenth centuries.
Largely as a result of its autonomy from feudal structures, the monastery of Cluny was able to promote a sweeping reform of monasticism, thereby transforming the church’s impact on the society of the late tenth and eleventh centuries.
Imperial power passed from the Franks to the German Ottonian dynasty, key representatives of which supported church reform.
Reform-minded monarchs supported the installation of reforming popes such as Leo III, who transformed the papacy and helped lift it out of its feudal entanglements.
During an era when reforms in the Western church supported an independent papacy, tensions with the Eastern church came to a head in the controversy between Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael Cerularius, resulting in the Great Schism of 1054.
Chapter Summary
Largely due to the invasions of Norseman and Vikings, Western Europe was greatly destabilized in the ninth and tenth centuries. The church became deeply entangled in the feudalism that developed in response to the instability. Imperial weakness and clerical corruption was paralleled by a significant decline in the character of the papacy. The migrating Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Czechs, Poles, and Magyars were converted and Christianized.
The establishment of the Benedictine monastery of Cluny in 909/10 was a watershed for renewal. Granted autonomy from lay interference, the monks of Cluny developed a program of reform that focused on clerical celibacy, the church’s independence from lay interference, and the need to Christianize society more fully, through such practices as the restriction of bloodshed and feuding.
The Saxon kings of the Ottonian dynasty instigated an imperial revival, adopting the imperial title and becoming involved in church affairs. Otto I (the Great) in particular was an advocate of Cluniac reform in the church, strengthening abbots and bishops partly for the sake of controlling the dukes and counts. The Saxons were succeeded by the Salian dynasty, of which Henry III provides a link between the imperial and papal revivals. Henry III worked to lift it out of its entanglements in local Italian politics, though he did so by means of controlling appointments to the papacy himself.
Leo IX represents the culmination of the cycles of revival as they impacted the papacy. Designated by the emperor, he insisted on receiving the election of the Roman people before assuming office. He brought Cluniac ideals to the papacy, along with a number of like-minded, strong associates. Internationalizing the college of cardinals and filling it with reformers, he consolidated a dynamic new vision for the church at Rome and its role in Christendom. A strong advocate of papal primacy, Leo sent his associate Humbert to Constantinople to treat with Patriarch Michael Cerularius, ostensibly for the purpose of achieving unity between the increasingly estranged Western and Eastern churches. However, the socio-political contexts of the two churches were so different and the issues so intractable that the result of the mission was an exchange of excommunications, marked by the Great Schism of 1054.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Use maps in class to illustrate the Norse and Viking invasions and the later impact of Cluny on medieval Europe.
Have students read the Charter of Cluny, analyzing it for clues to explain Cluny’s impact. Discuss their findings and views in class.
Have students analyze each of Cluny’s four areas of impact, according to the textbook. Engage them in a discussion to evaluate the potential each of these areas might have for religious revival today.
Have students engage in discussion to address the question: What was the most significant factor resulting in the Great Schism between Eastern and Western churches?
Suggested Essay Questions
Describe the story of papal decline and renewal in the ninth to eleventh centuries, highlighting key players and significant events.
Explain the eleventh-century monastic, imperial, and papal revivals, in terms of their background, interconnections, and major players.
What impact did the monastery of Cluny have on the church and medieval culture?
Why did the Great Schism of 1054 happen? Explain the background to the division and describe the specific circumstances of the eleventh-century events.
Other Media Sources/Websites
• Charter of Cluny: Document laying the foundation for this exceptionally influential reforming monastery.
• Monastery at Cluny: Interactive online map showing Cluny’s influence.
• On the First Millenium: Medieval reflections on the turn of the “first millennium.”
• Map of a Medieval Monastery: Online map illustrating the layout of a medieval monastery, thereby helping illustrate daily life for the inhabitants.
• The Schism: A BBC4 radio program, in which a panel discusses the Schism of 1054.
• The Great Schism. The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom: An explanation of the Schism from a modern Orthodox viewpoint.
• 1054 and All That: A modern Catholic perspective on the Great Schism.
• The Schism: BBC Radio 4 program in the “In Our Time” series (2003), in which the panelists discuss the background and circumstances of the Great Schism of 1054.
• Territories and Voyages of the Vikings: Map showing Viking travel and conquest.
• Stave Churches: Site showcasing unique surviving wooden medieval churches in Norway.
• The Cadaverous Council: Evocative painting of the council that condemned the exhumed corpse of Pope Formosus (Jean Paul Laurens, “Le Pape Formase et Étienne VII—Concile cadavérique du 897,” 1870).
See also the contextualization and interpretation here:
• Ottonian Medieval Art: An assortment of Christian Ottonian images, with interpretations.
Chapter 20—The Papal Reform Movement and the First Crusade
Key Terms
lay investiture, Dictatus Papae, Diet of Worms, “satisfaction,” indulgence, Concordat of Worms, just warfare, Deus le volt, First Crusade, Knights Templar, Hospitallers, Protector of the Holy Sepulcher
Key Points
The papal revival of the eleventh century climaxed in the papacy of Gregory VII.
Conflict over lay investiture became the defining issue, expressing competing views of kingship and the proper relationship between church and state.
Numerous factors help explain the significance of the conflict between King Henry IV of Germany and Pope Gregory VII over lay investiture, including the imperial and papal revivals, the church’s entanglement in feudalism, and politics in Germany and Italy.
Through a display of penance, Henry IV gained a tactical victory over Gregory VII, but the papacy won the moral victory in securing the symbol of imperial humility before the pope.
Multiple factors played into the development of the First Crusade, including the evolution of penance, changing views about the church’s role in warfare, the influence of Islam, the practice of pilgrimage, and a desire to reunite the church.
Pope Urban II responded to the Byzantine emperor’s pleas for help by preaching the First Crusade, offering papal indulgences to crusaders and helping mobilize French nobles to lead the armies.
Although the First Crusade contributed to the deterioration of many relationships, the capture of select targets brought western military rule to the Holy Land for a period. Knightly monastic orders arose to protect the conquered lands and safeguard pilgrims.
Chapter Summary
Pope Nicholas II (1058–61) was apparently the first pope to be crowned like a king or emperor, signaling strong development of the papal monarchy in the eleventh century. The eleventh-century papal reform reached its climax in Gregory VII, a staunch opponent of simony and advocate for church independence from lay control. Gregory VII’s ambitions to fortify a strong papacy were best expressed in his fight against lay investiture. Lay investiture was the bestowing of the symbols of spiritual office in the church by lay rulers. Due to the church’s continued entanglement in feudal society, lay investiture had become a normal practice, but Gregory VII rejected the view of church/state relations it implied; Gregory affirmed a view of kingship that kept it subservient to spiritual authority, and to the pope in particular.
Triggered by Gregory VII’s excommunication of certain advisors of Henry IV of Germany as “simoniacs” due to their lay investiture, pope and emperor exchanged condemnations, resulting in the pope’s excommunication of the emperor and the pronounced deposition of the pope by Henry’s clerics. The conflict culminated in an episode at Canossa in 1077, where Henry walked barefoot through the snow in an apparent effort to gain Gregory’s forgiveness. Grudgingly, Gregory declared Henry forgiven, after which Henry continued to behave as authoritatively as before. Gregory fled in exile, but through his efforts the papacy gained the potent symbol of an emperor humbled before the pope. A final settlement of the issue of lay investiture was reached by Henry V and Callistus II at the Concordat of Worms in 1122, a decision later ratified at the First Lateran Council of 1123.
Numerous factors helped form the background to the First Crusade, including developments in the sacrament of penance, the acceptance of a Christian’s participation in warfare, the expansion of the role of knights, the influence of Islam’s concept of holy war, the papalization of warfare, the practice of pilgrimage, and the desire to reunite the church. Prompted by the Byzantine emperor’s plea for help and a host of background factors, Pope Urban II preached the First Crusade at Clermont in 1095. A number of French nobles combined forces and set out in 1096, fighting to conquer Nicaea, Dorylaeum, Antioch, Edessa, and Jerusalem, which fell in 1099. They established Latin states and Latin patriarchs, securing key cities and routes for transit and pilgrimage.
In many respects, the Crusades hindered relations between Christians and Muslims and even between the Eastern and Western churches, though they did promote a greater sense of unity in Western Europe, strengthened the papacy, and helped trigger an intellectual revival in Western Europe. Knightly monastic orders, such as the Knights Templar and the Hospitallers, combined the crusader warrior culture and the ideals of monasticism. They functioned to protect crusader interests in the Holy Land, to care for the sick and injured and to provide safe corridors of passage for pilgrims.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Divide the class into groups representing Gregory VII, other advocates of papal reform, Henry IV, and the German nobles and leaders. Have the students prepare their positions on the basis of their assignments and discuss/debate the issue of lay investiture in class.
Utilize maps in class to illustrate the progress and impact of the Crusades.
Have the class do Internet research in order to get a sense of popular assessments of the Crusades. Engage the class in a discussion of the accuracy or legitimacy of popular conceptions of the Crusades.
Have the class research varying viewpoints on the Crusades, by means of such resources as the Church History Magazine articles and the Loren Rossen blogs (see below). Engage the class in a discussion/debate regarding the significance of the Crusades, popular understanding of them, and the Crusades’ impact on Christian witness. Alternatively, have students write blog posts addressing the matter.
Suggested Essay Questions
How did the investiture controversy come to be a crucial moment in the history of the papacy and the medieval church?
Explain the conflict between Gregory VII and Henry IV, highlighting the political and ecclesial factors and describing the outcomes of the conflict.
What factors came together to trigger the First Crusade?
What were the results of the Crusades?
Compare and contrast the attitudes responsible for the launching of the Crusades with those of Christians of earlier periods, illustrating by means of persons, sources, and events.
Other Media Sources/Websites
• Gregory VII, Dictatus Papae 1090: Summary text claiming papal authorities.
• Gregory VII, Lay Investitures Forbidden (1080): Text elaborating the pope’s views on lay investiture.
• Gregory VII, Bans on Lay Investitures (1078 and 1080): Excerpts of texts stressing papal rejection of lay investiture.
• Henry IV: Letter to Gregory VII (Jan 24, 1076): Letter condemning Gregory as a usurper.
• Gregory VII: First Deposition and Banning of Henry IV (Feb. 22, 1076): Text declaring Henry’s condemnation by the pope.
• Gregory VII: Second Banning and Dethronement of Henry IV (March 7, 1080): The pope’s second attempt to control Henry by means of excommunication.
• The Concordat of Worms 1122: Text explaining the final settlement between pope and emperor regarding lay investiture.
• Concordat of Worms: BBC Radio 4 program in the “In Our Time” series (2011), in which the panelists discuss the event and significance of the Concordat.
• Ivo of Chartres, Paschal’s Privilege (Feb. 12, 1111): Text excerpts illustrating one proposed solution to the lay investiture issue.
• Fulk of Chartres, Urban II’s Speech at the Council of Clermont (1095): Excerpts from a report on the event of Urban II’s sermon declaring the First Crusade. fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html#Fulcher
• Urban II: Speech at Clermont (1095), Robert the Monk Version: Text offering another perspective on the pope’s declaration of a crusade.
• Ekkehard of Aurach: On the Opening of the First Crusade: Excerpts from a detailed contemporary account.
• Fulk of Chartres, Capture of Jerusalem (1099): Eyewitness description of Jerusalem’s bloody fall.
• The Crusades: A list of links to sources on the Crusades in the Medieval Sourcebook.
• The Crusades: A number of articles in Christian History Magazine, issue 40, devoted to various aspects of the Crusades, available online.
• Loren Rossen, the Crusades: A series of provocative blog posts on many facets of the Crusades and their significance.
• William of Tyre, The Foundation of the Order of Knights Templar: Excerpt explaining the founding of the Templars.
• Bernard of Clairvaux, In Praise of the New Knighthood: Treatise by the famous spiritual leader, on behalf of the Knights Templar.
• Military Orders: A list of links to sources related to the knightly monastic orders, in the Medieval Sourcebook.
• Virtual Tour of the Holy Sepulcher: A site allowing visitors to see the church and site that played such a central role in the imaginations of Western medieval Christians and especially crusaders.
Text providing some details of the site:
• Art of the Crusades Era: A brief article with images of crusader art, hosted by the University of Michigan.
• The Fortifications of the Crusader Period: Images and descriptions of crusader architecture.
Chapter 21—Intellectual Revival: The Rise of Scholasticism
Key Terms
scholasticus, Scholasticism, Glossa Ordinaria, quaestio, disputatio, sententia, universals, Realism, Nominalism, Conceptualism, accidents, transubstantiation, fides quaerens intellectum, credo ut intelligam, fides, Cur deus homo, ontological argument, ransom theory, moral-exemplary theory, sacrificial/satisfaction theory, Sic et non
Key Points
The twelfth century saw an intellectual revival in medieval culture and the Western church, based on the kind of teaching and learning that occurred in cathedral schools.
Scholasticism was based on confidence in human reason and used a dialectical method of disputation to engage authorities and arguments in order to resolve problems, particularly those connected to the philosophical question of universals.
Scholastic methods and changing positions on the question of universals transformed the ways scholars engaged and debated such doctrines as the Eucharist, the incarnation, the church, and the atonement.
Anselm of Canterbury and Peter Abelard are the most significant representatives of early Scholasticism, whose work and teaching shaped the assumptions, aims, and methods of intellectual inquiry in western culture for centuries.
Chapter Summary
As learning moved from monastic environments to cathedral schools, an intellectual revival occurred in western culture, marked by the rise of Scholasticism. Focused at first on the interpretation of authoritative biblical and patristic texts, Scholasticism presumed a high confidence in the ability of human reason to acquire knowledge. Using the method of dialectical reasoning and collecting authorities and arguments on a question, Scholasticism sought to establish knowledge on the basis of reason alone. The scholars were particularly concerned with the question of universals and their relationship to particular things. Extreme realists (e.g. Anselm) held to the Platonic notion that universals have a real existence apart from and prior to individuals; nominalists (e.g. William Ockham) held that universals are merely inferences drawn from observation and have no real existence; moderate realists (e.g. Thomas Aquinas) held to the Aristotelian notion that universals are real but always exist in actual individuations.
Within the framework of Scholasticism, discussions about universals shaped the formulation of such basic Christian doctrines as those of the church, Trinity, incarnation, atonement, and Eucharist. In the second eucharistic controversy, Berengar taught against the popular belief of the real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist, on the basis of Aristotle’s understanding that the accidents of the bread cannot exist apart from the bread’s substance. Building on the counter arguments of Lanfranc, Cardinal Humbert, and others, Guitmund defended the popular view using the new scholastic methods, explaining that the substance of the bread was changed into the body and blood of Christ. This understanding of the transformation (transubstantiation) became official dogma of the Western church, confirmed in the Fourth Lateran Council (1215).
