Findings - a2 Psychology Lesson updates 13-14

358775250190By the time you have completed this workbook you will have everything you need to be able to do the ‘How Science Works’ sections of the Edexcel AS exams. NameTutorIf you find this workbook, please return to the tutor office or Park reception. Thanks4948555-723900Sections in the book: Key TermsExperimental methodsIndependent and Dependent VariablesAims & HypothesesDesignSamplingValidity & ReliabilityQualitative & Quantitative DataDescriptive Statistics: Measures of Central Tendency and DispersionInferential Statistics: Statistics Made Simple; Mann Whitney U, Spearman’s Rho, Chi-SquareSurvey: Questionnaire & InterviewCase studyLongitudinal vs Cross-sectional Correlation: positive, negative, strength of relationshipObservation: naturalistic, participant, non-participant, overt & covert Evidence of Practice 1: Social approach – Survey (Exam 1)Evidence of Practice 2: Cognitive Approach – Experiment (Exam 1)Evidence of Practice 3: Psychodynamic Approach – Correlation (Exam 2)Evidence of Practice 4: Biological Approach – Experiment (Exam 2)Evidence of Practice 5: Learning Approach – Observation (Exam 2)1. Key TermsDefine the following:Key TermDefinitionObjectivitySubjectivityGeneralisabilityValidityEcological ValidityReliabilityCredibilityExperimental effectsDemand characteristicsEthicsExperimental MethodsIn an experiment a researcher is trying to find out whether a particular factor has an effect on a specific aspect of human behaviour or mental processE.g.Do male brains mature more quickly than female brains? Do people recall information better in the same environment that they learnt it in?Does taking Prozac make people less depressed?There are three key types of experimental method:LaboratoryFieldNaturalUse your textbook to help answer the followingWrite a definition of:A laboratory experimentA Field experimentA Natural/Quasi ExperimentWhat is the difference between a field and a natural experiment?Evaluate Laboratory experiments using the following criteriaAdvantagesExplanationDisadvantagesExplanationControlGeneralisabilityObjectivityAs the data gathered in laboratory experiments is often quantitative it is easier to remain objective when analysing the dataDemand characteristicsReplicabilityAs lab experiments are tightly controlled, it makes it easy to replicate the researchExperimental EffectsReliabilityEcological ValidityEvaluate Field experiments using the following criteriaAdvantagesExplanationDisadvantagesExplanationEcological ValidityPractical difficultiesGeneralisabilityEthicsDemand CharacteristicsReliabilityCredibilityEvaluate Natural/Quasi experiments using the following criteriaAdvantagesExplanationDisadvantagesExplanationEcological ValidityControlEthicsPractical DifficultiesDemand CharacteristicsReliabilityCredibilityPaper One: Jan 2010There are three types of experiments (natural, field and laboratory).Compare field experiments and laboratory parisons involve looking at similarities and differences. You may wish to include strengths and weaknesses such as:? validity? reliability? ethics................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................(Total for Question 13 = 5 marks)Mark SchemeMarking points are indicative, not comprehensive and other points should be credited. In each consider Or Words To That Effect (OWTTE). 1 mark per point / elaboration. Credit use of appropriate examples which illustrate comparison e.g. Milgram and Hofling Credit can be given for similarities and / or differences do not need both Laboratory and Field Lab carried out in an artificial setting field is in a realistic environment/eq; Lab has low ecological validity field has high/eq; Both involve manipulation of IV by the experimenter/eq; Both aim to measure cause and effect /eq; Lab are easier to replicate and test for reliability of results as conditions are controlled (1st mark), field less able to replicate due to lack of control over extraneous variables/eq (2nd mark) Lab has greater control than field over extraneous variables/eq; Demand characteristics are more likely to occur in lab due to the artificial environment (1st mark) less likely in field due to more natural environment where participants are less likely to know they are part of a study /eq (2 marks); For example in Milgrams lab exp pps were more likely to be influenced by cues around them than the nurses in Hofling’s field experiment/eq; Examiner’s reportAn example answer from an actual student! Field experiments are experiments that happen in the participants natural environment. Laboratory experiments occur in a scientific area where the variables are strictly controlled. Laboratory experiments produce less valid results as the tasks set are artificial and tasks which are not normally done in normal everyday life. However, field experiments have high validity as the data is collected from the participants’ natural environment where the tasks set are normal. The laboratory experiments are more reliable as it is well controlled, so only the cause and effect relationship could be found by the IV and if the task is repeated it will produce similar results. Field experiments have less control over variables and certain factors can make the experiment less likely to produce similar results when repeating.Examiner comment: four marks in total – the first two sentences compare the setting so that is the first mark. The next two sentences compare the artificial and everyday settings so showing differences in validity and the points are elaborated enough to warrant a second mark so two marks here. However the final section about reliability is not as elaborated/clear as the previous points that were about validity so just one mark for the point about reliability and controls. (think about how they could have got that final mark)Independent and Dependent VariablesVariables – quite simply the things we measure or manipulate in psychologyAn experiment is a study of cause and effect; it involves the deliberate manipulation of one factor or variable, while trying to keep all other variables constant. In a psychology experiment we try to keep all aspects of the situation constant except for the one being looked at.The aspect that is varied is called the independent variable (IV). This is the one that the experimenter manipulates – it is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable or DV. This is the factor or variable that the experimenter measures.Some variables, however much we try, cannot be kept constant and these are known as extraneous or confounding variables. They might be important enough to provide alternative explanations for the effects.REMINDER: The IV is the variable that we know at the beginning of the experiment, the DV is the one we find out.Read the following and answer the questionsA psychologist investigates the effect of caffeine on reaction time. One group of participants are given a cup of coffee containing 10mg of caffeine, the other group are given a cup with 2 mg of caffeine. Participants then had a task where they had to click on a moving target on a computer screen. The psychologist measured how many seconds it took each participant to click on the target. The first group was tested at 9am on a bright sunny morning; the second group was tested at 3pm on the same day with the rain hammering on the windows of the testing room.What was the IV?What was the DV?List all the potential extraneous or confounding variables in this experiment.For the following hypotheses, give the IV and the DV and state whether it is a one or two tailed hypothesis.Drug A affects memoryIVDV1 or 2 tailedBulls will charge more often when presented with a red rag than a blue ragIVDV1 or 2 tailedSocial class affects IQ scoresIVDV1 or 2 tailedFirst children learn to speak earlier than second childrenIVDV1 or 2 tailedBoys are more aggressive than girlsIVDV1 or 2 tailedNoise affects concentrationIVDV1 or 2 tailedMore words are remembered from the beginning of a list than from the endIVDV1 or 2 tailedYou want to investigate gender differences in the speed of texting on mobile phones in order to see who are the fastest, males or females. Cognitive psychology would suggest you use a laboratory experiment for this kind of investigation.(i) Identify the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV) in this case.(2) June 2010IV: .................................................................................................................................................................. DV: ..................................................................................................................................................................4. Aims and HypothesesKey terms:Aim – a general statement about the purpose of an investigationHypothesis – a precise, testable statement about the expected outcome of the experiment.Read the following statements. Put an ‘A’ by those that are aims and an ‘H’ by those that are hypotheses. Does the hypothesis have one or two tails? Put 1 or 2.To investigate the relationship between food additives and hyperactive behaviour.To find out whether playing Grand Theft Auto makes boys aggressive.Boys who spend at least two hours a week playing Grand Theft Auto will score significantly higher on the “aggressive attitude” rating scale than boys who have never played Grand Theft Auto.An investigation into alcohol consumption and reaction time.To investigate whether a greater number of words will be remembered if they are presented in an organised way (e.g. alphabetically) than if they are listed randomly.More about hypothesesWhat’s the difference between these two hypotheses?Participants who read digits aloud will later recall a greater number of digits than participants who read the digits sub-vocally.There will be no difference between the number of digits recalled by participants who read them out loud and those who read them sub-vocally.Clearly one is a ___________________Hypothesis, one is a ___________________ Hypothesis.In the space below write your own definitions of both of these hypotheses.Research hypotheses state results are not due to chance and are significant in supporting the idea being investigated. The null hypothesis states that the results are a fluke, or more correctly, that they are due to chance. Just to confuse you the research hypothesis may be referred to by three other names. Write them here In the table below there is list of hypotheses. Write an N or an