White Plains Public Schools



Science, Technology, and a New Way of Thinking WHAP/Napp

“Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), an outstanding Polish astronomer, was commissioned by Pope Paul III to devise a new calendar that would correct the errors of the Julian calendar. The Julian calendar was based on a 365 ¼ -day year, while the actual time it takes the earth to circle the sun is eleven minutes and fourteen seconds less. So, the calendar year was continuously losing time, just a few minutes each year, but by the sixteenth century this amounted to about ten days. The pope commissioned Copernicus to analyze the astronomy underlying the calendar.

In the sixteenth century, people accepted the model of the second-century C.E. Greek astronomer Ptolemy showing the earth at the center of the universe. The sun, the moon, the planets, and the stars went around it. It was a geocentric or earth-centered model of the universe. As a mathematician, Copernicus began tracking the movements of all these bodies. He was able to fashion a mathematical system that showed the earth at the center of the universe, as accepted belief had it, but he also found a much simpler, though still complicated, formula that showed the sun, not the earth, at the center of the solar system. His new formulation also showed the earth turning on its axis every twenty-four hours rather than having the entire cosmos revolve around the earth. As a rule, scientists faced with more than one workable explanation choose the simpler, and with his new, simpler model of a solar system or a heliocentric model, Copernicus could explain the calendrical difficulties that had been his principal assignment. But this new explanation would land him in serious trouble with the Church, and he knew it.

The concept of the earth at the center of the universe as taught by Ptolemy had been adopted as the official doctrine of the Catholic Church because it was consistent with biblical passages (Joshua 10:13, Ecclesiastes 1:4-5) that spoke of the sun’s circle around the earth. In the end, Copernicus stuck to the principles of his mathematical commitments and his conscience. He presented the truth as he understood it, but he published his complete findings only on his deathbed. They created much less stir than might have been expected, since they were published as a mathematical study, comprehensible only to the most learned astronomers and mathematicians of his day. ” ~ The World’s History

|1. The scientist who first proposed that the sun was at the center of |3. The Copernican system was accepted by many scientists in the late |

|the planetary system was |1700s because |

|(A) Nicolaus Copernicus. |(A) Most people believed that the Copernican system is correct and the|

|(B) Galileo. |majority viewpoint rules. |

|(C)Paracelsus. |(B) Predictions of planetary motions based on the Copernican system |

|(D) Johannes Kepler. |were verified empirically and proved to be incredibly accurate. |

|(E) Tycho Brahe. |(C) Direct evidence that the earth rotates and the planets revolve |

| |around the sun came with the launching of the first unmanned rockets. |

|2. Copernicus carried out his observations in |(D) A committee of scientists certified that the Copernican system is |

|(A)Poland. |correct in 1781. |

|(B) Wales. | |

|(C) England. | |

|(D) France. | |

|Key Words/ |I. New Way of Thinking |

|Questions |A. Humanism, Renaissance idea: Sense potential of every individual |

| |B. Dante (1265-1321) wrote Divine Comedy in Italian (vernacular) not Latin |

| |C. Machiavelli wrote The Prince (1513), secular and pragmatic political treatise: “It is better to be feared than |

| |loved,” power by any means necessary |

| |II. The Renaissance |

| |A. 1450 to 1559; Location: Italian City-States – wealth from trade |

| |B. Key Ideas: Humanism and Secularism…Key Artists: Michelangelo, Da Vinci, Raphael…Shakespeare/England, Cervantes/Spain,|

| |Montaigne/ France |

| |C. Renaissance means “rebirth”… a revival of classical Greek/Roman ideas |

| |III. Johann Gutenberg |

| |A. In mid-1400s, Gutenberg invented the printing press |

| |B. Prior: long, laborious to create books thus expensive – most did not read |

| |C. Now books were easier to produce and affordable - literacy increased |

| |IV. The Reformation |

| |A. Medieval Church: unifying, powerful force with pope as intermediary |

| |B. When church needed to finance projects plus, sold indulgences |

| |C. An indulgence was a paper to purchase to reduce time in purgatory (sinner would expiate or make amends for sins and |