Anselm of Canterbury is considered the “Father of Scholasticism” due to his attempts to demonstrate the doctrines of Christianity on the basis of reason. Although routinely at odds with the English royalty in his desire to assert the church’s independence, Anselm found opportunity to write major texts that influenced the shape of scholasticism and the adoption of its methods. Characterized as “faith seeking understanding,” Anselm’s approach brought him to argue the case for God’s existence in the Monologion and Proslogion, and to present a theory of the atonement in Cur deus homo: the satisfaction/sacrificial theory. Couched in contractual terms and using the categories of feudalism, the satisfaction theory became more popular than either Abelard’s moral-exemplary theory or the ransom theory of the church fathers, helping to secure the place of the Eucharist and penance as the main sacraments by which people understood and participated in the meaning of their Christian belief.
Peter Abelard represents a further development in Scholasticism. A brilliant teacher in Paris, Abelard’s character, personality, and views made him highly controversial. He sought an even higher place for human reason than Anselm allowed, pursuing a program of “doubting in order to know,” and attacking perceived errors and inconsistencies in the thinking of others and in the traditions of the church. Abelard’s love affair with Heloise resulted in scandal that disrupted his academic career; his unconventional teachings, tinged with personal arrogance, brought him into conflict with Bernard of Clairvaux and the pope. Condemned at a council of Sens in 1140, Abelard was eventually reconciled to the church. In Sic et non, he arranged opposing quotations from the Bible and the church fathers on various questions, inciting controversy but also establishing Scholasticism’s favorite method of studying a problem. Abelard proposed a disciplined method by which to treat differences in texts, in Know Yourself he upheld the importance of motives in assessing ethics, and he presented the moral-exemplary theory of the atonement. But his influence was primarily that of a teacher, since many of his students came to be influential scholars and church leaders.
Although in many respects the forerunners of modern academics, scholastic theologians did not distinguish sharply between philosophy and theology. Furthermore, they nearly all had an element of mysticism in them.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Divide the class into three groups, representing different positions on the question of universals. After the groups have researched and discussed the strengths and weaknesses of their position, have them represent their positions in a debate regarding which position has the most merit.
Have students discuss in groups which of the following people they would choose to resuscitate today: Abelard, Anselm, Bernard, Hugh, or Lombard. Have the groups present their choices and defend them.
Divide the class into three groups and assign each group one of the three atonement theories described in the chapter. Give the groups a brief amount of time to discuss their theory and to formulate support for it, biblically, theologically, and in terms of its appropriateness to the contemporary context. In a plenary discussion, have the students debate the pros and cons of each position.
Take a poll in class as to whether students would rather have Anselm or Abelard as their teacher (or parishioner, or pastor, or friend). Have students explain the reasons for their preference.
Engage the class in a discussion comparing and contrasting medieval Scholasticism with education today.
Suggested Essay Questions
Explain Scholasticism, in terms of its assumptions, methods, content, and form, illustrating with reference to a particular theological discussion of the eleventh or twelfth century.
What was the problem of universals, as engaged by Scholasticism, and how did the discussions impact Christian doctrine in the eleventh and twelfth centuries?
Compare and contrast the careers, personalities, and impact of Anselm of Canterbury and Peter Abelard.
How were the assumptions, methods, and results of Scholasticism similar to those of the early church fathers? How were they different?
What were the most popular theories of the atonement in the early twelfth century? Explain the theories and give their proponents.
Discuss the circumstances, issues, and major players in the second eucharistic controversy. How did the results of the controversy affect church doctrine and liturgical practice?
Other Media Sources/Websites
• Scholasticism: Brief but informative article from the online Encyclopædia Britannica, providing another perspective on Scholasticism.
• Bartholomew’s World: An NEH funded project hosted by Stanford University, introducing medieval Scholasticism, scholastic texts and authors, and strengthening Latin skills.
• Anselm on God’s Existence: Excerpts from the Proslogion, with the celebrated ontological argument for God.
• Anselm and the Beauty of Theology: Podcast interview with David Hogg (2013) on the importance of elegance, coherence, and beauty in Anselm’s thought and in medieval theology.
• Anselm’s God: Brief “Philosophy Walk” podcast explaining Anselm’s arguments for God’s existence.
• Cur Deus Homo: The text of Anselm’s influential explanation of the atonement.
• Peter Abelard: Peter King’s article in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy on many facets of Abelard’s life, thought, and contributions.
• Abelard, Sic et non Extract: Excerpt from the classic scholastic text.
• Heloise, Letter to Abelard: Discussion of the alleged love letters between Abelard and Heloise, with an example.
• Abelard and Heloise: BBC Radio 4 program in the “In Our Time” series (2005), on the infamous love affair.
• Historia Calamitatum: Abelard’s autobiographical account of his misfortunes.
• Disputation of the Holy Sacrament: Raphael’s complex fresco painting (1510–11) depicting the legacy of Christian argument regarding the nature of the Eucharist, with brief discussion.
Chapter 22—Monastic, Literary, Political, and Cultural Activities in the Twelfth Century
Key Terms
Carthusian, Augustinian canons, Premonstratensians, Cistercian, Sermons on the Song of Songs, On the Love of God, De sacramentis Christianae fidei, Decretum Gratiani, Four Books of Sentences, verba and res, Romanesque, courtly love, polyphony, canonization, Ave Maria, purgatory, sacrum imperium, cathedra, cathedral chapter
Key Points
Church reform and renewal in the twelfth century was triggered largely by increased monastic vitality and new expressions of monasticism, the most influential of which was the Cistercian reform of Benedictine monasticism.
The Cistercian leader Bernard of Clairvaux was the guiding spiritual influence of the age.
A lasting synthesis between the monastic spirituality of Bernard and the dialectic methods of Abelard was achieved through the work of such luminaries as Hugh of St. Victor and Peter Lombard.
Romanesque style combined Roman and Byzantine features with local elements, to shape the Christian art and architecture of the tenth through twelfth centuries.
A growing preoccupation with saints, their sites, and their relics—and especially Mary—shaped the popular piety of western Christianity, along with developments in music and poetry.
Rhythms of competition, antagonism, and cooperation continued to characterize church-state relations in the twelfth century, most evident in the relations between the papacy and emerging national monarchies. The Third Crusade was a failed expression of the impulse to cooperate.
Key developments occurred in the national Eastern churches in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
Chapter Summary
The twelfth century saw a kind of “renaissance” in many different facets of culture and Christian practice. An increase in conversions to the monastic life and new expressions of monasticism infused the church with fresh vitality. Groups such as the Camaldolese, the Carthusians, and the Premonstratensians emphasized radical expressions of austerity. The Augustinian Canons provided skilled and committed clergy for the cathedrals. Most influential of all were the Cistercians, a dynamic reform that sought to recapture primitive Benedictine monasticism through simplicity, hard work, and seclusion. Bernard of Clairvaux was the most important Cistercian leader. Bernard warned against the excesses of ostentatious art, ornate liturgy, wealth and the dangers of the new dialectic and an exaggerated confidence in human reason. Focusing on traditional theology and personal devotion, Bernard became the guiding spiritual influence of the age. He stressed humility, devotion to Mary, and a loving, mystical relationship with God.
Hugh of St. Victor and the teachers of St. Victor’s in Paris achieved a synthesis of the new dialectic and traditional personal spirituality. He composed the first medieval synthesis of theology, a Christocentric treatment of sacraments that underscored the sacramental nature of all creation. Peter Lombard pursued Hugh’s agenda further, yet in ways that relied even more deeply on Abelard’s dialectic. His Four Books of Sentences constituted a clear and systematic treatment of Christian doctrine. It won official approval and came to serve as the basic medieval textbook in theology. John Gratian’s Decretum became the standard treatment of canon law. Aristotle was more fully disseminated and integrated into Christian thought by Otto of Freising and John of Salisbury. Though female, the abbess Hildegard of Bingen effectively preached her prophetic visions of judgment and composed a number of influential writings. Arabic philosophers and Jewish thinkers made significant contributions to western learning in the twelfth century as well.
Romanesque style combined Roman and Byzantine features with local elements to produce a distinctive art and architecture. The buildings were solid, simple, and permanent. Sculpture and painting were abstract, solemn, and majestic. Sacred music became more complex due to the development of polyphony; vernacular poetry celebrated courtly love, both affirming and subverting social norms of virtue and gender. Canonizing saints became the prerogative of the pope in the twelfth century. Saints were central to popular piety, especially Mary, revered as the Queen of Heaven. The practice of pilgrimage grew alongside devotion to the stories of the saints and the power of their relics. Pious activities and good works were understood to impact positively a person’s experience of purgatory.
Church-state relationships continued to be tense in the twelfth century, most evident in the ongoing rivalries between the papacy and the emergent national monarchies. Though led by strong, flamboyant rulers, and giving rise to many romantic tales, the Third Crusade was a failure, accomplishing little. A tragic indicator of the strained relationship between the state and the church was the assassination of Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, by king Henry II’s agents. As secular governments became better organized, the institutional life of the church did so as well.
In the East, the Christian cultures of Georgia and Armenia reached new heights, the Serbians became staunchly Orthodox, Greek Orthodox scholars had significant accomplishment, and Eastern monasticism was revitalized.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Engage the class in a discussion comparing and contrasting the attitudes and work of Bernard of Clairvaux and Hugh of St. Victor.
Have students read Bernard on the four degrees of love and engage them in discussion attempting to explain each of the degrees and finding contemporary expressions of them.
After reading the textbook’s description of devotional lectio, meditatio, and oratio (p. 464) and doing Internet research on contemporary devotional practices in lectio divina engage the class in discussion about the reasons for the fresh interest in this ancient practice.
Spend time in class looking at examples of Romanesque art, architecture, manuscript illuminations, and sculpture. Have the students characterize the motifs and moods of the style.
Suggested Essay Questions
Compare and contrast the work and impact of Bernard of Clairvaux, Hugh of St. Victor, and Peter Lombard.
What role did monastic movements play in the Western church and society in the twelfth century? Illustrate with reference to significant leaders and influential movements.
In your view, what was the most significant literary contribution to western Christian culture in the twelfth century? Explain your answer, contrasting your chosen work with other works.
Compare and contrast the work and influence of Peter Lombard, John Gratian, and Hildegard of Bingen.
Describe the main themes of Romanesque style, illustrating with reference to medieval art architecture.
What expressions of personal piety dominated the Western church in the twelfth century?
Other Media Sources/Websites
• Bernard of Clairvaux, On Loving God: Text of Bernard’s famous exposition of four degrees of love.
• Sermons on the Song of Songs: Texts of Bernard’s Sermons, easily excerpted for study and discussion.
• Song of Solomon as Theological Allegory: Rachel Davies’ brief article in Spectrum (9 June 2011) on Bernard’s theological allegorizing of the soul’s love for God.
• The Cistercians: Site dedicated to the history, leading influences, texts, and contemporary expressions of the Cistercian movement.
• The Carthusian Order: Site dedicated to explaining the ongoing mission and communal life of the monks and nuns at Grande Chartreuse.
• Guigo, Similitude of the Taverner: A parable from Guigo’s Letter to Brother Gervase, 6, illustrating the value of the Carthusian practice of contemplative lectio divina.
• Into Great Silence: Documentary film directed by Philip Gröning (Zeitgeist, 2005), offering a rare picture of Carthusian life against the beautiful backdrop of the French Alps. Gröning’s request to film in 1984 was pondered by the monks for 16 years, until they were ready to for him to film.
• Monastic Wales: Interactive online map, with descriptions and photographs, showing the distribution of monastic sites in Wales, according to several different medieval orders.
• Hugh of St. Victor, Divine Wisdom at the Root of Things: Brian FitzGerald’s article in Crisis (11 February 2013) on the Parisian context, work, and spiritual vision of Hugh of St. Victor.
• Peter Lombard: An internet guide to Master Lombard.
• Peter Lombard: Brief article on Lombard in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Hildegard of Bingen: Discography of the vast range of modern symphonic productions of Hildegard’s work.
• Murder of Thomas Becket: Excerpt from the Chronicle of Benedict of Peterborough, telling the infamous story of the murder in the cathedral.
• Camino de Santiago: Site providing maps of the common pilgrimage routes to the popular site of Santiago de Compostela in Spain.
• Maimonides: Excerpts from the Jewish thinker on the 13 Principles of Judaism.
• Medieval Canon Law: Virtual library, with searchable texts of Carolingian canon law, Ivo of Chartres, and Gratian.
• Romanesque Architecture: Digital archive of representative Romanesque architecture.
• Durham Cathedral: Site dedicated to the history, architecture, art and ongoing mission of this Romanesque cathedral.
• The Cluny Museum, Paris: Christian artifacts from the Romanesque period.
• Gregorian Chant: The linked article includes a number of images and brief samples of historically accurate music illustrating developments in sacred music.
• Seven Sacraments Altarpiece: A late medieval masterpiece by Rogier van den Weyden, (1445–50), showing the seven principal sacraments and the crucifixion.
• Seven Sacraments: Nicolas Poussin’s series of paintings (c. 1642–8) picturing each of the principal sacraments of the church.
• Saints Resource: Website with information on saints lives and the traditions that grew up around the saints.
• Calendar of Saints Days: Website providing information about the church calendar, particularly traditional saints days.
• Lancelot, c. 1170: Excerpt from one of Chrétien of Troyes’ romances.
• Third Crusade: BBC Radio 4 program in the “In Our Time” series (2001), in which the panelists discuss the ups and downs of the Third Crusade.
• Muslim Spain: BBC Radio 4 program in the “In Our Time” series (2002), in which the panelists discuss the impact of Islam on medieval Spain.
Chapter 23—The Glory of the Western Medieval Church
Key Terms
verus imperator, Venerabilem Fratrem, Magna Carta, Fourth Lateran Council, mendicants, Dominican, Friars Minor, Franciscan, Poor Clares, stigmata, universitas, Catena aurea, Summa contra Gentiles, Summa Theologiae, analogy of being, “five ways,” natural theology, revealed theology, Mind’s Journey to God, doctrine of divine illumination, doctrine of exemplarism, voluntarism, Legenda aurea, “Books of Hours,” Gothic
Key Points
The papacy of Innocent III marked the peak of papal power in the Middle Ages.
The mendicant orders represented the latest wave of ascetic renewal in the thirteenth century, expressed in the careers of Dominic and Francis of Assisi, and in the priorities and impact of the movements they started.
The intellectual revival of the eleventh and twelfth centuries culminated in the development in the thirteenth of the universities, a third force in Christendom alongside the empire and the priesthood.
The career and legacy of the Dominican Thomas Aquinas constitute the crowning achievement of medieval Scholasticism; his project to synthesize Christian theology and Aristotelian thought was singularly influential in western Christian intellectual history.
The Franciscan order produced scholars who preserved Augustinian emphases on divine illumination, mysticism, and love, providing a counterpoint to Aquinas: Bonaventure, Roger Bacon, and Duns Scotus.
The Gothic art and architecture of the period emphasized harmony, verticality, space, and luminosity.
Chapter Summary
In several key areas, developments of the eleventh and twelfth centuries came to full fruition in the Western church of the thirteenth century. The papacy enjoyed the greatest measure of power and influence, best expressed in the accomplishments of pope Innocent III. He exercised a great deal of influence over major lay leaders, organized the Fourth Crusade, presided over the Fourth Lateran Council, and accommodated the emerging mendicant orders. These expressions of power matched the lofty claims he made concerning the role and authority of the papacy in society.