H beside them to show if they are the Null or the Experimental. If it is a Null rewrite it as an Experimental in the space opposite and vice versa. ‘Put a not in it’Null or experimental hypothesis?Hypothesis rewritten as N or HWhether or not a person has committed murder will have no affect on measurement of activity in the frontal lobes of the brainParticipants who are instructed to semantically process words will recall more words than participants who are instructed to visually process words.There will be no difference in the number of trigrams recalled after 18 seconds compared to the number recalled after 3 seconds.The number of trials a person has on an IQ test will not affect their performanceThere will be a difference in the number of French words retained after a year, between participants who learned over spaced lesson compared to participants who learned in intensive sessions.Fathers and mothers differ in the amount of physical play they engage in with their childrenFacial hair has no effect on estimates of age in menDoes your cat have 1 tail or 2? Read these 4 hypotheses. What do the first two have in common; how are the last two different?Participants who read digits aloud will later recall a greater number of digits than participants who read the digits sub-vocally.Children who spend the first two years of their lives in an institution will be rated less popular by their peers than children who spend the first two years of their lives in a family setting.There will be a difference in the number of digits recalled in the reading aloud condition compared to the sub-vocal condition.There will be a difference in the popularity ratings by peers between children who spent the first two years of their lives in an institution and children who spent them in a family setting.These two types of hypothesis are called one tailed and two tailed, or directional and non-directional.Write your own definition of both types in the following space Operationalising Variables This may sound complicated, but it is very straightforward.Operationalising just means making something clear or unambiguous; operationalising a variable is the process of devising a clear way of measuring something so that another person knows exactly what you have pare these two hypotheses:Students learn better earlier in the day.VSStudents will correctly recall more words out of a possible 20 when they are tested at 9.00am than when they are given the same test at 2.00pm.Here are some variables that psychologists might investigate.Try to make them clear and measurable, i.e. OPERATIONALISE them. Use the space below. You need to think about how you are going to measure things like alcohol consumption and what kind of memory test you are going to use.Girls do better at school than boysAlcohol increases reaction time (the time it takes to react)Short words are more easily remembered than long words…………………………………………………………………………………………………............…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................................................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................................................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................................................……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................................................…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….................................................................................HypothesesYou need to decide which word (from the list below) goes into which box. (You may need to fill one or both boxes). Note: Pps is an abbreviation of participantsDirectional One Tailed Two Tailed Non-Directional Null Hypothesis 1. There will be no significant difference in the number of words correctly recalled by those Pps who were asked to complete a distracter task prior to recalling a word list compared to Pps who recalled the word list without a delay.2. Pps in Condition (B) who were given a distracter task after memorising a word list will recall significantly fewer words than Pps in Condition (A) who recalled the word list immediately. 3. Significantly more words will be correctly recalled by Pps who are given an hierarchically organised word list to memorise than by Pps asked to memorise a randomly organised word list.4. There will be a significant difference in the number of words correctly recalled by those Pps who were asked to complete a distracter task prior to recalling a word list compared to Pps who recalled the word list without a delay.5. There will be a significant difference in the number of words correctly recalled by Pps given an hierarchically organised word list to memorise and recall than by Pps given a randomly arranged word list to memorise and recall.5. DesignThere are occasions when it is possible to use the same people all the way through an experiment but under other circumstances this is not possible and separate groups of individuals need to be used. The way in which the subjects (or participants) are ‘organised’ into groups is called the design of the experiment.Three experimental designs are commonly used:Independent groups: Testing separate groups of people. Each group is tested in a different condition, e.g. in an investigation into the effect of noise on ability to learn one group were given a speech to learn while the television was on and another group were given the same speech to learn in a silent room. The accuracy of their recital of the speech was compared.Repeated measures: Testing the same group of people in different conditions - the same people are used repeatedly, e.g. a group of participants was given a speech to learn while the television was on and were then tested on their recall. They were then given a speech to learn in a silent room and their performance compared with their first performance. Matched pairs: Testing separate groups of people i.e. - each member of one group is the same age, sex, or social background as a member of the other group. E.g. Hodges and Tizard wondered whether early institutionalization affects later social development, so each child who had spent the first 2 years of their life in an institution was matched with a comparison child of the same age, gender and social background who had grown up with their parents.Find out the meaning of the following terms that are important issues to consider in experimental design, and write them up in your glossary.Participant variablesOrder effectsPractice effectsFatigue effectsCounterbalance Complete the table below summarising the advantages and disadvantages of various experimental designs.DesignAdvantagesDisadvantagesRemedy ( if any )Repeated measures????Independent groups??????Matched pairs???1. What is the difference between a control group and an experimental group?2. What does it mean to say that a participant is randomly allocated to the various conditions in an experiment?3. In what way does a repeated measures design differ from an independent measures (group) design?4. Identify one disadvantage of the independent measures design.5. Your teacher conducts an experiment in class. Each student is given a set of anagrams to solve and the time to solve each one is taken. You find that some of the anagrams were of nouns and others were of abstract words, in no particular order.a) What was the IV?b) What design was this and what special precaution, associated with the design, has your teacher wisely taken and why?6. Again your teacher conducts an experiment. Students are in pairs. You time your partner while she learns a finger maze, first with the left hand, then with the right. She then times while you learn first with the right, then with the left.a) What design is this?b) What special precaution is taken and why?7) A field experiment was carried out to see if environmental cues can aid recall. A student ice hockey team learned a list of 20 unrelated words in an ice rink. Half the group were then taken to a library (control group) whilst the other half (experimental group) stayed in the ice rink. Both groups then had to recall as many of the 20 words as possible.The results are shown in the table below:Control group (Library)Experimental group (Ice rink)Mean number of wordsrecalled (out of 20)1016 (a) Which design is being used in this study?(1)...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................(b) Explain why this design is appropriate for this study.(2)...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4933950-6667506. SamplingSampling is the process of selecting participants to study from the target population (a specified section of humankind). Since the results of the study on the sample will be generalised back to the target population (through inference) samples should be as representative (typical) of the target population as possible. Samples should be of a sufficient size to represent the variety of individuals in a target population, but not so large as to make the study uneconomical in terms of time and resources. Random Sampling: Like the National Lottery, all members of the target population must stand an equal chance of being selected. Random sampling does not guarantee a representative sample, but the laws of probability predict that the chances of selecting a biased sample are minimal. For example: -Putting the names of every member of the target population into a hat and pulling a sample out (without looking!).Stratified Sampling: The target population is divided into sub-sets e.g. age, gender, class etc. and a random sample is taken from these sub-sets. This ensures that the sample is representative of the population.For example: -If a target population consisted of 75% women and 25% men, a sample of 20 would include 15 women and 5 men.Opportunity Sampling, also known as Convenience Sampling: Most samples in ‘A’ level research are selected in this way. It is the simplest form of sampling and involves selecting anyone who is available from the target population. An effort may be made not to be biased, by selecting equal numbers of males and females, for example.Self-Selected Sampling: Participants volunteer. However, sometimes participants do not consciously volunteer. For example, passers by who become involved in field studies i.e. in bystander intervention studies. Systematic Sampling: Participants are selected from a list at fixed intervals e.g. every fifth person. Market researchers often use this method.What is the difference between