In the thirteenth century, mendicant orders represented the latest wave of ascetic reform in the church. Emphasizing apostolic simplicity and resisting communal property, the mendicants exploited an increasingly urban society and monetary economy in order to establish highly influential orders. Dominic was a Spaniard whose followers (Dominicans) focused on preaching, the care of souls, combating heresy, and training in theology. Francis was the son of cloth merchant in Assisi. An early conversion experience led him to marry “Lady Poverty” and pursue a life of simplicity, and humility, preaching good news to the masses. Francis’ movement became very popular, also attracting women into a second order, the “Poor Clares,” and laypersons into a Third Order of people who sought to live by Francis’ ideals in secular life.
The intellectual revival of the Middle Ages culminated in the development of the universities in the thirteenth century. By organizing teachers and students into guild-like entities in such academic centers as Bologna, Paris, and Oxford, the universities became a third force in Christendom, alongside the empire and the priesthood. The presence of the mendicant orders and the availability of the entire corpus of Aristotle reinforced these developments. The greatest expression of Scholasticism in the universities was the person and work of Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican whose project to reconcile Aristotle with Christian theology made a deep impact on learning and Christian theology for centuries. By contrast, Franciscan scholars in the Augustinian tradition, like Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus, and especially Bonaventure emphasized divine illumination, mysticism, and love, providing a counterpoint to Aquinas’ Aristotelianism.
Lay piety in the thirteenth century was nurtured by devotion to the saints’ lives and Books of Hours. The contexts for Christian worship also changed, as Gothic art and architecture overtook the past Romanesque style. Gothic architecture emphasized harmony, verticality, space, and luminosity. The abbey church of St. Denis, the cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims, and Salisbury, and the striking design of Sainte-Chapelle in Paris exemplify the Gothic style. Stained glass was used to declare faith-forming narratives, and art that favored the suffering savior became more common. Mary was increasingly depicted as the queen of heaven, and the last judgment was depicted as an event offering salvation, not just condemnation.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Discuss the development of the papacy. Have students name the most important bishops of Rome from history down to the thirteenth century, explaining and defending their choices. How does one account for the degree of power enjoyed by Innocent III?
Engage the class in a discussion comparing and contrasting the attitudes and work of Dominic and Francis of Assisi. How does one account for the different missions of their respective orders? Have students evaluate which order served the most important functions in the medieval church.
Engage the class in discussion comparing and contrasting the attitudes and work of Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure.
Have students read materials on medieval universities. Engage students in a discussion in which they compare and contrast the purpose, programs, and significance of universities in medieval culture with institutions of higher education today.
Spend time in class looking at examples of Gothic art and architecture. Have the students characterize the motifs and moods of the style, comparing them to Romanesque architecture on the one hand, and modern ecclesial architecture on the other.
Spend time in class looking at different depictions of the crucifixion from different eras. Discuss the ways in which manners of presentation changed over the centuries, the reasons for the changes, and ways in which the changes connect to the beliefs and priorities of the era.
Suggested Essay Questions
Explain the rise and development of the papacy from the period of the early church until the papacy of Innocent III.
Why is the papacy of Innocent III often considered as representing the peak of papal power? Illustrate from events in his papacy.
In what ways do the mendicant orders represent a continuation of prior ascetic ideals? In what ways do they express discontinuity? How do you account for the differences?
Compare and contrast the persons of Dominic and Francis of Assisi. How do their differences express themselves in the different priorities, missions, and impact of their orders?
Describe the rise of universities as a “third force” in Christendom.
Compare and contrast the theological projects of Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure.
Explain the basic elements of Aquinas’ project to synthesize Aristotelian thought and Christian theology, illustrating by reference to his work.
Explain the characteristics of Gothic art and architecture, illustrating with reference to examples from the period.
Other Media Sources/Websites
• Letters on Papal Policies: Excerpts from letters illustrating the policies and powers of Pope Innocent III.
• Innocent III, Sermon for the Resurrection of Our Lord: Sermon in which Innocent III lays out the diverse roles and responsibilities of different elements of medieval society.
• Summons to a Crusade, 1215: Innocent III’s appeal to join the Fourth Crusade.
• Magna Carta: Online British Library exhibition of the Magna Carta, with images, videos, and text.
• Lateran IV: Select canons of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215).
• First Council of Lyons: Introduction and texts from the council (1245) for which the papal-imperial dispute provides the key background.
• Statues of the University of Paris: Statutes of Gregory IX (1231).
• Jacques de Vitry, Life of Students at Paris: Excerpt strongly criticizing university life, instruction, and the student body at Paris. fordham.edu/halsall/source/vitry1.html
• Courses in Theology and Medicine: Descriptions of the courses at the University of Paris in the thirteenth century.
• Condemnation of Errors: A description of ten heretical errors, as determined by the faculty at Paris.
• Summa Theologiae: Excerpts from Aquinas’ Summa.
• Summa Theologica: Dominican translation of Aquinas’ Summa.
• Summa contra Gentiles: Text of Aquinas’ apology.
• Catena aurea on the Gospels: Text of Aquinas’ commentary on Matthew.
Mark.
• Roger Bacon, Despair over 13th-century Learning: Excerpt in which the celebrated scholar bemoans the low standards of scholarship and learning in the universities.
• God as First Principle: Text of a treatise by Duns Scotus.
• Rule of Franciscan Order: The definitive rule of the Franciscans, i.e. Francis’ third rule, prepared in 1223.
• Two Lives of St. Francis: Texts of Thomas of Celano’s early biographies of Francis.
• Mira circa nos: Papal bull canonizing St. Francis.
• Gothic Architecture: Digital archive of representative Gothic architecture.
• Gothic Style: Brief article on Gothic style, with illustrative images of art and architecture.
• Gothic Architecture: SmartHistory article and images of Gothic architecture.
• Sainte-Chapelle: Virtual tour of the Gothic masterpiece.
• Building the Great Cathedrals: Video of NOVA broadcast (2011) on the construction of Gothic cathedrals.
• European Art & Architecture, 1000–1400: Online gallery of medieval art, organized by time period and geography.
• Stained Glass in Medieval Europe: Online exhibition of stained glass, with discussion.
Chapter 24—Portents of Decline
Key Terms
vita apostolica, Humiliati, Waldenses, Cathari, Albigensians, Beguines, Flagellants, perfecti, credentes, consolamentum, Inquisition, “double truth,” vernacular theology, imperialism, Solomonic dynasty, miracle play, morality play, mystery play, Divine Comedy, Unam sanctam, Clericos laicos
Key Points
In the face of diminishing popular confidence in the structures of the church, numerous lay religious movements arose in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, prompting the Roman Catholic Church to attempt various measures of control, including the Inquisition.
The church and medieval structures of power struggled to cope with diverse religious elements in society, including Jews, the Cathari, expressions of vernacular theology such as the women’s Beguine movement, and expressions of female mysticism.
In the face of the Mongol conquests, the missions and vitality of the church in central Asia and China was sharply reduced.
The Second Council of Lyons met in 1274, ostensibly to further a project of reunion between West and East, but without lasting results.
Effective pastoral care and worship were in serious decline in the thirteenth century, as eschatological speculation and fanaticism increased.
In terms of its claims, the papacy of Boniface VIII marks the pinnacle of the development of medieval papal theory; in terms of actual effectiveness in the face of emerging national monarchies, it marks a period of grave decline.
Chapter Summary
In the wake of the dynamic developments of the twelfth-century, the thirteenth-century church saw numerous indicators of decline and difficulty. Among the most significant was the emergence of lay religious movements and vernacular theology, largely in response to the malaise of the institutional church. Groups such as the Humiliati and Flagellants appealed to those who sought more extreme expressions of piety. The Waldenses opposed the worldliness of the clergy, emphasizing poverty, vernacular scriptures, and public preaching. The emergence of women’s movements such as the Beguines, with distinctive female patterns of mysticism and religious experience, strained the church’s ability to acknowledge sincere piety on the one hand and cope with unusual forms of authority on the other. The presence of such diverse religious elements as the dualist Cathari (Albigensians) and influential Jews complicated the church’s struggle to find ways of dealing with the growing dissent without exacerbating the problems. The Inquisition was instituted to detect and punish heresy, and came under papal control in the thirteenth century.
The Byzantine emperor Michael Paleologus joined forces with pope Gregory X to attempt a reunion of East and West. Their aspirations culminated in the Second Council of Lyons (1274), though the council produced few tangible results. In central Asia and China, Mongol conquests sharply diminished the presence and impact of Christian mission in those regions, and a brief period of renewal in the Syrian Orthodox church was followed by significant decline in vitality. The establishment of the “Solomonic dynasty” in Ethiopia (1270) ushered in a golden age of art and literature for the church in that realm.
Pastoral care and worship seemed particularly ineffective in the thirteenth century. The use of drama in worship and non-liturgical drama (e.g. Miracle Plays) were efforts to engage and instruct the laity in Christian belief and practice. Eschatological speculation and fanaticism flourished in the thirteenth century, inspired partly by Joachim of Fiore’s elaborate periodization of history and partly by the enthusiasm of “spiritual Franciscans,” who looked for the dawning of a new age and judgment against a corrupt church establishment. The Florentine magistrate Dante Alighieri made a pilgrimage to Rome in 1300; his disgust for the corruption of the papacy led him to write Divine Comedy, a poetic synthesis of the thirteenth century.
Although many looked to Celestine V as a potential savior, he was an ineffective pope. His ambitious successor Boniface VIII sought to counter the rising power of national monarchies by issuing a bull to limit the ability of lay leaders to exercise authority over clergy, and another, to state the unparalleled authority of the papacy. The latter bull, Unam sanctam, well summarizes the developed papal theory of the Middle Ages and even insists that salvation is contingent on submission to the pope. Yet Boniface’s efforts were largely ineffective, and shortly after his death the papacy was moved to Avignon, where it resided for nearly seventy years, under the influence of French monarchs.
Pedagogical Suggestions
Have students discuss the question (perhaps first in groups), Which pope from the twelfth or thirteenth century would fit well in today’s world? Why? Which pope would be least well suited to today’s world? Why?
The chapter interprets many of the facts from the time period as marks of decline and trouble. Engage students in a discussion about whether they agree with the chapter’s tone, explaining the reasons for their evaluations.
Have students discuss the explosion of lay religious movements in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. What factors were the most influential in the formation and shape of these groups? Do parallel movements occur today? If so, how do they compare?
Have the class read excerpts from some of the female mystics in the chapter. Engage the class in discussion or blog posting to identify and evaluate the principal characteristics of these authors, and perhaps to compare them with other works they have read.
Assign representative readings from Aquinas, Dante, and images of Gothic art and architecture. Engage the class in a discussion of the three proposed syntheses of the medieval church and culture: the scholastic (e.g. Aquinas), the architectural (Gothic), and the poetic (Dante). What do each of these syntheses tell us about the thirteenth-century church?
Suggested Essay Questions
Explain the rise of lay religious movements and vernacular theology in the thirteenth century, illustrating with reference to the background and key leaders. How did the church respond?
Compare and contrast the Waldenses, Cathari, and Beguines, both with respect to their chief characteristics and the church’s responses.
Discuss the Council of Lyons (1274): Why did it occur? Who were the chief players? What were its main outcomes?
In what ways does the papacy of Boniface VIII represent a significant point in the development of the medieval papacy?
Other Media Sources/Websites
• Tales of the Host: Excerpts from texts illustrating popular conceptions about the mystical power of the consecrated Eucharist.
• Conversion of Peter Waldo: Tale of Peter Valdes’ conversion, from an anonymous chronicle.
• Hadewijch: Site with links to translations of a few of the mystic’s letters and poems.
• Margaret Porette: Excerpts from the classic mystic text of this “martyred” Beguine.
• Women Writers: Bibliography of works by and about women writers of the Middle Ages.
• Inquisitorial Technique: Bernard Gui’s advice on heresy detection.
• Expulsion of Jews: Excerpt from an account of Philip Augustus’ expulsion of Jews from France in 1182.
• Letter on the Jews, 1199: Innocent III’s policy towards Jews and conversion.
• Jewish Money-lenders: Innocent III’s complaint against Philip Augustus regarding royal protection of Jewish money-lenders.
• Bar Hebraeus: Translation of the great Syriac scholar’s world history (Chronography), easily excerpted for details of such things as the coming of the Mongols.
• Prester John: Mandeville’s fabulous account of the legendary Christian king.
• Flagellants attempt to Repeal the Black Death: Excerpt from an account of Flagellant practice in 1349 London, with medieval images.
• Accusations against Cathars: Bernard Gui’s description of the Cathari heresy.
• Canon 3 on Heresy: Text of the canon from the Fourth Lateran Council.
• Who Was Joachim of Fiore?: Bernard McGinn’s brief article explaining Joachim’s apocalypticism, including a link to his chart illustrating his theory of three overlapping period of history.
• Second Council of Lyons: Introduction and texts from the council (1274) for which reunion of East and West provides the key background.
• Mystery Plays: Medieval Imaginations site (Cambridge), with rich information about cycles of mystery plays in English verse, including many images illustrating medieval culture.
• Clericos laicos: Text of Boniface VIII’s bull (1296) asserting the church’s authority and clerical prerogatives in relation to secular powers.
• Unam sanctam: Text of Boniface VIII’s famous bull (1302) claiming unparalleled papal authority.
• The Divine Comedy: A research site hosting multiple editions and translations of Dante’s classic poetic synthesis of the medieval worldview.
• Inferno, Canto 19: Excerpt from Dante’s Divine Comedy, lamenting the sad state of the church in the hands of abusive and greedy clerics.
• World of Dante: Multimedia research site devoted to the Divine Comedy, including galleries of images and maps from different periods.
Student Learning Objectives
Chapter 1—The Setting for the Story’s Beginning
The students will be able to:
1. Identify three circles of influence that defined the cultural setting for the beginning of Christianity.
2. Describe the influence of pre-existing cultural influences on Christian attitudes, practices, and social norms.
3. Describe the basic functions of the Imperial Cult in the Roman Empire.
4. Describe key elements in the impact of Greek philosophy on Christian theology.
5. Describe the chief characteristics of the Jewish background of early Christianity.
Chapter 2—Jesus and the Beginnings of the Church
The students will be able to:
1. Describe the key elements of Jesus’ significance according to the early Christian traditions about him.
2. Explain the early Christian controversies regarding Gentile acceptance into the church and explain the impact of the apostle Paul on the shape of Gentile Christianity.
3. Explain the basic historical arguments for the identification of the ministries of Peter and Paul with Rome.
4. Describe the evidence for traditional associations of prominent apostles with specific locales, and some distinctions between the churches in those areas.
5. Describe the main common beliefs and practices that distinguished earliest Christianity.
Chapter 3—The Subapostolic Age
The students will be able to:
1. Describe three strands of “Jewish Christianity” that persisted into the subapostolic era.
2. Define the “Apostolic Fathers,” describing their genres, contents, contexts of origin, and major features of what they say about the development of Christianity after the first century.
3. Describe major genres of early Christian apocrypha, citing examples and characterizing their apparent purposes in early communities of faith.
4. Analyze the value and use of subapostolic literatures as testimony to the development of Christian belief and practice after the apostolic era.
Chapter 4—The Church and the Empire
The students will be able to:
1. Describe and explain the non-Christian responses to early Christians and the legal bases for persecution.
2. Identify the major early Christian apologists, analyze their responses to popular, intellectual, and political accusations, and explain their pivotal contributions to the developing Christian intellectual effort.
3. Identify a number of early Christian martyrdom accounts and briefly summarize their contents.
4. Describe eight motifs evident in the developing early Christian theology of martyrdom.
Chapter 5—Heresies and Schisms in the Second Century
The students will be able to:
1. Describe Marcion’s basic teachings and his impact on early Christianity.
2. Describe views regarding the origins of Gnosticism, common features of Gnostic myths, and the significance of Gnostic teaching for the development of early Christian thought and practice.
3. Identify influential Gnostic teachers and describe their basic teachings.
4. Explain the rise, impact, and legacy of Montanism.
5. Describe the convictions and practices of early Christian Encratites.
6. Engage the contemporary debate regarding the priority of “heresy” over “orthodoxy.”
Chapter 6—The Defense against Rival Interpretations
The students will be able to:
1. Describe the development of the monepiscopacy in early Christianity.
2. Explain the doctrine of apostolic succession as it emerged in the early church.
3. Describe the ancient rule of faith and the creed, distinguishing their content and function in relation to the formation of communal Christian identity
4. Enumerate ancient evidence for the development of the Christian canon.
5. Explain the developmental stages by which the Christian canon came to be recognized and describe the criteria of canonicity.
6. Analyze the process in which the early church came to transmit and receive apostolic authority in relation to its changing context.
Chapter 7—The Fathers of the Old Catholic Church and Their Problems
The students will be able to:
1. Identify key leaders in the early catholic church, their works, and their principal contributions in the churches of their cities and regions.
2. Describe the major disputes occurring in early catholic Christianity, identifying the major players and describing the outcomes of the struggles.
3. Describe the development of Christology and Trinitarian thought during the late second and early third centuries.
4. Explain the terms of conflict between rigorists and laxists in the early church, identifying key players in the struggle.
5. Explain the development of the rise to prominence of the church at Rome in the third century.
Chapter 8—Church Life in the Second and Third Centuries
The students will be able to:
1. Describe early Christian practices of initiation.
2. Explain the practice of early Christian assembly and describe the most common features and function of Christian assemblies.
3. Describe the basic features of early Christian moral behavior and lifestyle.
4. Describe the roles of Christian women in the early church.
5. Explain the impact of early Christian hope on their behavior and witness; describe the two major patterns of eschatological hope in early Christianity
Chapter 9—Development of the Church during the Third Century
The students will be able to:
1. Explain the reasons for and circumstances of the Decianic persecution.
2. Describe and explain the rise of the cult of the martyrs
3. Describe the career of Cyprian of Carthage, discussing the major controversies in which he was embroiled and explaining his lasting influence on western ecclesiology and practices of church discipline.
4. Discuss theories explaining the rise of Christian art and describe its third-century development in terms of surviving material evidence.
5. Describe the basic beliefs and impact of Manicheism
6. Discuss influential Christian texts and authors of the last half of the third century.
7. Describe a range of factors scholars adduce to explain the remarkable success of Christianity in the third century.
Chapter 10—Diocletian and Constantine: On the Threshold of the Fourth Century
The students will be able to:
1. Describe Diocletian’s imperial reforms and explain the dramatic upsurge in persecution against Christians during his reign.
2. Analyze different proposals regarding the motivations and agenda of Constantine in favoring Christianity.
3. Describe the sweeping impact of Constantinianism on the church of the early fourth century.
4. Describe the doctrines and politics in play in the Donatist controversy, evaluating the part played by the empire in resolving the issue and enforcing the solution.
5. Describe the doctrines and politics in play leading up to the Council of Nicaea, explaining the positions taken and key terms used at the council and in the resulting creed.
6. Evaluate the impact and importance of the Council of Nicaea on the development of Christian belief and ecclesial practices.
Chapter 11— The Church in the Fourth Century: Doctrine, Organization, and Literature
The students will be able to:
1. Describe the complicated theological and political in-fighting that occurred within the church and empire during the fourth century, and understand its impact on the affirmation of Nicene orthodoxy.
2. Understand the range of views regarding the relationship of the Father to the Son and the status of the Holy Spirit that were being debated during the fourth century.
3. Explain the role of certain ecclesial and political figures, and especially Athanasius, in securing the victory of Nicene orthodoxy.
4. Describe the background, circumstances, and impact of the Council of Constantinople (381).
5. Describe the evolution of more formal patterns of church organization that occurred in the fourth century.
6. Describe the personalities, careers, and contributions of the major patristic writers of the fourth century.
7. Appreciate the central place of the Bible in the development of patristic tradition.
Chapter 12—The Church in the Fourth and Early Fifth Centuries: Monasticism, Expansion, Life, and Worship
The students will be able to:
1. Explain the rise of monasticism and describe its diverse forms and leading influences.
2. Describe the spread of Christianity to different nations during the fourth and fifth centuries.
3. Evaluate the impact of Christianity on the society of the late empire and the impact of society on the church.
4. Describe the development of key expressions of Christian piety during the fourth and fifth centuries, including the cult of the saints, the veneration of holy sites, pilgrimage, observance of the church calendar, and the enrichment of corporate liturgy and sacrament.
5. Explain the development and core aspects in the practice and understanding of key sacraments.
Chapter 13—Christological Controversies to Chalcedon (451)
The students will be able to:
1. Explain in broad terms the distinct significance of each of the first four ecumenical councils for the church’s understanding of God and Jesus Christ.
2. Describe the main differences between the Antiochene and Alexandrine theological traditions.
3. Explain the backgrounds to the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451), describing the major players, events, and terms of dispute.
4. Explain the differences between miaphysite and dyophysite understandings of Jesus Christ, defining the complex terminology and categories of the christological controversies.
5. Describe the consequences of the Council of Chalcedon, in its dogmatic, conciliar, monastic, and constitutional aspects.
Chapter 14—Augustine, Pelagius, and Semipelagianism
The students will be able to:
1. Describe the major phases of Augustine’s life, explaining the impact of his life experiences on his beliefs and impact in western Christianity.
2. List and describe Augustine’s most influential written works.
3. Explain the impact of the Donatist controversy on Augustine’s formulation of key doctrines of the church, ordination, and the sacraments.
4. Describe the views of Pelagius and Celestius regarding human nature and salvation, and the church’s rejection of them.
5. Explain the impact of the Pelagian controversy on Augustine’s formulation of key doctrines of divine election, salvation, and human sexuality.
6. Describe Semipelagianism as an influential reaction to Augustine’s extreme views on divine election.
Chapter 15—Transitions to the Middle Ages
The students will be able to:
1. List and describe different viewpoints regarding the beginning of the Middle Ages and the collapse of ancient Roman society.
2. Describe and explain the distinctive features of early Germanic Christian belief and practice.
3. Describe the movements of different Germanic tribes in Europe during the fifth and sixth centuries, explaining the particular significance for church history of Clovis and the Franks and Theodoric and the Ostrogoths.
4. Describe the effects of the Germanic invasions on Christian literature, society, and the churches.
5. Describe the resolution of the Augustinian-Pelagian controversy and the basic tenets of the “Semiaugustianism” that came to prevail.
6. Explain the rise of the papal role and authority in the transition to the Middle Ages.
Chapter 16—Eastern and Western Churches in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries
The students will be able to:
1. Explain the theological developments occurring in Eastern Christianity after the Council of Chalcedon that produced three major theological trajectories and distinct churches.
2. Describe Justinian’s major accomplishments and many of the fundamental developments in Byzantine culture that occurred during his reign.
3. Explain three major theological controversies occurring during the time of Justinian, that culminated in the Fifth Ecumenical Council but did not effect unity in the empire.
4. Describe the career and monastic foundation of Benedict of Nursia, explaining the impact of Benedictine monasticism on early medieval Europe.
5. Describe the career of Pope Gregory the Great, explaining the impact of his able pastoral leadership on the medieval institutions of the papal office and the Roman church.
6. Delineate the major liturgical families that formed by the sixth and seventh centuries.
7. Describe the principal differences between the Eastern and Western churches that developed after the Barbarian invasions.
Chapter 17—The Eastern Church from the Seventh to Eleventh Centuries
The students will be able to:
1. Explain the development and defeat of Monotheletism in the Sixth Ecumenical Council.
2. Describe the rise of Islam, its impact on the Byzantine Empire, and the Christian responses to its success.
3. Explain the rise of iconoclasm and its defeat in the Seventh Ecumenical Council.
4. Describe the rationale and theology of the iconodulist position.
5. Explain the Photian Schism and describe its results.
6. Describe major features of the flourishing of Middle Byzantine culture, in its monasticism, literature, art, and architecture.
7. Describe major missionary accomplishments of Eastern churches during the seventh–eleventh centuries.
Chapter 18—The Western Church from the Seventh to Ninth Centuries
The students will be able to:
1. Describe the development of Christianity in Ireland and England, identifying key Celtic and Anglo-Saxon monk-missionaries and explaining their impact on the preservation, reform, and expansion of Christianity.
2. Compare and contrast Celtic, Roman, and Anglo-Saxon, patterns of mission work and church reform.
3. Explain the development of the Carolingian dynasty, Charlemagne’s rise to power, and describe the main features of his reign.
4. Describe the ecclesiastical organization, monasticism, liturgy, and basic Christian practices of the early Middle Ages.
5. Describe the principal theological developments and controversies that occurred in the Carolingian Empire.
6. Explain the development of the highly synthetic blending of church and state that came to characterize the medieval church and culture.
7. Describe the processes by which the building materials for medieval Europe were assembled in the seventh through ninth centuries.
Chapter 19—Decline and Renewal of Vitality in the West
The students will be able to:
1. Explain the cycle of decline and institutional revival that impacted the Western church in the ninth to eleventh centuries.
2. Describe the impact of the Norse and Viking invasions on Europe, and the conversion and eventual Christianization of the invading peoples.
3. Explain the descent of the church and particularly the papacy into the structures of feudalism in the ninth and tenth centuries.
4. Describe the flourishing of the monastery of Cluny and explain its role in instigating widespread reform and renewal.
5. Describe the rise of the Ottonian dynasty and its support of clerical and papal revival.
6. Describe the impact of Leo IX’s reforms on the papacy.
7. Explain the background to the Great Schism of 1054, between the Eastern and Western churches.
Chapter 20—The Papal Reform and the First Crusade
The students will be able to:
1. Explain the culmination of the papal reform in the papacy of Gregory VII.
2. Describe the investiture controversy, explaining its significance in the struggle between different viewpoints regarding the exercise of lay and clerical power in the eleventh century.
3. Explain the conflict between Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV of Germany, describing the outcome of the conflict for resolving the question of lay investiture.
4. Describe the major factors contributing to the notion of holy war for Christians and the background to the First Crusade, including the role of the papacy.
5. Describe the First Crusade in terms of its leaders, the fighting, and its varied results.
Chapter 21—Intellectual Revival: The Rise of Scholasticism
The students will be able to:
1. Describe the rise and key aspects of Scholasticism, in its assumptions, methods, content, and form.
2. Explain the philosophical question of universals as it occupied medieval scholarship, impacted Christian doctrine, and took particular forms, in the positions of extreme realism, conceptualism, moderate realism, and nominalism.
3. Describe the background, circumstances, and main participants of the second eucharistic controversy, explaining how the new scholastic methods led to the doctrine of transubstantiation.
4. Explain the broad theological implications of the scholastic controversy over universals.
5. Describe the career of Anselm of Canterbury, explaining his impact as the “Father of Scholasticism” on Christian scholarship and key doctrines, especially the doctrine of the atonement.
6. Distinguish three different theories of the atonement that had become popular by the early twelfth century.
7. Describe the career of Peter Abelard, explaining the wide impact of his teaching on the assumptions and methods of medieval scholarship.
Chapter 22—Monastic, Literary, Political, and Cultural Activities in the Twelfth Century
The students will be able to:
1. Describe the rise of new forms of monasticism and explain their reforming impact on western Christianity in the twelfth century.
2. Describe the rise of the Cistercian movement and the contributions of its most prominent leader, Bernard of Clairvaux.
3. Explain the syntheses achieved by Hugh of St. Victor, Peter Lombard, John Gratian, and other twelfth-century scholars who applied the gains of Scholasticism to Christianity and the church.
4. Describe the growth, development, and principal features of Romanesque style as it affected Christian art and architecture.
5. Explain twelfth-century developments in poetry, music, and expressions of personal piety.
6. Describe the development of church-state relations in the twelfth century, particularly as they impinged upon monarchies and the papacy, and found expression in the Third Crusade.
7. Describe certain broad developments in Eastern churches in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
Chapter 23—The Glory of the Western Medieval Church
The students will be able to:
1. Explain the reasons why Innocent III’s papacy is seen to represent the peak of papal power in the Middle Ages.
2. Describe the rise of the mendicant orders, comparing and contrasting the careers of Dominic and Francis of Assisi and the priorities of their respective orders.
3. Explain the rise of universities as a “third force” in Christendom.
4. Describe the career and work of Thomas Aquinas, explaining the impact of his project to synthesize Aristotelian thought and Christian theology.
5. Compare and contrast Aquinas’ program with those of influential Franciscan scholars, especially Bonaventure.
6. Describe the development of Gothic art and architecture in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
Chapter 24—Portents of Decline
The students will be able to:
1. Explain the rise of lay religious movements in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, describing their features, leaders, and the church’s response.
2. Explain the rise of vernacular theology in the thirteenth century, especially as it relates to women’s movements, and describe the church’s response.
3. Describe the circumstances of the Second Council of Lyons and its consequences.
4. Describe the decline of mission and Christian influence in central Asia and China in the wake of the Mongol conquests.
5. Describe the decline of effective pastoral care in the thirteenth century and the rise of eschatological speculation and fanaticism.
6. Describe the extravagant claims made by Pope Boniface VIII and explain the ways in which his papacy marks a low point in papal power.
Chapter Quizzes
Chapter 1—The Setting for the Story’s Beginning
True/False
1. For early disciples, Latin language and culture were more significant than Greek. False
2. The Jewish Scriptures were the Bible of the early church. True
3. The organization of the Roman Empire provided a pattern for the development of the church’s hierarchy. True
4. All of Jesus’ first disciples were Jewish. True
5. Jesus was born in Jerusalem but crucified in Rome. False
6. The Jewish world in which Jesus was born had not been influenced by Hellenistic culture. False
7. Christians continued to observe the funerary customs of pre-Christian culture. True
Fill in the blank
8. Jesus was born under the Roman emperor ___Augustus___.
9. During Jesus’ ministry in Galilee his principal religious opposition came from ___the Pharisees____.
10. The vocabulary, ethical assumptions, thought world, and intellectual options of early Christian theologians were provided by __Greek philosophy__.