a quota sample and a stratified sample?7. Validity & Reliability The following factors are important for psychologists to consider when designing an investigation:Often psychologists carry out a ‘dress rehearsal’ of their study before they go out into the world and conduct the research on a large number of people. This is called doing a pilot study. This enables the researcher to check for design faults. This is a routine procedure especially used when carrying out research using questionnaires.It is very important for psychologists to be sure that their research is producing reliable results. Reliability refers to the consistency of results – in science this might mean how accurate a ruler is at measuring, or how good a calculator is at adding up. In psychology it means would a test, marked by two different people, be scored in an identical way? Or, if a study is replicated would the findings be similar?Reliability, on its own, is not enough. Studies should be measuring what they are intended to measure. If a researcher wanted to measure IQ would he do it with a ruler? Validity refers to whether or not a test measures what it was designed to measure.For example, do IQ tests really measure ‘intelligence’ or do they measure performance on the test?There are many different forms of reliability and validity which researchers need to be concerned with. The main ones are shown below:Forms of reliabilityScorer reliability – how closely different people who are marking a test or performance agree with each otherTest-retest reliability – if participants take the same test twice, would they get similar results?One aspect of reliability involves assessing the consistency of measurement between different observers (Inter-rater reliability). Another involves achieving consistent measuring instruments when developing tests.Equivalent Forms Reliability – If repeating a test exactly is not possible would results in a similar test be comparable?Split-half Reliability – If a test is of equal difficultly throughout, do scores at the beginning compare to those at the end?Reliability means the measurement is consistent and stable.ValidityThe validity of a psychological measure is the extent to which it measures what it is intended to measure. For example does an IQ test actually tell us how intelligent a person is? Or is it actually measuring something else?Measurements and findings are valid if they are accurate.Forms of validityInternal validity - the extent to which study is free of design faults, which may affect results.Ecological validity this is a type of ‘external validity’. This means the extent to which generalisation can be made from the test environment to other situations.Face validity – does the test LOOK like it is measuring what it is supposed to be measuring?Predictive Validity – Predicts future performance with some accuracy e.g. GCSE results predict possible A level results.Concurrent Validity – Compares two methods of testing to see if results are comparable. This is often used to compare a new test with an established on. e.g. new AS/A2 system with old A level system.Construct Validity – Comparing results with expectations. For example, teachers compare your exam results with their expectations. If there is a major difference it could suggest a problem with examination marking!The greater number of ways a test has been shown to be reliable and valid, the more confident we can be when using it as a research tool and the more confident we can be about our results and conclusions. Which of the following terms refers to the consistency of a test – a test that produces the same results on different occasions? Jan 2009A ValidityB CounterbalancingC ReliabilityD ObjectivityQualitative & Quantitative DataQualitative vs. Quantitative Data What is the difference between these two types of data?Quantitative data is: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Qualitative data is: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Quantitative data aims to produce results that can be easily compared and analysed. Quantitative data produces results that can go through statistical tests to see if they are significant. Qualitative data aims to produce results which are meaningful. It aims to produce data which is in a natural setting, to understand phenomena from the point of view of an individual, and to understand the meanings that people give to their experiences. Qualitative data is not just about “thoughts and feelings” although these can be examples of qualitative data. However if we asked someone to rate their feelings on a scale from 1-5, the result would be a number which would make it quantitative data. TASKDecide whether the following types of data are qualitative or quantitative. Participants’ reaction times on a driving simulatorRecollection of a traumatic childhood eventAn unstructured observation of children playingA questionnaire with “yes/no” answersA questionnaire with open questionsA record of an incident of bullyingA tally chart of people’s favourite colourThe number of words correctly remembered in a testThe reasons people go on holidayTake one of the qualitative types of data, and explain what you would do to turn it into quantitative data. Decide whether the following are strengths or weaknesses of qualitative or quantitative data. Can produce graphs from the datastrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeCan oversimplify complex behaviourstrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeRepresents the complexity of human experiencestrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeCan gain access to thoughts and feelingsstrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeMore likely to be objectivestrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeParticipants have freedom of expressionstrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeEasy to analyse as averages and ranges can be producedstrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeData is rich and detailedstrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeResults from different studies can be compared with each otherstrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeDifficult to draw conclusions and detect patternsstrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeCan be affected by subjective analysisstrength/weakness qualitative/quantitativeEasier to draw conclusions from datastrength/weakness qualitative/quantitative1689103441700Phenomena can be forced to fit a set measurestrength/weakness qualitative/quantitative9. Descriptive StatisticsDescriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data.Descriptive statistics are typically distinguished from inferential statistics. With descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is or what the data shows. With inferential statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone. Descriptive Statistics are used to present quantitative data in a manageable form. In a research study we may have lots of measures. Or we may measure a large number of people on any measure. Descriptive statistics help us to simply large amounts of data in a sensible way. Each descriptive statistic reduces lots of data into a simpler summary. Within descriptive statistics we look at Measures of Central Tendency and Measures of Dispersion. Measures of Central tendency include: the mean, median and mode. Measures of Dispersion include the range.We use statistics such as the mean, median and mode to obtain information about a population from our sample set of observed values. (The population is the whole set of items under consideration.? E.g. If the information on the differences in male and female parking skills in the UK is required, then the population is all male and female drivers in the UK).The mean utilizes all numbers in a set to express the measure of central tendency; however, outliers can distort the overall measure.The median may be more useful than the mean when there are extreme values in the data set as it is not affected by the extreme values but it may not adequately represent the full set of numbers. The mode is useful when the most common item, characteristic or value of a data set is required. The mode may be less influenced by outliers and is good at representing what is "typical" for a given group of numbers, but may be useless in cases where no number occurs more than once.The range is the difference between the highest and the lowest values. The range can sometimes be misleading when there are extremely high or low values How to calculate them!MeanThe mean is the average score. To calculate the mean we must have at least ordinal data.Then we add up all the values in the group and divide them by the number of values that there are.E.g. 135 + 109 + 95 + 121 + 140 = 600 = 120 seconds 5 5Advantages of calculating the mean: By calculating the mean of two sets of scores, you can estimate population parameters, which are used as a basis for parametric tests. Disadvantages of calculating the mean: if you have one extreme score it can distort the mean giving an unrepresentative figure. However extreme scores in both directions tend to cancel each other out.MedianUsing the median allows us to get around the problem of extreme scores. The median is the central value of the set. Again the data must be at least ordinal. If we have an odd number of values in our set then the median is very easy to find.i.e. 95, 109, 121, 135, 140The median is 121If there is an even number of values in the set, we calculate the median as follows:i.e. 95, 109, 121, 135, 140, 480 The median is 121 + 135 = 128 2 However, if we have any tied values in the set, things get a little trickier and there is a whole, complicated formula.Advantages: is easier to calculate than the mean. Is unaffected by extreme scores in one direction. Can be obtained where extreme values are unknownDisadvantages: Doesn’t take into account the exact values of each item. Can’t be used in estimates of population parameters. If values are few, can be unrepresentative: i.e. 2, 3, 5, 98, 112, the median would be 5 ModeIf we had data on a nominal scale we can use the mode to tell us the most frequently occurring value.i.e. 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8Since five occurs six times in all, this is the mode, which is more than any of the other numbers occur. If you have a set of numbers where two scores share the highest number of occurrencesi.e. 