11. ___Roman law___ is one of Rome’s enduring legacies to the Western world.
Multiple Choice
12. Which of these items of early Christian belief originally took their meaning from Jewish hopes?
A) Jesus as the Messiah
B) a new age of forgiveness of sins
C) the gift of the Holy Spirit
D) all the above
13. During the era of Christianity’s beginnings, the social lives of most people were guided by:
A) the great philosophical systems of Plato and Aristotle
B) a combination of Roman legal and Greek societal norms
C) Jewish wisdom literature and the Law of Moses
D) astrological practices
14. Which of the following does NOT apply to the Imperial Cult?
A) it was commonly practiced in Hellenistic Jewish contexts
B) it helped ensure political unity and loyalty in the empire
C) it gave divine honor to the emperor and his family
D) it was often allied with local civic cults
15. Where did early Christian preaching typically begin?
A. the marketplaces of Greek cities
B. Roman legal courts
C. philosophical lecture halls
D. the Jewish synagogues of the Diaspora
Chapter 2—Jesus and the Beginnings of the Church
True/False
1. Roman crucifixion was normally reserved for people who were judged to be religious subversives. False
2. In the areas of religious practice and ethics, the early church broke radically with traditional Jewish institutions. False
3. The historical evidence that Peter was martyred in Rome is strong. True
4. Affirmations of Jesus’ atoning death and his resurrection were the two pillars of early Christian faith. True
5. The lack of uniformity in early Christianity is marked by the stark differences in core beliefs and widely divergent moral and worship practices from place to place. False
6. At the end of the first century, the church in Ephesus appears to have been larger and more influential than the churches in Rome or Jerusalem. True
7. Syriac Christianity preserved elements from the early Semitic heritage of the church. True
Fill in the blank
8. Strong early traditions report that John and Mary came to live in Ephesus .
9. James, the brother of Jesus, became a prominent leader of the church in Jerusalem .
10. According to strong tradition, Nero was emperor when Paul was beheaded.
11. Entrance into the first-century Christian community required faith in Jesus as Lord and Savior and baptism (in his name) .
Multiple Choice
12. Which apostle is often called the “second founder” of Christianity?
A) Peter
B) James
C) John
D) Paul
13. What function did the “trophies of the apostles” serve?
A) they identified a person as a true and authoritative apostle
B) they marked the sites of the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul in Rome
C) they have helped confirm the association of the apostle Thomas with Syria
D) they described the eternal rewards awaiting Christians who were martyred
14. Which of the following was NOT a uniting factor in early Christianity?
A) interpreting Scripture in light of new revelation in Jesus the Messiah
B) rejection of large portions of the Hebrew Scriptures
C) Sunday assemblies
D) the Lord’s Supper
15. What was the most significant controversy in the very early church?
A) the terms of acceptance of Gentiles into the Christian community
B) the question of apostolic authority and the canon of scripture
C) the question of Jesus’ divinity
D) defining correct worship practices and moral principles
Chapter 3—The Subapostolic Age
True/False
1. The Didache is primarily concerned with the question of how to address sin after baptism. False
2. By the end of the first century, many synagogues had taken action that effectively removed Christian believers from membership. True
3. Polycarp wrote a series of letters on his way from Antioch to face trial in Rome. False
4. Peter, Paul, and James, the brother of Jesus were all killed within five years of each other. True
5. Some of the Apostolic Fathers overlap in time with the later New Testament writings. True
6. Gospel of Thomas is a passion narrative with docetic leanings. False
7. Papias expressed a preference for the living voice of oral testimony over what was written in books. True
Fill in the blank
8. 1 Clement was written to address problems of conflict in the church at Corinth .
9. Odes of Solomon may be the earliest surviving Christian hymnbook.
10. The group known as the Ebionites got their name from the Hebrew for “the poor,” due to their humility and asceticism.
11. The genre of literature most poorly represented in the Apocrypha is Epistles .
Multiple Choice
12. 1 Clement illustrates the tendency of the Western church to be concerned with what?
A) ascetic piety
B) mystical piety and spiritual unity
C) rejection of pagan philosophy
D) order and practical unity
13. Which Jewish Christian sect accepted Gentile believers without expecting them to follow the Law of Moses?
A) Nazoraeans
B) Ebionites
C) Encratites
D) all the above
14. Which Apostolic Father consists of Visions, Parables, and Commandments?
A) Didache
B) Hermas
C) 2 Clement
D) Ignatius
15. Which of the following was NOT part of the three-fold congregational ministry Ignatius prescribes as a way to deal with divisiveness?
A) Presbyters
B) Bishop
C) Evangelists
D) Deacons
Chapter 4—The Church and the Empire
True/False
1. The emperor Trajan instructed the governor Pliny not to receive anonymous accusations against Christians. True
2. The apologists stressed that Christians are good citizens and pray for the empire. True
3. Polycarp of Smyrna was eager to present himself for martyrdom. False
4. Perpetua’s father encouraged her to face martyrdom bravely. False
5. Roman persecution of early Christianity was more a matter of enforcing political allegiance than repressing a novel religion. True
6. Early Christians were accused of cannibalism. True
7. The emperor Nero instigated the first systematic, empire-wide persecution of Christians. False
Fill in the blank
8. Christians who were persecuted at Lyons, but not put to death, preferred to call themselves confessors rather than martyrs.
9. _Tatian wrote the Oration against the Greeks, blasting pagan Greek culture for its immorality.
10. Justin Martyr composed a dialogue with Trypho , providing important information about the questions at issue between Jews and Christians in the second century.
11. In Greek, the term logos means both the rational word in the mind and the word on the tongue.
Multiple Choice
12. Which of the following was NOT a major motif of early Christian martyrdom theology?
A) purification by fire
B) baptism
C) Eucharist
D) athletes & heroes
13. Under which of the following emperors did Christians suffer a great deal, due to a series of disasters and misfortunes throughout the Roman world?
A) Marcus Aurelius
B) Domitian
C) Nero
D) Trajan
14. Which early Christian affirmation about the logos was NOT to be found in either the Jewish or Greek backgrounds to the concept?
A) the logos is in the mind of God
B) the logos is immanent in the world
C) the logos is the spoken word of God
D) the logos became incarnate in a specific historical person
15. Which of the following composed an extended intellectual attack on Christianity that received major treatment by Origen?
A) Lucian of Samosata
B) Celsus
C) Marcus Aurelius
D) Pliny the Younger
Chapter 5—Heresies and Schisms in the Second Century
True/False
1. In response to Gnostic devaluation of matter, orthodox Christianity stressed the full incarnation of Jesus Christ. True
2. Encratites were accused of becoming drunk on the wine of the Eucharist. False
3. The teacher Marcion was a wealthy ship-builder. True
4. Valentinus and his followers were gifted biblical exegetes. True
5. The oldest known fixed collection (i.e. canon) of New Testament books was defined by Marcion. True
6. Prior to AD 200, an inherited message and norms of conduct did not yet exist for Christianity. False
7. One reason for the demise of Gnosticism was its inability to institutionalize. True
Fill in the blank
8. The Greek term gnosis means knowledge .
9. Simon Magus was the biblical character judged by early anti-heretical writers to be “the father of all heresies.”
10. Another name for the New Prophecy is Montanism (or the Phrygian Heresy) .
11. Study of Gnosticism was greatly enhanced in 1945 with the discovery of several original Gnostic works at Nag Hammadi_ in Egypt.
Multiple Choice
12. Which of the following did NOT teach that the redeemer god was different from the creator god?
A) Basilides
B) Montanus
C) Marcion
D) Valentinus
13. The first recorded synods of bishops were held in response to which group?
A) Montanists
B) Encratites
C) Marcionites
D) Gnostics
14. What did Gnostics call the fullness of the divine universe?
A) the Paraclete
B) Sophia
C) the pleroma
D) Gnostikoi
15. Which of the following converted to Montanism?
A) Valentinus
B) Tatian
C) Tertullian
D) Carpocrates
Chapter 6—The Defense against Rival Interpretations
True/False
1. The most important criterion for recognizing the canonicity of a book was its inspiration. False
2. In addition to being in the proper apostolic succession, bishops were expected to manifest sound doctrine and a holy life in order to be respected as authoritative. True
3. The Apostles Creed came to be used universally throughout the western and eastern branches of the church. False
4. Some of the terminology in the Apostles Creed reflects points at issue in the conflict with heretics. True
5. The idea of a Christian canon was established before the third century. True
6. The Muratorian Fragment included Apocalypse of Peter in its canon. True
7. The Greek Septuagint and the Hebrew Bible had identical collections of books. False
Fill in the blank
8. The bishop Ignatius is the earliest attestation to a single bishop at the head of the presbytery.
9. Hegesippus drew up the lists of bishops in different cities that Irenaeus used in his discussion of apostolic succession.
10. Second-century Christian authors referred to a three-fold biblical witness: the prophets, the Lord, and the apostles .
11. The flexible early summary of the apostolic message was known as the rule of faith.
Multiple Choice
12. Which criterion for canonicity involves a book’s applicability to the whole church?
A) widespread reading in worship
B) right doctrine
C) apostolicity
D) catholicity
13. Which of the following books was disputed by many into the fourth century, as reported by Eusebius?
A) Gospel of Matthew
B) Jude
C) 2 Corinthians
D) Gospel of Peter
14. What statement best describes the early church’s relationship to the canon?
A) the church placed itself under the authority of the canon
B) the organized church determined the shape and content of the canon
C) the church formulated the canon in reaction to heretical books and “false canons”
D) the church relied more on the rule of faith than on the canon
15. Which of the following composed the first ancient list to correspond exactly to our present list of twenty-seven New Testament books?
A) Gnostic teachers
B) Athanasius
C) Eusebius
D) Marcion
Chapter 7—The Fathers of the Old Catholic Church and Their Problems
True/False
1. Tertullian wrote in Latin. True
2. Public confession in church had been abolished by the end of the second century. False
3. “Recapitulation” in early catholic thought refers to the understanding by which Christians are meant to follow and imitate the actions of Jesus Christ. False
4. Callistus was successful in deposing Hippolytus as bishop of Rome. False
5. Irenaeus advocated a “double faith” theory. False
6. Bishop Victor of Rome was unwilling to extend communion to Quartodecimans. True
7. Dynamic Monarchianism was also known as “Patripassianiam.” False
Fill in the blank
8. In the East, Modalism was commonly known as Sabellianism , after its most important representative.
9. Alexandria was the city best known as a home for synthesizing Christian thought and Greek philosophy.
10. Those who fell away from the church in times of persecution were known as lapsi/the lapsed .
11. The church’s first systematic theology, composed by Origen, is called On First Principles.
Multiple Choice
12. Who was reputed to have made himself a eunuch for the sake of devotion to Christ?
A) Irenaeus
B) Callistus
C) Tertullian
D) Origen
13. Who wrote, “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there between the Academy and the church?”
A) Tertullian
B) Clement
C) Hippolytus
D) Gregory Thaumaturgus
14. Which of the following was considered the “moral” sense of Scripture, according to Origen?
A) the bodily sense
B) the pneumatic sense
C) the anagogical sense
D) the psychic sense
15. Which of the following held a “laxist” position regarding church discipline?
A) Novatian
B) Tertullian
C) Hippolytus
D) Callistus
Chapter 8—Church Life in the Second and Third Centuries
True/False
1. Candidates for baptism in the early church removed their clothing in order to be baptized. True
2. The celebration of the Eucharist was seen to be an argument against heretics who denied the full incarnation of Christ, like Docetists and Gnostics. True
3. Orthodox eschatology believed in the resurrection of the soul rather than the body. False
4. Due to the small size and persecuted status of the church, charity for the poor and the underprivileged was not a strong characteristic of early Christianity. False
5. Many early Christian observed weekly fast days. True
6. Christians in the early church were never allowed to serve in the military. False
7. By the end of the third century, only the baptized were admitted to the Lord’s Supper portion of the service. True
Fill in the blank
8. Apostolic Tradition required that candidates for baptism receive instruction for a period of three years .
9. About 200 the church at Rome acquired a cemetery that became the nucleus of the catacomb of Callistus.
10. The eschatological view that looked for Christ to rule the earth from Jerusalem for 1000 years is known as chiliasm .
11. In addition to the baptismal Eucharist, persons who were baptized were given milk and honey, symbolizing the food of infants and entrance into the Promised Land.
Multiple Choice
12. When did infant baptism become routine?
A) the first century
B) the second century
C) the third and fourth centuries
D) the fifth and sixth centuries
13. What early Christian document described Christian moral teaching as the “Way of Life?”
A) Martyrdom of Polycarp
B) Epistle to Diognetus
C) Didache
D) Clement of Alexandria’s Paedagogus
14. When did it become normal for churches to rent or purchase buildings for their own use?
A) by the fourth century
B) by the third century
C) by the second century
D) in the first century
15. In what group/s did women engage in public preaching and preside at liturgical functions?
A) orthodox churches
B) Novatianists
C) Montanists
D) all the above
Chapter 9—Development of the Church in the Third Century
True/False
1. Though originally acquired as cemeteries, the catacombs proved most useful as hiding places during times of persecution. False
2. During the persecutions of the third century, some Christians obtained fraudulent certificates to show they had sacrificed to the gods. True
3. The story of Jonah was the most commonly occurring Old Testament scene in early Christian art. True
4. Eastern theologians tended to stress the oneness of the Godhead. False
5. In the disputes between laxists and rigorists, Cyprian was a moderate. True
6. By the end of the third century Christians made up a sizable minority of the population of the Roman Empire. True
7. Christians experienced higher survival rates during the epidemic of the 250s. True
Fill in the blank
8. The emperor Decius was responsible for launching the first empire-wide persecution on Christianity
9. Important Christian art from the 240s survives in a house converted for use as a church in the city of Dura Europa in Syria.
10. Two classes of adherents in the religion of Manicheism were known as the elect and hearers.
11. The long third-century Syriac text supplying rich information about many facets of church life is titled Didascalia Apostolorum.
Multiple Choice
12. Which of the following ideas was most difficult for pagans to accept?
A) resurrection of the body
B) high moral standards
C) monotheism
D) all the above were equally difficult for pagans to accept
13. Which author wrote an important treatise, On the Resurrection?
A) Methodius
B) Gregory Thaumaturgus
C) Lactantius
D) Dionysius of Alexandria
14. Cyprian debated with which bishop over the issue of whether to rebaptize former heretics or schismatics?
A) Novatian of Rome
B) Dionysius of Alexandria
C) Stephen of Rome
D) Dionysius of Rome
15. Which of the following is not a theory advanced to explain the absence of Christian art prior to about 200?
A) the economic and social circumstances of most Christians
B) the desire not to attract attention unnecessarily during times of persecution
C) a continuation of the Jewish aversion to images
D) all the above are theories advanced to explain its absence
Chapter 10—Diocletian and Constantine: On the Threshold of the Fourth Century
True/False
1. Constantine took the title of pontifex maximus. True
2. Though the Donatists attracted many followers, they were never the majority in North Africa. False
3. In the very first measure of the Great Persecution, Galerius and Diocletian took decisive action by requiring all citizens to sacrifice to the gods. False
4. Under Constantine, Christian bishops were given the privilege of judging civil cases. True
5. The Circumcelliones were armed enforcers of imperial policy, sent to squash the Donatists in North Africa. False
6. Due to his widespread influence, the bishop of Alexandria was called “pope” in the early fourth century. True
7. Constantine was baptized not long after seeing the Chi-Rho vision in 312. False
Fill in the blank
8. The wealthy woman Lucilla was instrumental in causing the schism in Carthage that resulted in the Donatist group.
9. The Greek term homoousios was put into the creed at Nicaea to stress that the divine Father and the Son share the same substance, against Arius.