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 10, 10,Then there are two modes, 7 and 8. This set is said to be bi-modal.NB: the mode is not the number of times that a value occurs, but the value itself!Advantages: Shows the most important value of a set. Is unaffected by extreme values in one directionDisadvantages: Doesn’t take into account the exact value of each item. Not useful for relatively small sets of values, where there are several modes.RangeTo calculate the range, subject the largest number (score) from the smallest number (score) and add 1. Easy isn’t it… Inferential Statistics: In psychology we use statistics to tell us if our research results were simply a fluke or if our IV really had an effect on our DV Or If we did a correlation, if there really is a significant relationship between our variables (i.e. tidiness and parental strictness) or is it just a flukeImagine you have just done an experiment to see if drinking caffeine affects time taken to solve a crossword puzzle.Your IV is caffeine or no caffeineYour DV is time taken to solve the puzzleYou work out the mean scores (average) of each group and put the data on a bar chart19050298450Bar Chart showing the Mean scores of time taken to solve the crossword puzzle44291252628265‘eyeballing’ the data, it looks like there’s a difference but we want to be sure that our results are not just a fluke...In fact we want to be 95% sure our results were not due to chance. So we do a statistical test to find out.In psychology we have decided that being 95% sure our results are not due to chance is the percentage that we will use. There are a number of reasons for this...For example we could set our percentage lower and say that we only wanted to be 80% sure our results were not due to chance. However, if we set our percentage lower we could end up saying our results are significant when they really aren’t because there’s such a larger margin for error – 20% possibility that our results were due to chance (this is called a Type One error)Similarly if we wanted to be VERY sure our results were not due to chance we could say we wanted to be 99% sure our results were not due to chance (only a 1% or less margin for error). However, we then have a possibility that we say our results are not significant when in fact they are because we’ve set our level of significance too high – been too stringent (this is called a Type Two error).So, we stick with being 95% sure our results are not due to chance. Put another way this means that there’s a 5% possibility or less that our results are due to chance. You can write this a number of ways and you need to know this for the exam!!Most commonly it is shown as a decimal p≤0.05 this means there is a 5% chance or less that the results were a fluke. In other words we are 95% sure our results are significant and NOT due to chance.Now we have to actually do a statistical test. If we are doing a correlation we would use Spearman’s RhoIf we are doing an independent measures design experiment (like my caffeine experiment0 we would use a Mann Whitney U testImagine you have collected your correlational data (for example on parental strictness and tidiness) and completed all your calculations on your Spearman’s Rho equation (or got the statistics package on the computer to do it for you - see iLearn/NLN materials). You will end up with a number.This is called the observed value or calculated value because you have just calculated it!For example rs = 0.654You now need to compare this number against a table of numbers (critical values) which will tell you if your results are statistically significant or not...5% chance of it being a flukeIn the exam you might find a table that looks something like this (you will be given the observed value)Table of critical values for Spearman’s testN= No of ppsp≤0.052.5% chance of it being a flukep≤0.025N=200.3800.447(The observed/calculated value of Rho must be equal to or greater than the critical/table value to be significant)Remember our level of significance is p≤0.05 so this is the number you need to choose. This number is called the critical valueYou should also be told how to compare the observed and critical values in the exam.So we need our observed value of rs = 0.654 to equal or exceed the critical value of 0.380.As 0.654 is greater than 0.380 we can say our data is statistically significant !!!≤So we will ACCEPT our alternate hypothesis and REJECT the null hypothesis. We can say there is a 5% possibility or less that our results are due to chanceFinally...if results are NOT statistically significant i.e. your observed value is less than the critical value (for a correlation), we would write this as p≥0.05 meaning.......................................................................................................................................11. Survey: Questionnaire & InterviewA survey is a method of data collection commonly used in social psychology. It is an umbrella terms to describe different research methods such as questionnaire and interview. These are used to investigate research questions by gathering self report data. The main way of gathering this data is by asking questions. These can be asked in a number of ways, including; open and closed questions.What is the difference between a questionnaire and an interview?Describe an open question and give an exampleDescribe a closed question and give an exampleDescribe the three types of interviewConstructing questionsThere are a number of things you need to consider when constructing questions. Read the top tips below and see how well you did when you constructed your questions.ClarityThis is probably the area that causes the most number of mistakes in questionnaires. The questions must be clear, to the point and unambiguous. Using scales such as the one below are open to interpretation:very oftenDon’t use this one!!!It’s rubbish!oftensometimesrarelyneverIt is better to quantify the choices such as:Use this one!!!It’s much better every day or more2-6 times a weekabout once a weekabout once a monthneverBe careful to avoid using colloquial or ethnic expressions that may not be used equally by all PpsLeading QuestionsA leading question is one that forces or implies a certain type of answer. It is easy to make this mistake not in the question, but in the choice of answers. A closed format question must supply answers that not only cover the whole range of responses, but are also equally distributed throughout the range. The following range illustrates this quite wellsuperbexcellentgreatgoodfairnot so greatA less blatant example would be a Yes/No question that asked:Is this the best chocolate bar you have ever tasted?In the above case, even if the participant loved the chocolate bar, but had a favourite that was preferred she would be forced to answer no.A better way would be to ask the same question but supply a number of choices, such as the Likert scale:Strongly agreePartially agreeNeither agree or disagreePartially disagreeStrongly disagreeContingency QuestionsThese are the questions which should only be answered by some respondents, therefore must be accompanied by clear instructions to avoid frustrating and confusing the respondent.There are two methods for ordering contingency questions:Have you ever smoked?YesNoIf yes how many times a day do you smoke?Once2-5 timesOver 5 timesHave you ever smoked?YesPlease answer questions 6 – 10 NoPlease skip questions 6 – 10 Go directly to number 11Rank order responsesThis gives participants to rank the order of activities For example:Instructions: Please rank-order the following activities, in terms of what you prefer to do most in nursing. Write 1 before the activity you prefer most; 2 before the activity you prefer next and so on. Please rank order all the listed activities_____________Bedside care_____________Administration of the ward_____________Giving medications_____________Teaching patients_____________Writing reports_____________Supervising students4629150-314325What to avoid when creating questions for questionnaires and surveysComplexity - ensure the questions aren’t too complex for your participants to understandTechnical Terms – avoid technical terms unless your specific target population are familiar with them i.e. don’t use medical terminology unless your target population are doctorsAmbiguities – how clear are your questions? (if they are ambiguous i.e. unclear, the data you collect may not be reliable or valid)Double-barrelled items – don’t ask two questions in one sentence – how will you know which one your participant has answered?Negatives - It’s generally best to avoid using negatives when asking questions (unless you want to avoid your participants just replying ‘yes’ all the way down – this is called a response set) e.g. Do you not not like ironing?Emotive language – don’t use emotive language that could upset or offend your participants e.g. do you think the current government are callously cutting benefits from those who need them the most?Don’t use leading questions!Don’t invade people’s privacy e.g. How often do you have sex?3390900283845Ensure that your questions are answerable19050255905QUESTIONNAIRE EXERCISEBelow is a TERRIBLE plan for a survey, the like of which you would never produce. This is simply to give you practice in being critical and recognising common pitfalls with this method. Task: Go through it and note all the deliberate faults and say WHY they are wrong (and don't ever do them yourself.). N.B. don’t forget to use your ‘what to avoid’ handout to help you! Title Survey to investigate attitudes to out of town shopping.Aim of survey.To show that the pace of modern life causes people to prefer outoftown hypermarket shopping to local small supermarket shopping.Name:Telephone number:1/How many times did you shop here in 2010? 05, 510, 1015, 1520, 2025, 2530, 3035, 3540, 4045, 4550, 5055, 5560, 6570, 7580, 8085, 8590, 9095, 95100.2/What is your annual income?3/ Do you live in here?4/ Why do you prefer outoftown shopping?5/ Have you ever shoplifted? 6/ Do you think those people who shoplift are scumbags?7/ Do you think shopping centres should be open longer hours on Sundays and offer a free home-delivery service Agree/disagree8/ Do you have a busy life? YES / NO? 9/ Do you think shoppers should not not be allowed to eat outside of the cafe areas?10/Do you think socioeconomic and political factors are militating against centralising forces in the retailmerchandising sector?11/ Would you describe yourself as a) upper class b)middle class or c)lower class?12/ Do you shop a) every day or b) once a week?13/ Recent research by scientists in several universities shows that people are too busy nowadays. Do you agree?14/ If you had a lot of shopping to do and several appointments in one evening and the car had broken down and you had just been paid, would you consider taking a taxi or a bus to an outoftown shopping centre because everything is under one roof or would you feel that it would be more sensible to do your shopping in the towncentre where you have to visit the greengrocers, bakers etc. separately? YES/NODo you think the results will be RELIABLE?...VALID?Give reasons! (A03 task)12. Case StudyUsing your text books define what a case study is, using bullet pointsEvaluate case studies using the following key termsAdvantagesExplanationDisadvantagesExplanationValidityControlEthicsGeneralisabilityUniqueReplicability13. Longitudinal vs Cross-sectionalDefine what is meant by a longitudinal studyEvaluate longitudinal studiesStrengthsWeaknessesDefine what is meant by a cross-sectional studyEvaluate cross-sectional studiesStrengthsWeaknesses4832985-90678014. Correlation: positive, negative, strength of relationship-29146534925Correlations look for a relationship between two variables. This is not to say that one thing causes another, simply that one thing varies in accordance with another. For example there is a relationship between the colour of grass and ice-cream sales. The more yellow the grass gets the more ice cream is sold. However, in this case the causal variable is obviously temperature.Psychologists have suggested a correlation between watching TV violence and aggressive behaviour, this does not suggest that TV violence causes aggressive behaviour simply that there is a relationship between them.What other variables might cause aggressive behaviour?Correlations are shown on scatter graphs. Correlation co-efficients tell us about the strength of the relationship. A co-efficient of +1 is a perfect positive correlation, -1 a perfect negative correlation and 0 no correlation. Sketch these three scattergrams below:-Positive Correlation +1Negative Correlation -1No correlation 0-895350-906780Observation: naturalistic, participant, non-participant, overt & covert Define the following NaturalisticStructured ParticipantNon-ParticipantOvertCovertEvaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the different types of observationNaturalisticStructured ParticipantNon-ParticipantOvertCovert4538980-808355Evidence of Practice 1: Social Approach – questionnaire (exam 1)Social identity is a person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership(s).Tajfel proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team etc.) which people belonged to were an important source of pride and self-esteem. ?Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world. In order to increase our self-image we enhance the status of the group to which we belong. We can also increase our self-image by discriminating and being prejudice against the out group (the group we don’t belong to). Therefore we divided the world into “them” and “us” based through a process of social categorisation (i.e. we put people into social groups). This is known as in-group (us) and out-group (them). ?Social identity theory states that the in-group will discriminate against the out-group to enhance their self-image.The central hypothesis of social identity theory is that group members of an in-group will seek to find negative aspects of an out-group, thus enhancing their self-image.Research aim: To see whether people in one age group hold negative attitudes about people in the other age groups OR to see whether Park College Students and EVOC students show ingroup favouritism Write your hypothesis below.Experimental Hypothesis H1:........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Null Hypothesis H0:........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................What sampling method was used?How many male pps were there?How many female pps were there?Who were your pps? Age range occupation target populationWhat is the research method Procedure – consider how pps were chosen/briefing/ethics/where pps completed their questionnaires/ were they alone when they did/how long were they given to do it/debriefing........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................You need to include both open-ended and closed questions so that you get qualitative and quantitative data. (NB: use Likert scales for your closed questions)Please ensure you teacher checks all your questions for ethics before you give them to your participants.Use this space to write your final questions (use a spare piece of paper for your planning)................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................PpsIn-group postiveIn-group negativeOut-group positiveOut-group negative1234567891011121314151617181920Look at the data and see if you can see any patterns. Calculate the mean/median/mode and range for each column of dataIn-group...Out-group...Attitude scorePostive Negative Positive NegativeMean Median Mode RangeNow look at your qualitative data – can you see any themes?Use the space below to report your qualitative data ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Conclusions Have you supported your hypothesis?........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................EvaluationEvaluate the validity of your findings (use your textbook to help you0 ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Evidence of Practice 2: Cognitive Approach – 47580270experiment (exam 1)In 1975, Craik & Tulving conducted an experiment in which participants were shown a list of 60 words.They were then asked to recall certain words by being shown one of three questions, each testing a different level of processing, similar to:Was the word in capital letters or lower case? (Tests structural processing SHALLOW PROCESSING)Does the word rhyme with (another word)? (Tests phonemic/auditory processing, as the participant has to listen to the word judge whether it rhymes with another word)Does the word fit in the following sentence...? (Tests semantic processing; understanding the meaning of the word DEEP PROCESSING/ ELABORATE REHEARSAL)Out of another larger list, the participants were asked to pick out the appropriate word, as the original words had been mixed into this list.FindingsCraik & Tulving found that participants were better able to recall words which had been processed more deeply - that is, processed semantically, supporting level of processing theoryThis research will be a partial replication of the Craik & Tulving experiment – using just the visual and semantic levels of processing.Write a directional hypothesis for this experiment, based on the Levels of Processing TheoryHi.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Write a null hypothesisHo............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................What was the Independent Variable?....................................................................................................................................................What was the Dependent Variable?....................................................................................................................................................What apparatus were used to conduct the experiment (i.e. word lists etc)....................................................................................................................................................Which design did we use?....................................................................................................................................................What are the advantages of using this design for this specific experiment?........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................What are the disadvantages of using this design for this specific experiment?........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Which sample method was used?....................................................................................................................................................Was it representative? Please justify your answerYes/No because.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Describe in detail, the procedure of this experiment (include the following – please tick each bullet point when you have included it) when was it conductedwhere was it run who were the pps what ethical considerations were given any standardised instructionswhat materials were used and how (state exactly i.e. how they were placed on the table)how long was given for each part of the experiment what control was there over situational variablesdebrief?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................How could the procedure of this experiment have been improved? (i.e. think counterbalancing etc)........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Use this space to put your raw data from the experimentSemantically processed How many words recalled: ............................How many Distractor words ‘recalled’..........................Visually processedHow many words recalled: ...................................How many Distractor words ‘recalled’..................................Please calculate the mean, median, mode and range for your dataVisualMean...................................Median...............................Mode.................................. Range.................................SemanticMean...................................Median...............................Mode.................................. Range.................................65722526670Please display your findings on a bar chart. Make you give your chart a descriptive title and label it clearlyExplain your findings and state whether or not you supported your hypothesis........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Write a short paragraph looking at issues of reliability, validity, objectivity, and experimenter effects and relating them directly to THIS EXPERIMENT (not all of these issues may be relevant), use your Science Works booklet and your textbook to help you........