10. The greatest outward show of Constantine’s favoritism towards the church was his extensive program of building/construction.
11. In 314, a synod met at Arles to address the Donatist problem.
Multiple Choice
12. Which of the following baptized Constantine?
A) Saint Helena
B) Hosius of Cordova
C) Eusebius of Caesarea
D) Eusebius of Nicomedia
13. Which author and theologian helped construct a political theology in his extensive writings about Constantine?
A) Majorinus of Carthage
B) Hosius of Cordova
C) Eusebius of Caesarea
D) Eusebius of Nicomedia
14. Rivalry between which two sees helped fuel the Arian controversy?
A) Rome and Antioch
B) Antioch and Alexandria
C) Carthage and Alexandria
D) Rome and Alexandria
15. Which of the following was an ardent supporter of Arius’ teaching?
A) Alexander of Alexandria
B) Hosius of Cordova
C) Eusebius of Caesarea
D) Eusebius of Nicomedia
Chapter 11—The Church in the Fourth Century: Doctrine, Organization, and Literature
True/False
1. The emperor Constantius II tried to revivify paganism in the empire. False
2. Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa were brothers. True
3. Changes in clerical garments were largely the result of the clergy’s failure to keep up with changing fashions in secular life. True
4. Rufinus’ Life of Antony was very influential in advertising monastic ideals. False
5. Jerome knew Hebrew and translated the Vulgate from the Hebrew Bible. True
6. In his preaching, John Chrysostom was quick to accuse corrupt clergy, but would not criticize the royal family. False
7. The “Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381 is the creed most commonly recited today in churches as the “Nicene Creed.” True
Fill in the blank
8. Bishop Ambrose was able to command the penitent submission of the emperor Theodosius I.
9. The emperor Theodosius I declared Christianity the faith of the empire in 380.
10. A rural bishop supervised by the city bishop was known as a chorepiscopus.
11. A relentless advocate of Nicene orthodoxy, Athanasius was exiled no fewer than five times, depending on the changing political situation.
Multiple Choice
12. Which of the following parties believed that the Son is unlike the Father?
A) homoousians
B) homoiousians
C) homoeans
D) anomoeans
13. Which of the following was NOT a persuasive fourth-century argument for the Nicene Creed?
A) the number of signatories was 318
B) the term homoousios could be clearly defined and understood
C) the bishops at the Council of Nicaea were good men
D) the emperor ratified the creed
14. Which of the following Capaddocians is seen as a great “Christianizer of Hellenism?”
A) Basil of Caesarea
B) Gregory of Nazianzus
C) John Chrysostom
D) Gregory of Nyssa
15. Which of the following was also known as the “Harp of the Holy Spirit” for his beautiful theological poetry?
A) Ephraem the Syrian
B) Ambrose of Milan
C) Rufinus
D) Gregory of Nazianzus
Chapter 12—The Church in the Fourth and Early Fifth Centuries: Monasticism, Expansion, Life, and Worship
True/False
1. Pachomius is famous for pioneering the stylite form of asceticism. False
2. Although Christian emperors in the fourth century favored Christians, they did not execute pagans. True
3. The major fourth-century addition to the Christian calendar was the celebration of Jesus’ birth. True
4. In the fourth and fifth centuries, veneration previously given to martyrs was extended to monks and bishops also. True
5. Constantine officially entrusted the church with orphan care. True
6. Syriac Christianity was characterized by its emphasis on schools. True
7. The practice of burying the dead within churches developed largely because of Christians’ habit of venerating saints’ relics. True
Fill in the blank
8. Shrines commemorating the death places of martyrs were known as martyria .
9. By the fourth century, the three acts that had come to have sacramental significance for the church were baptism, the Eucharist, and chrism.
10. Most church buildings were oriented to the East.
11. In Eastern churches the Eucharist was viewed as an epiphany of the divine, but in the West it was viewed as a sacrifice .
Multiple Choice
12. Which emperor instituted the strictest measures against Jews?
A) Theodosius II
B) Julian
C) Constantine
D) Gratian
13. Which monastic expression emphasized community life?
A) that of the hermit
B) that of the laura
C) that of the cenobites
D) that of the anchorites
14. According to Gregory Thaumaturgus, the category of penitents who were associated with the faithful but did not commune were known as:
A) mourners
B) kneelers
C) bystanders
D) restored ones
15. Which of the following was not a significant motif in the literature of early Christian monasticism?
A) angelic
B) baptismal
C) martyr
D) priestly
Chapter 13—Christological Controversies to Chalcedon (451)
True/False
1. Dioscorus was condemned at the Council of Chalcedon. True
2. The Alexandrine tradition gave more attention to the humanity of Jesus Christ. False
3. Monophysitism was an extreme view that insisted Christ had only one nature. True
4. The christological controversies signal the decline of the effectiveness of the classical Christian argument from tradition. True
5. At Chalcedon, the terms physis and natura were used to talk about the duality of Jesus Christ’s being. True
6. The Twelve Anathemas composed by Nestorius explained the Antiochene understanding of Christology and rejected Cyril’s views. False
7. Leo I was in favor of the findings of the “Robber Synod” of 449, and rejected the Chalcedonian Definition of Faith. False
Fill in the blank
8. Nestorius’ response to the use of the term theotokos helped trigger the controversy in Constantinople that led to the Council of Ephesus (431).
9. Bishop Flavian__ of Constantinople was deposed and abused in the “Robber Synod” of 449.
10. Gregory of Nazianzus’ argument against Apollinarianism was stated well in the aphorism about the incarnation, “What was not assumed was not healed.”
11. At the Council of Ephesus (431), the contingent from __Antioch__ was delayed, but the presider conducted the council anyway.
Multiple Choice
12. The Council of Ephesus (431) may be best summed up as affirming what Christian doctrinal understanding?
A) the oneness of God
B) the oneness of Christ
C) the twoness of Christ
D) the threeness of God
13. Which of the following taught that the divine Logos replaced the human soul or spirit of Jesus?
A) Apollinaris of Laodicea
B) Theodore of Mopsuestia
C) Eutyches
D) Diodore of Tarsus
14. Who collaborated with John of Antioch after the Council of Ephesus to prepare a compromise formula that allowed for both Antiochene and Alexandrine emphases?
A) Theodosius II
B) Leo I
C) Dioscorus
D) Cyril of Alexandria
15. The canons of Chalcedon helped bring what element of the church more firmly under bishops’ control?
A) monks
B) schools
C) liturgy
D) deacons
Chapter 14—Augustine, Pelagius, and Semipelagianism
True/False
1. The fall of Rome in 410 caused a nearly catastrophic crisis of faith for Augustine. False
2. Augustine taught that a sacrament like baptism could be valid, regardless of the administrator’s purity or the faithfulness of the church. True
3. Once Pelagius and Celestius had been condemned, Augustine’s views on divine election and human sexuality remained unchallenged for centuries. False
4. Augustine’s views on human free will changed substantially as he engaged different issues troubling the church. True
5. Augustine used infant baptism as an argument in favor of his views on original sin. True
6. The Council of Ephesus (431) condemned Pelagius, Celestius, and Julian of Eclanum. True
7. During the Middle Ages, the two cities in City of God were typically understood to be church and state. True
Fill in the blank
8. Augustine wrote the work that became the textbook on the theology of marriage in the Middle Ages.
9. Augustine’s work Confessions not only provides crucial information about his life, but became a religious classic of penetrating spiritual introspection.
10. While professor of rhetoric, the non-Christian Augustine went to hear the city’s most famous orator, a bishop named Ambrose.
11. The views and writings of Celestius__ are more well known than those of his teacher Pelagius.
Multiple Choice
12. According to John Cassian’s fourfold method of reading the Bible, an interpretation of “Jerusalem” as the Heavenly City would fit which sense?
A) allegorical
B) tropological
C) literal
D) anagogical
13. Which of the following is NOT consistent with Augustine’s views on salvation, original sin, and human free will?
A) because of the fall, humans are not able to do good or even choose good without God’s supernatural grace
B) original sin is passed on through sexual activity
C) the stories of the two tax collectors in the Gospels illustrate the possible ways a person may come to salvation
D) God predestines some people for condemnation
14. After Pelagius and his followers had been banished and excommunicated, who assumed leadership of the Pelagian position?
A) Augustine of Hippo
B) Vincent of Lerins
C) John Cassian
D) Julian of Eclanum
15. Who constructed the classic statement of the ancient church’s doctrine of tradition?
A) Augustine of Hippo
B) Vincent of Lerins
C) John Cassian
D) Julian of Eclanum
Chapter 15—Transitions to the Middle Ages
True/False
1. The Goths spoke of the Father and Son as being of “one blood.” True
2. Scholars agree that the year 476 marks the beginning of the Middle Ages. False
3. Leo I may justly be called “the first pope.” True
4. At Clovis’ baptism, 3000 of his troops rebelled against the king’s conversion to Christianity. False
5. Prosper of Aquitaine was a Semipelagian opponent of Augustinianism. False
6. Salvian contended that the Germans were morally inferior to the Romans and that God would enable the Romans to regain control of the empire. False
7. In the early Middle Ages, the church conveyed a sense of “universal authority” that transcended the more limited authority of regional kings. True
Fill in the blank
8. The expression filioque was added to the creed in 589 at a synod in Toledo.
9. The form of organization in which a church was closely associated with the property and rule of a lay patron is known as that of _the proprietary church / Eigenkirche .
10. Ulfilas was the fourth-century missionary to the Goths.
11. The synod of Orange__ approved a “Semiaugustinian” view on salvation and human free will in 529.
Multiple Choice
12. Which of the German tribes came to exercise the most influence in the Western church during the early Middle Ages?
A) Franks
B) Ostrogoths
C) Visigoths
D) Lombards
13. Which of the following is NOT given as a principal factor producing a new situation for the church?
A) Constantine
B) Augustine
C) Monks and popes
D) Germanic language
14. Who described the bishop of Rome as the “vicar of Peter?”
A) Leo I
B) Damasus
C) Julius
D) Innocent I
15. Who devised the anno domini system of dating?
A) Cassiodorus
B) Isidore of Seville
C) Dionysius Exiguus
D) Boethius
Chapter 16—Eastern and Western Churches in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries
True/False
1. Jacob Baradaeus was a staunch defender of Chalcedonian orthodoxy. False
2. The Theopaschite controversy was triggered by the inclusion of a particular phrase in the liturgy. True
3. Justinian reestablished Roman rule in Italy. True
4. Gregory supported the idea of purgatory. True
5. Mariology appeared in the West several centuries in advance of the East. False
6. The church in Armenia adopted the Henophysite position. True
7. In the latter years of his reign, Justinian was able to achieve lasting unity between Chalcedonians and Miaphysites. False
Fill in the blank
8. Zeno promoted the Henoticon , an edict of reunion, in an effort to unify Chalcedonians and Henophysites.
9. The kontakion was mastered by the liturgical poet Romanos the Melodist .
10. Differences between the Eastern and Western churches may be summed up by saying that the Eastern church did not have a middle ages .
11. Benedict’s rule called for a balanced regimen of a) divine praise, b) spiritual reading, and c) physical work__.
Multiple Choice
12. Which of the following texts became a medieval classic, with enormous influence on Western clergy?
A) Dialogues
B) Pastoral Rule
C) On Ecclesiastical Hierarchy
D) Communicatio idiomatum
13. The Fifth Ecumenical Council (553) was primarily concerned with which issue?
A) the Three Chapters
B) Evagrian Origenism
C) Christian theurgy
D) the Theopaschite controversy
14. Which of the following is NOT one of the factors favoring the creation and use of written liturgies?
A) natural tendencies to uniformity in worship language
B) unlearned clergy needed guidance
C) concern for orthodoxy and fear of heretical doctrines
D) the precedent and model of written scriptures
15. Who identified three stages in describing God—affirmative, negative, and superlative?
A) Severus of Antioch
B) Pseudo-Dionysius
C) Gregory the Great
D) Benedict of Nursia
Chapter 17—The Eastern Church from the Seventh to Eleventh Centuries
True/False
1. Nicaea II made a clear distinction between “honorable reverence” of pictures and “true devotion” to God. True
2. The Church of the East brought Christianity to the Chinese imperial court by the seventh century. True
3. The empress Irene was an avid supporter of iconoclasm. False
4. Islam initially pressured Christians to convert. False
5. Many Christians welcomed the Muslims as a liberating force from the Byzantine emperor. True
6. Middle Byzantine church buildings conveyed a strong sense of movement upward, from earth to heaven. False
7. The Eastern church differed from Roman Catholic missions in allowing new churches to organize themselves on racial and national lines. True
Fill in the blank
8. Heraclius promulgated the document Ekthesis , in order to promote Monotheletism.
9. The Monothelete Syrian Christians of Lebanon were known as Maronites .
10. The schism associated with the Patriarch Photius (858–67, 878–86) illustrates the deepening chasm between the Byzantine and Roman churches.
11. The large cenobite community at Mt. Athos became the chief center of Orthodox monasticism.
Multiple Choice
12. Who wrote the classic defense of icon veneration?
A) Pope Honorius
B) Maximus the Confessor
C) Simeon the New Theologian
D) John of Damascus
13. The Paulicians are especially associated with what country?
A) Bulgaria
B) Lebanon
C) Armenia
D) Egypt
14. What was the first stage in the Christian response to Islam?
A) to see Islam as a chastisement for Christians’ sins
B) to engage Islam in serious polemics
C) to translate Muslim works into Greek
D) to advance an apocalyptic interpretation of Islam
15. Who was the founder of Russian Christianity?
A) Vladimir
B) Queen Olga
C) Methodius
D) Cyril
Chapter 18—The Western Church from the Seventh to Ninth Centuries
True/False
1. Papal authority was the main issue debated in the Synod of Whitby (664). False
2. Charlemagne had Augustine’s City of God read to him each night. True
3. Under Charlemagne, Saxon infants were required by law to be baptized. True
4. The monastic model of John Cassian became standard throughout the Carolingian kingdom. False
5. The British bishops were impressed by Augustine of Canterbury’s humility when they met. False
6. In the Carolingian period, bishops were named by the king, and ecclesiastical dioceses were determined by agreement between the state and the pope. True
7. Baptism by affusion came to replace baptism by immersion in the medieval Western church. True
Fill in the blank
8. Though consisting largely of forgeries, Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals became the basis of the claims for papal monarchy in the Middle Ages.