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................You have a list of words on the left side of the page to memorise. In order to do this, Please write ‘Yes’ if the word is written in CAPITAL letters or ‘No’ if it isn’t. If you have time you may go through again and check your answersKey wordPlease write ‘Yes’ if the word is written in CAPITAL letters or ‘No’ if it isn’t. MONKEYhouse LAMPCHEESErivervideopostcardMOUSETROUSERSWINDOWcarrotCOMPUTERtelephoneBASKETTABLEundergroundGIRAFFE TWENTYfolderbrushYou have a list of words on the left side of the page to memorise. In order to do this, please write ‘yes’ in the box if the word would fit into the sentence and ‘no’ if it wouldn’t. If you have time you may go through again and check your answersKey wordSentenceWrite ‘yes’ in the box if the word would fit into the sentence and ‘no’ if it wouldn’tMonkeyHouse LampCheeseRiverVideoPostcardMouseTrousersWindowCarrotComputerTelephoneBasketTableUndergroundGiraffe TwentyFolderBrushThe ________ climbed a tree.It was dark in the _________ when they got home.The ________ was very muddy.They rolled the __________ down the hill.They went into the _________ and bought some tea.He sat and watched the same _______ for hours.She stirred her coffee with a _____________.The girl shrieked when she saw the _________.He wore his _________ on his head.She looked through the __________ and saw a cat.She made a lovely chocolate cake using _________.He wanted to email but his ________ has a virus.He batted the ball with the _____________.She threw her rubbish into the _____________.He put his coffee on the __________.They climbed to the top of the ____________.A ____________ uses its long neck to reach the top of trees.‘That will be _________ pounds please’.He sat on the ___________, it was very comfy.She used a _________ to make her hair look silky smooth.Recognition test – please circle the words that you can recall from the previous list(N.B. do NOT put your name on this sheet!)PathMouseComputerChairMonkeyOfficeBridgeVideoBreadBabyPostcardRiverBananaCarrotToothbrushMountainWindowBrushButterTrousersMicrowaveTableTrainRazorLampGiraffeSurfCheeseBearHouseFolderUndergroundFlowerWashingLionTelephoneBasketTwentyTeethLakeNB: You need to learn this practical – ‘APRCE’ as you may be directly asked about it in the exam!Evidence of Practice 3: Psychodynamic Approach – correlation (exam 2)Aim: The aim of this practical is to examine the relationship between the tidiness of participants (as rated by themselves) and the perceived level of strictness of their parents. 41148001294130-11430036830Background: This practical is based on psychodynamic ideas, particularly those from Freud’s second psychosexual stage – the anal stage. According to Freud, fixation at this stage comes from too harsh or too lenient potty training. The personality traits of meanness, tidiness and stubbornness may be the result of over strict training. Generosity, untidiness, and being easy-going are thought, according to Freudian theory, to be the result of too ‘loose’ a parenting style. Research method: You will be doing a correlation (this is a statistical technique) using self-report data. We will be carrying this research out as a class exercise.Task one: In groups design four questions to find out how tidy a person isdesign four questions about parental strictness(make sure you word your questions sensitively)NB – each one must be scored using the following scaleSA = strongly agree, A = agree, DK = don‘t know, D = disagree, SD = strongly disagreeWe will now feedback your ideas to class and choose the best questions to use in our class questionnaireWhat ethical considerations must be taken into account?HOMEWORK TASK: type up the questionnaires – both questionnaires should be printed out on ONE sheet of paperEach person needs to get data from TWO participants (i.e. print it out twice)Bring all your data to class next lesson.You do NOT need to gather data on age or gender for this practicalOnce you have gathered your data we will score it.NB: Each participant will end up with two scores – one for the tidiness questionnaire and one for the questionnaire on parental strictnessYou need to complete the gap fill about your researchNow present the pps scores on a scattergram and ‘eyeball’ the data – does it look as if we have a significant correlation?Next we are going to perform a statistical analysis of the data to see if the data is statistically significant.write up the results of your analysis in the space providedNow you need to evaluate your researchNB: Don’t forget you MUST have PAIRS of scores for each participant!-11430016510Use this space to write your questionsTidiness Questions _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Parental Strictness questions ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________What is a correlation?We use a correlation when we want to look at the relationship between two things. For example, we might want to look at the relationship between stress and health and hypothesise that people who experience more stressful events in their life will have more health related problems. If we conducted a piece of research to test this and found a positive correlation, we could say that there is a relationship between the two variables, but we cannot say that one caused the other.Key points:You cannot state cause and effectWith a correlation, you look at the relationship between two variablesVariables are the things you are measuring, such as stress and healthA positive correlation is where participants who score highly on a stress questionnaire would also score highly on a health questionnaire i.e. those people who have experienced a lot of stress will also show high levels of health problems. Calculating the ranksTo calculate the ranks, take the scores from each test individually. Assign ranks ‘1’ to the lowest score and so on. If an even number of scores are the same then take the mid point between the middle two ranks and assign it to all of them. If there is an uneven number of scores sharing the same value then you take the middle rank and assign it to all of them. Example: Table AScoresRank766691031083644489.51.59.571.5To make life easy for yourself, write out the scores on a separate sheet of paper in order i.e. 3, 3, 6, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10. This will help you with the ranking. Alternatively, putting the data in a table like this may help you when you are working out the rankingScore336667891010Rank order12345678910Actual rank1.51.54446789.59.5NB: You must keep your scores in your main table in the original order. See Table ATwo Pps scored 3, which was the lowest score. Therefore these two scores would represent ranks 1 and 2. To calculate the shared rank, divide the score by 2. Therefore the rank for a score of 3 is 1.5.Three Pps share a score of 6, therefore this represents ranks 3, 4 and 5. To calculate the scared rank, take the middle value, which is 4.A. Participant numberB.Tidiness Score (x)C.Ranking for tidiness (xr)D. Parental Strictness Score (y)E.Ranking for strictness (yr)F.d(xr– yr)G.d21234567891011121314151617181920 d2= Calculating Spearman’s RhoThis is the equation used to calculate Spearman’s Rhors = 1 – 6 x d2 N(N2-1)We will be using an on-line statistics programme to do this calculation for us. We will then compare the observed (calculated) value that the stats programme gives us with the critical value on the table to see if the data is statistically significant.Collection of data involving two independent measures and analysis using a test of correlationState the hypothesis and null hypothesisHypothesis There will be a ………… …………….. ………….. between pps scores on the tidiness questionnaire and pps scores on the parental strictness questionnaireNull Hypothesis There will be no ……….. ………… between pps scores on the tidiness questionnaire and pps scores on the parental strictness questionnaireDescribe the two variables and how they were measuredVariable 1: …......…….. ……..............… measured by …………...........……(high score = very strict parentingVariable2:……............…... measured by …………........… ) (high score = very tidy)Give details of the sample used… pps – … male/… female ....................……… …………… of Park College students - Aged ……………Summarise the procedure you followed for this investigationParticipants were approached in the …………… ……………and asked if they would consent to take part research on Tidiness and Parental strictness. If they agreed, pps were briefed and asked to sign the consent form. They were then given the two questionnaires to fill in, in the ……………, in the presence of the researcher and the pps friends. Pps were given as much time as needed to fill in the questionnaires. Once completed, the questionnaires were collected in and pps were …………....… and ………....…….Present your data using a scattergram, visual displays and verbal summaries325120627380NB: the higher the score on the tidiness questionnaire = the more tidy/organised the person is. The higher the score on the parental strictness questionnaire = the more strict the parenting styleName the statistical test used to analyse your data(14)…………… ……………What were the results of the statistical analysis?rs = (15) ………Critical value for a one tailed test p≤ 0.05 = (16)……………Therefore the results(17)……………statistically significant at p≤ 0.05. Meaning there is a less than 5% possibility of the results occurring due to chanceConclusions/statements of significance relating to the hypothesisAs the results(18) ……………significant at p≤ 0.05, the null hypothesis can be (19)…………… and the alternative (20)……………, showing (21)……………between Tidiness and Parenting styleEvaluationYou now need to evaluate your research– For each of the following points you need to contextualise them – i.e. say how each point relates directly to your research!An advantage is that it can show a relationship that can be difficult to show by other methods _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Another advantage is that it is relatively easy to analyse_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________A weakness is that it only suggests a relationship – this type of research cannot say that one variable has caused another_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Another weakness is that it is only as useful as the measures taken – i.e. the method used to gather data for this report is self report (issues with self report) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Table of critical values for Spearman’s Rho (Rank) statistical testCritical values for one-tailed tests using ρ The entries in the table are the smallest values of ρ (to three decimal places) that correspond to one-tail probabilities≤5% (or 1%). The observed value is significant if it is equal to, or greater than, the value in the table. The exact significance level never exceeds the nominal value (5% or 1%). The table can also be used to provide 10% and 2% critical values for two-tailed tests for ρ. The asterisk indicates that significance at this level cannot be achieved in this case. n5%1%n5%1%?41.000??*18.401.550?5.9001.00019.391.535?6.829.94320.380.522?7.714.89321.370.509?8.643.83322.361.497?9.600.78323.353.48610.564.74524.344.47611.536.70925.337.46612.503.67826.331.45713.484.64827.324.44914.464.62628.318.44115.446.60429.312.43316.429.58230.306.42517.414.56640.264.368Critical values for two-tailed tests using ρ The entries in the table are the smallest values of ρ (to three decimal places) that correspond to two-tail probabilities≤5% (or 1%). The observed value is significant if it is equal to, or greater, than the value in the table. The exact significance level never exceeds the nominal value (5% or 1%). The table can also be used to provide 2.5% and 0.5% critical values for one-tailed tests for ρ. The asterisks indicate that significance at this level cannot be achieved in these cases. n5%1%n5%1%?4??*??*18.472.600?51.000??*19.460.584?6.8861.00020.447.570?7.786.92921.436.556?8.738.88122.425.544?9.700.88323.416.53210.648.79424.407.52111.618.75525.398.51112.587.72726.390.50113.560.70327.383.49214.538.67928.375.48315.521.65429.368.47516.503.63530.362.46717.488.61840.313.4053638550-504825?Evidence of Practice 4: Biological Approach - ExperimentAim: to investigate the difference in spatial skills abilities between males and females using a psychometric spatial skills testBackground: Spatial ability is required in technical and design jobs where drawings and plans are used such as architecture, surveying, engineering and design. It is also important in our everyday lives for things such as parking a car and map reading . Some men have long held that women are deficient in these skills. Many women have disagreed!Spatial skill is the ability to assess and orientate shapes and spaces.5493385343535Scientists from the University of Giessen, Germany, writing in the journal ‘Intelligence’ found a lack of the hormone testosterone affects spatial ability. Low testosterone levels are also linked to shorter wedding ring fingers.Could it be that spatial skills such as map reading and parking may be difficult for some women because they had too little testosterone in the womb?The researchers also looked at the length of the students' wedding and index fingers. In women, the two fingers are usually almost equal in length, as measured from the crease nearest the palm to the fingertip. In men, the ring finger tends to be much longer than the index. For one of the spatial tests, volunteers had to tell which of five drawings could not be rotated so it looked like the other four. The other test involved the ability to think in 3D by mentally "unfolding" a complex shape. 4829175260985Overall, men achieved higher scores in the tests than women. But women with the male pattern of finger length did better than those whose wedding finger was shorter. They also scored better on the numerical tests. what is meant by ‘spatial’ ability___________________________________________________________________Label the ring and index finger on the handWe are going to partially recreate this study.Task 1: Make a list of all the ethical considerations you will need to take into accountTask 2: Please write a directional experimental hypothesis (or maybe even 2!) and a null hypothesis Task 3: You are going to be participants in your own experiment– this is to save time! Task 4: As well as completing the spatial awareness test you will also need to record whether you are male or female and if your ring finger is longer or shorter or the same as your index finger.Experimental Hypothesis H1:........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Null Hypothesis H0:........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ProcedureParticipants were approached in the class and asked if they would.................................... to take part in a study on.......................... ..................................... Pps were briefed and gave verbal ............................. ........ Pps were then asked to stay quiet and given the spatial awareness task to complete. This consisted of a number of shape rotation tasks to see which shape matched a number of rotated alternatives. Pps were given 10 minutes to complete the test, which was timed. Participants were asked to write their sex – male/female on their answer sheet but not their name and the experimenter examined their own ring finger to see if it was shorter/longer/the same as their index finger. This was also marked on the answer sheet.Pps answers were then scored and a total obtained for each pp.What were the IVs?How was the DV measured?What sampling method was used?How many male pps were there?How many female pps were there?Who were your pps? Age range occupation target populationWhat is the research method? What is the research design?In general, what are the weaknesses of using the sampling method?In general, what are the strengths of using the sampling method?What are the weaknesses of the design in relation to THIS research?What are the strengths of the design in relation to THIS research?NB: this is going to be a quasi or natural experiment because the IV is naturally occurring!Table of Raw dataPpSex: M/FScoreLength of ring finger Shorter (Sh) / Longer (L)/same (S)123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536TotalMeasures of Central TendencyCalculate the mean, median, mode and for males and females spatial task scoresMalesFemalesMeanMedianModeMeasure of DispersionCalculate the range for males and females spatial task score MalesFemalesRange-238125639445Title............................................................................................................................................ This graph shows.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Use this graph paper to represent the mean scores of the two groups (male/female)We are now going to use iLearn and NLN resources to statistically analyse the data.Man Whitney U - What is it and when is it used?Unlike Spearman’s Rho for correlation, the Mann-Whitney U test is a test of ___________________. However, this test can only be used for an _____________________ measures design. The data must be at least ________________, (cannot be used for _________________ data).Which test would you use for repeated measures design?___________________________________At the end of the test, we are left with an observed value which we call U. To know if this is significant, we need two pieces of information:Did the study have a directional (one tailed) or non directional (two tailed) hypothesis?How many _________________ are in each group. We call this N1 and N2 (N1 is usually the smaller group)Using this information, we compare our observed value (the one you calculate) with the critical value on the table. If our observed value is equal to or ________________than the critical value, we accept the experimental hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. If the results are not statistically significant then we accept the Null and reject the experimental hypothesis.(NB: if our result is significant, but in the opposite direction than that which we predicted, i.e. girls are better at spatial awareness tasks than boys then we still have to reject the experimental hypothesis).Name the statistical test used to analyse the data.___________ __________________U testWhat where the results of your analysis.Calculated U (observed value)= _____Critical value for significance at 0.05 = ___________ (directional hypothesis)Calculated U is greater/less than the critical value of U. Therefore this _______significant at 5% level. P≤/≥0.05. This means the probability of the results being a fluke is greater or less than 5%. This means we are/are not 95% sure that the IV had an effect on the DV.State your conclusions, including statements of significance relating to the hypothesis.The experimental results were/were not significant at the 5% level therefore the experimental hypothesis can be ____________ and the null hypothesis__________. The results do not support/support the hypothesis that males perform better on spatial awareness tasks.NB: If the number on the table of critical values is lower than U (your observed or calculated value), it is not significant. If the number on the table of critical values is equal to or higher than U, then the result is significant. EvaluationValidityValidity refers to whether a test is actually measuring what we think it’s measuring. We are using a shape rotation test to measure spatial ability. This is certainly part of what spatial ability is.However, how far does it relate to how people use their spatial ability in their everyday life?................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................The setting was also not a natural one so the study lacks ............................... validity. A more valid way of measuring people’s spatial ability would be to: ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ReliabilityReliability: Reliability refers to the extent to which a test or other instrument is consistent in its measures. The test we used is a well established test, so we can say that it is reliable. CredibilityCredibility refers to how believable you find the research findings. The findings are credible because they are reliable – you would be likely to find similar results if you did them again. However, credibility also relates to validity. If the findings relate to real life then they are more credible.I feel the findings strongly relate to real lifeStrongly agreeStrongly disagree12345Why?.........................................................................................................................................................Generalisability This refers to how far the sample represents the target population. As our hypothesis states that males perform better on spatial awareness tasks, then we would need to look at our sample to see if it is representative of all males and femalesWho was the target population?__________________________________________________Was there an equal distribution of males and females?__________________________________________________Was the sample big enough for us to generalise our findings?