9. On Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor.
10. Canonical clergy at cathedrals served parish responsibilities in the world but lived according to a rule.
11. Ninian was known as the “apostle of Scotland.”
Multiple Choice
12. Who wrote the first doctrinal treatise on the Lord’s Supper, arguing for a realistic identification of the elements with Jesus’ body and blood?
A) Alcuin
B) Radbertus
C) Gottschalk
D) Ratramnus
13. Who succeeded in gaining the patronage of kings and popes in his efforts to reform churches and convert pagans in eighth-century Europe?
A) Columbanus
B) Winfrid (Boniface)
C) Aidan
D) Willibrord (Clement)
14. What were the Libri Carolini written to address?
A) double predestination
B) the “Adoptionist” controversy
C) the filioque clause
D) the use of religious art in worship
15. Which of the following was NOT typical of early Celtic Christianity?
A) organization by parish and diocese
B) missionary zeal
C) identified Christian life with penance
D) associated with clan life
Chapter 19—Decline and Renewal of Vitality in the West
True/False
1. After a period of “dark ages,” the eleventh century saw institutional revival. True
2. During much of the tenth and eleventh centuries the Roman aristocracy was controlled by the papacy. False
3. Otto I cultivated alliances with dukes and nobles in order to secure local authority against bishops and abbots. False
4. Pope Formosus was tried and punished after having been dead and buried. True
5. Many monasteries placed themselves under the abbot of Cluny. True
6. Pope Leo IX sought to preserve Italian control of the College of Cardinals. False
7. The people of Rome granted Henry III the right to choose Rome’s bishop. True
Fill in the blank
8. The last wave of migration into the heart of Europe was that of the Norseman (or Vikings) .
9. The practice of paying money in order to receive a clerical benefice was called simony.
10. The Cluniacs called the practice of married clergy Nicolaitanism .
11. The great reforming pope of the eleventh century was Leo IX.
Multiple Choice
12. What characteristic of the monastery of Cluny was most significant in making it a powerful agent of reform?
A) its autonomy
B) canonical clergy
C) support of the Ottonian kings
D) the “Peace of God”
13. Who acted as the pope’s agent in excommunicating Michael Cerularius and his associates?
A) Constantine X
B) Hildebrand
C) Peter Damian
D) Humbert
14. The “Truce of God” provided for what limitations on warfare and feuding?
A) the outlawing of combat between Christians
B) the restriction of fighting to certain seasons
C) only kings and popes could declare war
D) non-combatants and clergy were not to be attacked
15. What Bohemian duke enthusiastically promoted Christianity on his half-pagan realm in the early tenth century?
A) Olaf
B) Willibrord
C) Wenceslas
D) Stephen I
Chapter 20—The Papal Reform Movement and the First Crusade
True/False
1. Alongside chastity, obedience, and warfare, the Knights Templar emphasized poverty most of all. False
2. The conflict between Gregory VII and Henry IV was essentially a disagreement over two competing views of kingship. True
3. The Copts in Egypt welcomed the crusaders as liberators. False
4. Since Carolingian times, penance twice a year at Lent and Christmas had become the norm. False
5. In the eleventh century, killing a person was a grievous sin, even in a battle approved by the pope. True
6. The crusades promoted a greater sense of unity in Western Europe. True
7. At the Diet of Worms, Henry IV showed penance by walking barefoot in the snow. False
Fill in the blank
8. Remission of the temporal punishment of sin is called an indulgence .
9. Lay investiture was the bestowing of the symbols of spiritual office in the church by lay rulers.
10. Urban II was the pope who preached the First Crusade.
11. The essential parts of medieval penance were contrition, confession, and (works of) satisfaction.
Multiple Choice
12. What was the title of Gregory VII’s summary statement of papal authorities?
A) Dictatus papae
B) Index librorum prohibitorum
C) Decretum
D) Deus le volt
13. What marked the final settlement in the investiture controversy?
A) the Council of Clermont
B) Henry IV’s display of penance
C) the Concordat of Worms
D) Ivo of Chartre’s formulation of canons
14. What social expectation strongly impacted the conflict between Henry IV and Gregory VII?
A) indulgences
B) feudalism
C) proprietary churches
D) commutations
15. What leader of the First Crusade took the title of Lord Protector of Jerusalem?
A) Godfrey
B) Baldwin
C) Raymond
D) Bohemond
Chapter 21—Intellectual Revival: the Rise of Scholasticism
True/False
1. The development of the doctrine of transubstantiation led to the common practice of offering the Eucharist in both kinds to the laity. False
2. Anselm sought to demonstrate the propositions of faith on the basis of reason alone. True
3. The scholasticus Berengar formulated the doctrine of transubstantiation. False
4. Cur deus homo presented the atonement theory that eventually won the largest following. True
5. Abelard argued that motives, however well-intended, play no role in determining whether behavior is right or wrong. False
6. Bernard of Clairvaux was a staunch opponent of Anselm. False
7. Nearly all the scholastic thinkers had an element of mysticism in them. True
Fill in the blank
8. Anselm’s treatise Proslogion presented his famous ontological argument for God.
9. Scholasticism placed a high degree of confidence in reason .
10. Abelard’s lover was named Heloise .
11. A debate about how the use of the new scholastic methods in explaining the Trinity was triggered by the views of Roscellinus , the founder of Nominalism.
Multiple Choice
12. In scholastic method, what term corresponds best to the process of stating arguments for and against a problem?
A) sententia
B) disputatio
C) sic et non
D) quaestio
13. Which position on universals sees them not as real, but helpful inferences drawn from observation?
A) Moderate Realism
B) Nominalism
C) Extreme Realism
D) Nominal Conceptualism
14. Which scholar held that he had to doubt in order to know?
A) Anselm
B) Berengar
C) Abelard
D) Bernard
15. Which scholar is known for the moral-exemplary theory of the atonement?
A) Anselm
B) Berengar
C) Abelard
D) Bernard
Chapter 22—Monastic, Literary, Political, and Cultural Activities in the Twelfth Century
True/False
1. Converts to monasticism and the establishment of monasteries increased in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. True
2. Bernard of Clairvaux objected to the use of ornate artwork. True
3. Lombard’s Book of Sentences became the standard medieval theology textbook. True
4. Jewish and Arabic scholars in Europe lagged far behind the Christian intellectual revival of the twelfth-century. False
5. The official doctrine of purgatory was formulated by Hugh of St. Victor. False
6. Bernard of Clairvaux promoted the Second Crusade. True
7. In the twelfth century, the popes began to allow other bishops to canonize saints. False
Fill in the blank
8. Romanesque style of art and architecture was abstract, solemn, and majestic.
9. The canonist (John) Gratian composed the Decretum, which became the standard sourcebook for studying and practicing canon law.
10. Hildegard of Bingen was a twelfth-century abbess who preached her prophetic visions of judgment.
11. Travel to Jerusalem held the highest place as an object of pilgrimage.
Multiple Choice
12. Which new monastic movement emphasized the need to return to the simplicity of Benedictine monasticism?
A) Cistercians
B) Carthusians
C) Premonstratensians
D) Augustinian Canons
13. Who fixed the number of sacraments at seven?
A) Thomas Becket
B) Hugh of St. Victor
C) John Gratian
D) Peter Lombard
14. Who brought together the priorities and methods of both Bernard of Clairvaux and Abelard in his work?
A) John of Salisbury
B) Hugh of St. Victor
C) Bruno of Rheims
D) John Gratian
15. What major participant in the Third Crusade drowned crossing a river?
A) Philip II Augustus
B) Saladin
C) Frederick I Barbarossa
D) Richard I the Lion-Hearted
Chapter 23—The Glory of the Western Medieval Church
True/False
1. In the thirteenth century, images of Jesus on the cross changed from realistic depictions of his agony to depictions of his exalted reign over sin and the world. False
2. The Dominicans emphasized scholarship and combating heresy. True
3. The availability of the entire corpus of Plato was a major factor in the development of medieval culture in the thirteenth century. False
4. Thomas Aquinas insisted that all knowledge may be known by reason, and that revelation is necessary only for the unlearned. False
5. Dominic maintained that he had married Lady Poverty. False
6. Francis of Assisi would not condone the drawing up of a formal rule to govern his followers. False
7. Gothic depictions of final judgment emphasized the hope of salvation more than Romanesque ones had done. True
Fill in the blank
8. Many laypersons began using Books of Hours , often lavishly illuminated works that gave devotions for daily times of prayer.
9. Thomas Aquinas’ great systematic theology is called Summa Theologiae .
10. In the thinking of Duns Scotus, the will is primary to intelligence, in both God and humans.
11. The Fourth Lateran Council made annual confession and communion obligatory.
Multiple Choice
12. What was the first example of the new Gothic style of architecture?
A) cathedral of Notre Dame
B) abbey church at St. Denis
C) Sainte-Chapelle
D) cathedral of Chartres
13. Which pope placed England under the interdict due to conflict over the appointment of Stephen Langton?
A) Honorius III
B) Alexander III
C) Innocent III
D) Gregory IX
14. Which scholar stressed the importance of divine illumination in the quest for truth?
A) Bonaventure
B) Roger Bacon
C) Thomas Aquinas
D) Albertus Magnus
15. What became a third force in the thirteenth century, alongside the imperium and the sacerdotium?
A) the papacy
B) universities
C) mendicant orders
D) religious lay movements
Chapter 24—The Glory of the Western Medieval Church
True/False
1. Peter John Olivi advocated the doctrine of papal infallibility as a way of limiting papal power. True
2. Kublai Khan asked the pope to send a hundred Christian teachers to his kingdom. True
3. Abuses in the Inquisition were more with individuals and the way it was carried out than with the system itself. True
4. In response to the church’s emphasis on celibacy, Peter Valdes stressed the importance of marriage as a spiritual practice. False
5. Philip II Augustus expelled Jews from his royal domains, then allowed them to return. True
6. Thomas Aquinas represented the Western theological position at the Council of Lyons (1274). False
7. Miracle and morality plays in the vernacular were banned in the thirteenth century by papal decree. False
Fill in the blank
8. The Cathari/Albigensians in France held to a dualist understanding of the world and religion and were targeted for a crusade.
9. The papal bull Unam sanctam of 1302 summarizes medieval papal theory and makes the most extravagant claims for papal authority.
10. Boniface VIII’s predecessor, Celestine V was hailed as an “Angel Pope” and many hoped he would lead reform.
11. The poet and Florentine magistrate Dante Alighieri went on a pilgrimage to Rome in 1300 and wrote the most significant literary expression of the medieval worldview.
Multiple Choice
12. Who presented a theory of the Trinitarian periodization of history?
A) Gregory bar Hebraeus
B) Peter de Bruys
C) Stephen Tempier
D) Joachim of Fiore
13. What thirteenth-century leader converted the idea of Christian empire into imperialism?
A) Gregory X
B) Louis IX
C) Charles of Anjou
D) Genghis Khan
14. Who promoted missions to Muslims and Jews by means of preaching and martyrdom?
A) Joachim of Fiore
B) Raymond Lull
C) Dionysius bar Salibi
D) Prester John
15. What female mystic was burned at the stake for heresy?
A) Margaret of Porette
B) Mechthild of Magdeburg
C) Gertrude of Helfta
D) Elizabeth of Hungary and Thuringia
Mid-Term Exam
This exam consists of 50 objective questions drawn from the Quizzes, covering Chapters 1–13 (see Sample Syllabus outlines below). Teachers will want to augment this exam by selecting essay questions to include also.
1. Which of the following does NOT apply to the Imperial Cult?
A) it was commonly practiced in Hellenistic Jewish contexts
B) it helped ensure political unity and loyalty in the empire
C) it gave divine honor to the emperor and his family
D) it was often allied with local civic cults
2. The vocabulary, ethical assumptions, thought world, and intellectual options of early Christian theologians were provided by __Greek philosophy__.
3. The organization of the Roman Empire provided a pattern for the development of the church’s hierarchy. True
4. At the end of the first century, the church in Ephesus appears to have been larger and more influential than the churches in Rome or Jerusalem. True
5. In the areas of religious practice and ethics, the early church broke radically with traditional Jewish institutions. False
6. According to strong tradition, Nero was emperor when Paul was beheaded.
7. What function did the “trophies of the apostles” serve?
A) they identified a person as a true and authoritative apostle
B) they marked the sites of the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul in Rome
C) they have helped confirm the association of the apostle Thomas with Syria
D) they described the eternal rewards awaiting Christians who were martyred
8. Odes of Solomon may be the earliest surviving Christian hymnbook.
9. Which Apostolic Father consists of Visions, Parables, and Commandments?
A) Didache
B) Hermas
C) 2 Clement
D) Ignatius
10. Justin Martyr composed a dialogue with Trypho , providing important information about the questions at issue between Jews and Christians in the second century.
11. Which of the following was NOT a major motif of early Christian martyrdom theology?
A) purification by fire
B) baptism
C) Eucharist
D) athletes & heroes
12. Another name for the New Prophecy is Montanism (or the Phrygian Heresy) .
13. What did Gnostics call the fullness of the divine universe?
A) the Paraclete
B) Sophia
C) the pleroma
D) Gnostikoi
14. Gospel of Thomas is a passion narrative with docetic leanings. False
15. The Didache is primarily concerned with the question of how to address sin after baptism. False
16. The emperor Trajan instructed the governor Pliny not to receive anonymous accusations against Christians. True
17. Perpetua’s father encouraged her to face martyrdom bravely. False
18. The oldest known fixed collection (i.e. canon) of New Testament books was defined by Marcion. True
19. Encratites were accused of becoming drunk on the wine of the Eucharist. False
20. The most important criterion for recognizing the canonicity of a book was its inspiration. False
21. The Muratorian Fragment included Apocalypse of Peter in its canon. True
22. The flexible early summary of the apostolic message was known as the rule of faith.
23. What statement best describes the early church’s relationship to the canon?
A) the church placed itself under the authority of the canon
B) the organized church determined the shape and content of the canon
C) the church formulated the canon in reaction to heretical books and “false canons”
D) the church relied more on the rule of faith than on the canon
24. Those who fell away from the church in times of persecution were known as lapsi/the lapsed .
25. Who wrote, “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there between the Academy and the church?”
A) Tertullian
B) Clement
C) Hippolytus
D) Gregory Thaumaturgus
26. In the East, Modalism was commonly known as Sabellianism , after its most important representative.
27. Public confession in church had been abolished by the end of the second century. False
28. By the end of the third century, only the baptized were admitted to the Lord’s Supper portion of the service. True
29. Due to the small size and persecuted status of the church, charity for the poor and the underprivileged was not a strong characteristic of early Christianity. False
30. The story of Jonah was the most commonly occurring Old Testament scene in early Christian art. True
31. Christians experienced higher survival rates during the epidemic of the 250s. True
32. Apostolic Tradition required that candidates for baptism receive instruction for a period of three years .
33. When did infant baptism become routine?
A) the first century
B) the second century
C) the third and fourth centuries
D) the fifth and sixth centuries
34. Which of the following ideas was most difficult for pagans to accept?
A) resurrection of the body
B) high moral standards
C) monotheism
D) all the above were equally difficult for pagans to accept
35. Two classes of adherents in the religion of Manicheism were known as the elect and hearers.
36. The Circumcelliones were armed enforcers of imperial policy, sent to squash the Donatists in North Africa. False
37. Constantine was baptized not long after seeing the Chi-Rho vision in 312. False
38. Rufinus’ Life of Antony was very influential in advertising monastic ideals. False
39. The Greek term homoousios was put into the creed at Nicaea to stress that the divine Father and the Son share the same substance, against Arius.