___________________________________________________Was there a wide range of ages sampled?___________________________________________________Which sampling method was used (opportunity/self-selected samples) tend to be biased and therefore not representative__________________________________________________The sample represents the target population and therefore can be generalisedStrongly agreeStrongly disagree12345Write a paragraph evaluating your research. How could the research have been improved?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Past paper question June 200911 A study was carried out to investigate whether kicking off from the starting block with the right foot or left foot gave sprinters an advantage. 20 participants were asked to take part in two sprints; in one trial they kicked off with their left foot and in another with their right. It was found that, on average, kicking off with their right foot gave them an advantage of 80 ms (milliseconds).(a) Give a non-directional (two-tailed) experimental hypothesis for this study.(2)..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................(b) State the design used in the study.(1)..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................(c) State the independent variable (IV) for the study.(1)..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................(Total for Question 11 = 4 marks)Outline two strengths of the experimental method in general__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________(4 marks)Outline two weakness of the experimental method in general(4 marks)__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________What is the difference between a critical and an observed value?(2 marks)______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________4486275-314325Evidence of Practice 5: Biological Approach - ObservationAim: to investigate the difference in play preference in pre-school males and females Background: The differences in mothers' and fathers' interactions with their children, particularly in play situations, may influence toddlers' associations of specific behaviours with male and female genders. According to Eric Lindsey from Penn State Berks in the US, "It would appear that children in the same family have different experiences in their play interactions with their mothers and fathers. Such differences may teach children indirect lessons about gender roles and reinforced gender typed patterns of behaviour that they then carry into contexts outside of the family."We are going to investigate whether there are measurable differences in the way that boys and girls play. Our focus will be on the type of toys played with rather than the way the toys are played with. To start with we asked a number of people to come up with a list of toys that would be associated with boys in particular, like cars and construction tools. They also came up with a list of ‘girls toys’, like dolls and tea sets, and a list of ’gender neutral toys’ like phones and building bricks. Once we had agreed which toys we were going to identify as typically boys, girls and neural we created a check list consisting of 12 different types of toys. (see below).We decided to observe video footage of children playing to save time and because of ethical considerations! Task 1: write a directional Alternate and a null hypothesis Alternate Hypothesis H1:..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Null Hypothesis H0:..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ProcedureStandardized footage of a nursery was used. Participants were children who attended the same nursery school. .............................. ............................. ........................... would have been obtained for all children prior to filming. Parents would have been debriefed and allowed to review the footage taken. Prior to the observation a behaviour check list was created Play Behaviour............. playing with...BoysGirlsDolls/babies (G)a tea set (G)toy food (G)toy phone (N)Cars (B)toy garage (B)toy castle/soldiers (B)Bricks (N)dressing up clothes (G)soft toys (N)pretend shop (N)construction toys/ saws screw drivers, hammers (B)Before the observation commenced the observers agreed which toys could be considered typically boys’ toys, which were typically girls’ toys and which were gender neutral. There were 4 of each category. The behaviour sampling method used was .................................... ..............................................The footage was watched through once so that observers could agree on which children they were observing, and practice completing the observation check list. The film was then watched for a second time. A tally was put on the check list every time behaviour was observed. Results were then compared across different observers/raters to improve................................................. More than one observer was used to reduce.................................................... and to make the observation more ..................................................Time sampling Experimenter bias, objective, subjective event sampling, validity, inter rater reliability,What is Time Sampling?What are the strengths and limitations of Time Sampling?What is Event Sampling?What are the strengths and limitations of Event Sampling?Is this an overt or covert observation?What sampling method was used to obtain ppts?How would you describe the research method?Observable BehaviourInstances of behaviour for the Male Participant(Tally)Instances of behaviour for the Female Participant(Tally)Notes Gender consistentGender inconsistentGender NeutralMale pptsFemale pptsFrequency of gender specific playFrequency of gender In-consistent playFrequency of gender Neutral playTotal number of Behaviours recorded Use this graph paper to represent the differences in male typified vs female typified playTitle............................................................................................................................................-266700319405Ensure you label the axes.This graph shows that: .......................................................................................................................................Chi-squared Test - What is it and when is it used?Unlike Spearman’s Rho for ___________________, or the Mann-Whitney U which is a test of _______________, the Chi-Squared is a test of association . The data must be n_______________. ordinal nominal interval correlation association differenceAt the end of the test, we are left with an observed value which we call (chi square) χ2. The ‘df’ refers to Degrees of Freedom and is used for looking up the critical value in the table. To know if this is significant, we need both of these pieces of information. You will also need to consider whether your study had a directional (one tailed) or non directional (two tailed) hypothesis. Look at your hypothesis. Which did you use?_________________________________________Using this information, we compare our observed value (the one you calculate) with the critical value on the table. If our observed value is equal to or h______________ than the critical value, we accept the alternate hypothesis and reject the null hypothesis. If the results are not statistically significant then we accept the Null and reject the alternate hypothesisName the statistical test used to analyse the data.___________ __________________ testWhat where the results of your analysis.Calculated chi square value χ2 = ________ df = _______Critical value for significance at 0.05 = ___________ (directional hypothesis)χ2 is greater/less than the critical value. Therefore this _________significant at 5% level. P≤/≥0.05. This means the probability of the results being a fluke is greater / less than 5%. Is it possible that we can be even more certain that 95%? Could we be 99% certain ..how would you know?Upper critical values of chi-square distribution with degrees of freedom Probability of exceeding the critical value 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.001 1 2.706 3.841 5.024 6.635 10.828 2 4.605 5.991 7.378 9.210 13.816 3 6.251 7.815 9.348 11.345 16.266 4 7.779 9.488 11.143 13.277 18.467 5 9.236 11.070 12.833 15.086 20.515State your conclusions, including statements of significance relating to the hypothesis.The results of our observation were/were not significant at the 5%/1% level therefore the alternate hypothesis can be _________________ and the null hypothesis______________________. The results do not support/support the hypothesis that males and females play with different types of toys.Evaluation - GRAVE..CGeneralisability: This refers to how far the sample represents the target population. Who was the target population? Was the sample big enough for us to generalise our findings? Was there a wide range of ages sampled?Reliability: This refers to the extent to which a test or other instrument is consistent in its measures. Observations are often highly unreliable as information may be missed, or miss interpreted, and behaviours may be viewed differently according to the observers own past experience. Using video is one way to improve consistency. Suggest one other way, and explain how you could use this to improve the reliability of your observation.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Validity: Validity refers to whether the observation check list is actually measuring what we think it’s measuring. As observational raters, we are all affected by our own preconceptions, upbringings, current trends and cultural and social norms. To what extent did your observations measure gender specific play behaviours? ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................The setting was a natural one so the study has ............................... validity. However the participant’s behaviour may have been influenced by the presence of the video camera. How could this have been overcome? ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Application: – was this observation useful? How could we apply these findings? ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Ethical: Was this observation ethical? ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Does this observation have credibility?.......................................................................................................... ................
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