40. In 314, a synod met at Arles to address the Donatist problem.
41. The emperor Theodosius I declared Christianity the faith of the empire in 380.
42. Which of the following parties believed that the Son is unlike the Father?
A) homoousians
B) homoiousians
C) homoeans
D) anomoeans
43. Which of the following was NOT a persuasive fourth-century argument for the Nicene Creed?
A) the number of signatories was 318
B) the term homoousios could be clearly defined and understood
C) the bishops at the Council of Nicaea were good men
D) the emperor ratified the creed
44. Pachomius is famous for pioneering the stylite form of asceticism. False
45. The practice of burying the dead within churches developed largely because of Christians’ habit of venerating saints’ relics. True
46. Pope Leo I was in favor of the findings of the “Robber Synod” of 449, and rejected the Chalcedonian Definition of Faith. False
47. By the fourth century, the three acts that had come to have sacramental significance for the church were baptism, the Eucharist, and chrism.
48. According to Gregory Thaumaturgus, the category of penitents who were associated with the faithful but did not commune were known as:
A) mourners
B) kneelers
C) bystanders
D) restored ones
49. Who collaborated with John of Antioch after the Council of Ephesus to prepare a compromise formula that allowed for both Antiochene and Alexandrine emphases?
A) Theodosius II
B) Leo I
C) Dioscorus
D) Cyril of Alexandria
50. Gregory of Nazianzus’ argument against Apollinarianism was stated well in the aphorism about the incarnation, “What was not assumed was not healed.”
Final Exam
This exam consists of 50 objective questions drawn from the Quizzes, covering Chapters 14–24 (see Sample Syllabus outlines below). Teachers will want to augment this exam by selecting essay questions to include also.
1. Once Pelagius and Celestius had been condemned, Augustine’s views on divine election and human sexuality remained unchallenged for centuries. False
2. Augustine taught that a sacrament like baptism could be valid, regardless of the administrator’s purity or the faithfulness of the church. True
3. Leo I may justly be called “the first pope.” True
4. At Clovis’ baptism, 3000 of his troops rebelled against the king’s conversion to Christianity. False
5. While professor of rhetoric, the non-Christian Augustine went to hear the city’s most famous orator, a bishop named Ambrose.
6. According to John Cassian’s fourfold method of reading the Bible, an interpretation of “Jerusalem” as the Heavenly City would fit which sense?
A) allegorical
B) tropological
C) literal
D) anagogical
7. Who constructed the classic statement of the ancient church’s doctrine of tradition?
A) Augustine of Hippo
B) Vincent of Lerins
C) John Cassian
D) Julian of Eclanum
8. The expression filioque was added to the creed in 589 at a synod in Toledo.
9. Ulfilas was the fourth-century missionary to the Goths.
10. Which of the German tribes came to exercise the most influence in the Western church during the early Middle Ages?
A) Franks
B) Ostrogoths
C) Visigoths
D) Lombards
11. Benedict’s rule called for a balanced regimen of a) divine praise, b) spiritual reading, and c) physical work__.
12. The Fifth Ecumenical Council (553) was primarily concerned with which issue?
A) the Three Chapters
B) Evagrian Origenism
C) Christian theurgy
D) the Theopaschite controversy
13. Who identified three stages in describing God—affirmative, negative, and superlative?
A) Severus of Antioch
B) Pseudo-Dionysius
C) Gregory the Great
D) Benedict of Nursia
14. Jacob Baradaeus was a staunch defender of Chalcedonian orthodoxy. False
15. Mariology appeared in the West several centuries in advance of the East. False
16. Many Christians welcomed the Muslims as a liberating force from the Byzantine emperor. True
17. The empress Irene was an avid supporter of iconoclasm. False
18. The monastic model of John Cassian became standard throughout the Carolingian kingdom. False
19. Papal authority was the main issue debated in the Synod of Whitby (664). False
20. The Monothelete Syrian Christians of Lebanon were known as Maronites .
21. What was the first stage in the Christian response to Islam?
A) to see Islam as a chastisement for Christians’ sins
B) to engage Islam in serious polemics
C) to translate Muslim works into Greek
D) to advance an apocalyptic interpretation of Islam
22. Who wrote the classic defense of icon veneration?
A) Pope Honorius
B) Maximus the Confessor
C) Simeon the New Theologian
D) John of Damascus
23. On Christmas day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor.
24. Who wrote the first doctrinal treatise on the Lord’s Supper, arguing for a realistic identification of the elements with Jesus’ body and blood?
A) Alcuin
B) Radbertus
C) Gottschalk
D) Ratramnus
25. Who succeeded in gaining the patronage of kings and popes in his efforts to reform churches and convert pagans in eighth-century Europe?
A) Columbanus
B) Winfrid (Boniface)
C) Aidan
D) Willibrord (Clement)
26. Pope Formosus was tried and punished after having been dead and buried. True
27. The people of Rome granted Henry III the right to choose Rome’s bishop. True
28. In the eleventh century, killing a person was a grievous sin, even in a battle approved by the pope. True
29. At the Diet of Worms, Henry IV showed penance by walking barefoot in the snow. False
30. Cur deus homo presented the atonement theory that eventually won the largest following. True
31. Abelard argued that motives, however well-intended, play no role in determining whether behavior is right or wrong. False
32. The practice of paying money in order to receive a clerical benefice was called simony .
33. The great reforming pope of the eleventh century was Leo IX.
34. What characteristic of the monastery of Cluny was most significant in making it a powerful agent of reform?
A) its autonomy
B) canonical clergy
C) support of the Ottonian kings
D) the “Peace of God”
35. Lay investiture was the bestowing of the symbols of spiritual office in the church by lay rulers.
36. The essential parts of medieval penance were contrition, confession, and (works of) satisfaction.
37. Which scholar stressed the important of divine illumination in the quest for truth?
A) Bonaventure
B) Roger Bacon
C) Thomas Aquinas
D) Albertus Magnus
38. What marked the final settlement in the investiture controversy?
A) the Council of Clermont
B) Henry IV’s display of penance
C) the Concordat of Worms
D) Ivo of Chartre’s formulation of canons
39. Bernard of Clairvaux objected to the use of ornate artwork. True
40. Lombard’s Book of Sentences became the standard medieval theology textbook. True
41. Francis of Assisi would not condone the drawing up of a formal rule to govern his followers. False
42. Thomas Aquinas insisted that all knowledge may be known by reason, and that revelation is necessary only for the unlearned. False
43. Peter John Olivi advocated the doctrine of papal infallibility as a way of limiting papal power. True
44. In response to the church’s emphasis on celibacy, Peter Valdes stressed the importance of marriage as a spiritual practice. False
45. Romanesque style of art and architecture was abstract, solemn, and majestic.
46. The Fourth Lateran Council made annual confession and communion obligatory.
47. Who fixed the number of sacraments at seven?
A) Thomas Becket
B) Hugh of St. Victor
C) John Gratian
D) Peter Lombard
48. What became a third force in the thirteenth century, alongside the imperium and the sacerdotium?
A) the papacy
B) universities
C) the mendicant orders
D) religious lay movements
49. What female mystic was burned at the stake for heresy?
A) Margaret of Porette
B) Mechthild of Magdeburg
C) Gertrude of Helfta
D) Elizabeth of Hungary and Thuringia
50. The papal bull Unam sanctam of 1302 summarizes medieval papal theory and makes the most extravagant claims for papal authority.
Church History Volume 1
Sample Syllabus Outline (Mon-Wed-Fri)
Week 1
o Monday
▪ Introduction to Course
▪ Go over Syllabus
o Wednesday
▪ The Early Background
▪ Read H/C Chapter 1
▪ Quiz #1
o Friday
▪ Jesus Christ and the Apostles
▪ Read H/C Chapter 2
▪ Quiz #2
Week 2
o Monday
▪ Jewish Christianity
▪ Read H/C Chapter 3
▪ Quiz #3
o Wednesday
▪ Gentile Christianity
o Friday
▪ Church and Empire
▪ Read H/C Chapter 4
▪ Quiz #4
Week 3
o Monday
▪ Heresies and Schisms
▪ Read H/C Chapter 5
▪ Quiz #5
o Wednesday
▪ Gnostic Beliefs and Practices
o Friday
▪ In Pursuit of Orthodoxy
▪ Read H/C Chapter 6
▪ Quiz #6
Week 4
o Monday
▪ Beginnings of Christian Theology
o Wednesday
▪ Understanding the Church Fathers
▪ Read H/C Chapter 7
▪ Quiz #7
o Friday
▪ Reading the Church Fathers
Week 5
o Monday
▪ Church Life
▪ Read H/C Chapter 8
▪ Quiz #8
o Wednesday
▪ Persecution
▪ Read H/C Chapter 9
▪ Quiz #9
o Friday
▪ The Old Catholic Church
Week 6
o Monday
▪ Diocletian
▪ Read H/C Chapter 10
▪ Quiz #10
o Wednesday
▪ Constantine
o Friday
▪ The Fourth-Century Church, Part 1
▪ Read H/C Chapter 11
▪ Quiz #11
Week 7
o Monday
▪ The Fourth-Century Church, Part 2
▪ Read H/C Chapter 12
▪ Quiz #12
o Wednesday
▪ Monasticism
o Friday
▪ Assessing the “Constantinian Shift”
Week 8
o Monday
▪ The Road to Chalcedon
▪ Read H/C Chapter 13
▪ Quiz #13
o Wednesday
▪ Chalcedon
o Friday
▪ MID-TERM EXAM
Week 9
o Monday
▪ Augustine
▪ Read H/C Chapter 14
▪ Quiz #14
o Wednesday
▪ Germanic Migrations
▪ Read H/C Chapter 15
▪ Quiz #15
o Friday
▪ Effects of the Migrations on Church and Papacy
Week 10
o Monday
▪ The Church in the Fifth & Sixth Centuries
▪ Read H/C Chapter 16
▪ Quiz #16
o Wednesday
▪ The Eastern Church and Islam
o Friday
▪ The Eastern Church Misses the Middle Ages
▪ Read H/C Chapter 17
▪ Quiz #17
Week 11
o Monday
▪ Celtic & Anglo-Saxon Christianity
▪ Read H/C Chapter 18
▪ Quiz #18
o Wednesday
▪ Charlemagne
o Friday
▪ Developments in Later Carolingian Culture
Week 12
o Monday
▪ Signs of Decline
▪ Read H/C Chapter 19
▪ Quiz #19
o Wednesday
▪ Signs of Renewal
o Friday
▪ Papacy and Crusade
▪ Read H/C Chapter 20
▪ Quiz #20
Week 13
o Monday
▪ Scholasticism
▪ Read H/C Chapter 21
▪ Quiz #21
o Wednesday
▪ New Monastic Expressions
▪ Read H/C Chapter 22
▪ Quiz #22
o Friday
▪ Scholarship & the Arts in the Twelfth-Century Church
Week 14
o Monday
▪ The Peak of Papal Power
▪ Read H/C Chapter 23
▪ Quiz #23
o Wednesday
▪ Mendicants
o Friday
▪ Universities & Gothic Art
Week 15
o Monday
▪ Divergent Movements in the Thirteenth Century
▪ Read H/C Chapter 24
▪ Quiz #24
o Wednesday
▪ Problems and Problematic Solutions
o Friday
▪ Papal Decline
Week 16
o FINAL EXAM
Church History Volume 1
Sample Syllabus Outline (Tues-Thurs)
Week 1
o Tuesday
▪ Introduction to Course
▪ Go over Syllabus
▪ The Early Background
▪ Read H/C Chapter 1
▪ Quiz #1
o Thursday
▪ Jesus Christ and the Apostles
▪ Read H/C Chapter 2
▪ Quiz #2
Week 2
o Tuesday
▪ After the Apostles
▪ Read H/C Chapter 3
▪ Quiz #3
o Thursday
▪ Church and Empire
▪ Read H/C Chapter 4
▪ Quiz #4
Week 3
o Tuesday
▪ Diversity of Belief and Practice
▪ Read H/C Chapter 5
▪ Quiz #5
o Thursday
▪ In Pursuit of Orthodoxy
▪ Read H/C Chapter 6
▪ Quiz #6
Week 4
o Tuesday
▪ Understanding the Church Fathers
▪ Read H/C Chapter 7
▪ Quiz #7
o Thursday
▪ Reading the Church Fathers
Week 5
o Tuesday
▪ Church Life
▪ Read H/C Chapter 8
▪ Quiz #8
o Thursday
▪ The Old Catholic Church
▪ Read H/C Chapter 9
▪ Quiz #9
Week 6
o Tuesday
▪ Persecution & Peace
▪ Read H/C Chapter 10
▪ Quiz #10
o Thursday
▪ The Fourth-Century Church, Part 1
▪ Read H/C Chapter 11
▪ Quiz #11
Week 7
o Tuesday
▪ The Fourth-Century Church, Part 2
▪ Read H/C Chapter 12
▪ Quiz #12
o Thursday
▪ Assessing the “Constantinian Shift”
Week 8
o Tuesday
▪ Christological Controversy
▪ Read H/C Chapter 13
▪ Quiz #13
o Thursday
▪ MID-TERM EXAM
Week 9
o Tuesday
▪ Augustine
▪ Read H/C Chapter 14
▪ Quiz #14
o Thursday
▪ Moving into the Middle Ages
▪ Read H/C Chapter 15
▪ Quiz #15
Week 10
o Tuesday
▪ The Church in the Fifth & Sixth Centuries
▪ Read H/C Chapter 16
▪ Quiz #16
o Thursday
▪ The Eastern Church Misses the Middle Ages
▪ Read H/C Chapter 17
▪ Quiz #17
Week 11
o Tuesday
▪ Celtic & Anglo-Saxon Christianity
▪ Read H/C Chapter 18
▪ Quiz #18
o Thursday
▪ Charlemagne
Week 12
o Tuesday
▪ Signs of Decline
▪ Read H/C Chapter 19
▪ Quiz #19
o Thursday
▪ Signs of Renewal
▪ Read H/C Chapter 20
▪ Quiz #20
Week 13
o Tuesday
▪ Scholasticism
▪ Read H/C Chapter 21
▪ Quiz #21
o Thursday
▪ Twelfth-Century Vitality
▪ Read H/C Chapter 22
▪ Quiz #22
Week 14
o Tuesday
▪ The Peak of Papal Power
▪ Read H/C Chapter 23
▪ Quiz #23
o Thursday
▪ Mendicants & Universities
Week 15
o Tuesday
▪ Divergent Movements in the Thirteenth Century
▪ Read H/C Chapter 24
▪ Quiz #24
o Thursday
▪ Problems and Problematic Solutions
Week 16
o FINAL EXAM
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