| |then enter heaven) |

| |D. Land-owning nobles were resentful of church and its wealth and power |

| |E. Selling of indulgences suggested the corrupt nature of the church to some |

| |V. Martin Luther |

| |A. A professor at the University of Wittenberg: posted his Ninety-five Theses directed against the selling of |

| |indulgences in 1517 |

| |B. Claimed source of spiritual authority was not the church but scripture |

| |C. After Diet of Worms in 1520, Luther refused to recant, excommunicated, and Lutheranism was formed in defiance of |

| |Roman Catholic Church |

| |D. John Calvin from France led a Protestant group by preaching an ideology of predestination or that God had |

| |predetermined individual’s destiny |

| |E. Henry VIII of England broke with Roman church in 1534 because pope refused him a divorce; established Church of |

| |England (Anglican) |

| |F. All Protestants rejected papal authority and believe in faith alone |

| |VI. Catholic Counter-Reformation |

| |A. Council of Trent, sitting irregularly in the mid-1500s, Roman Catholic church reformed – abolished sale of |

| |indulgences but reaffirmed doctrines |

| |B. Saint Ignatius Loyola founded Society of Jesus (Jesuits), a monastic order dedicated to participation in world and |

| |missionary activity |

| |C. Inquisition was a Catholic court to enforce conformity/punish heretics |

| |VII. Commercial Revolution |

| |From self-sufficient town-centered to a capitalistic nation |

| |VIII. The Scientific Revolution |

| |A. Use of reason, observation, and experimentation or Proof for Truth |

| |B. Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543): heliocentric or sun-centered universe |

| |C. Galileo used telescope to prove Copernicus |

| |D. Isaac Newton (1642-1727): all motion could be described by mathematics |

|Which of the following does NOT belong in a list of Catholic doctrines|Where did Luther’s movement first take root? |

|rejected by Martin Luther? |France |

|Papal authority |England |

|Granting of indulgences |Spain |

|Monasticism |Italy |

|Priestly celibacy |Germany |

|Acceptance of the Holy Trinity | |

| |Which label best characterizes the Italian Renaissance? |

|Which group traces its roots to the Catholic Reformation, sometimes |A political movement |

|referred to as the Counter-Reformation? |A cultural movement |

|Benedictine monks |A religious movement |

|Coptic Christians |A mass movement |

|Jesuits |A global movement |

|Liberation theologians | |

|Calvinists |Who was associated with the Italian Renaissance? |

| |Plato |

|Who is credited with bringing awareness of the heliocentric nature of |Galileo |

|the solar system into Western civilization? |Niccolo Machiavelli |

|Aristotle |Pirandello |

|Galileo |Vesalius |

|Columbus | |

|Copernicus |Who was responsible for the invention of movable type in the West? |

|Descartes |Thomas Aquinas |

| |Albrecht Durer |

|Which of the following thinkers established the principles of objects |John Harvey |

|in motion and defined the forces of gravity? |Johannes Gutenberg |

|Descartes |Nicolaus Copernicus |

|Rousseau | |

|Newton | |

|Bacon | |

|Galileo | |

Thesis Statement: Change Over Time: Western Europe: 476 – 1750

Analyze cultural changes and continuities in Western Europe from 476 to 1750 C.E.

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The following terms, people, and events are important to your understanding. Define each one on a separate sheet of paper.

Absolute monarchy Adam Smith Mary Wollstonecraft

Anglican Church Jean Calvin Predestination

Catholic Reformation Jesuits Cervantes

95 Theses Indulgences Johannes Gutenberg

Martin Luther Protestantism Isaac Newton

Deism Lutheranism Henry VIII

Capitalism Mercantilism Glorious Revolution

Leonardo da Vinci Niccolo Machiavelli Humanism

Northern Renaissance Copernicus Elizabeth I

Scientific Revolution Capitalism Witchcraft

Writing Prompt:

Describe the major changes in Western Europe in this era.

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Reading: The Commercial Revolution

“Western economic structure underwent fundamental redefinition. Greater commercialization was spurred by substantial price inflation during the 16th century. New World gold and silver forced prices up and product demand surpassed availability. Great trading companies formed to take advantage of colonial markets; increasing commerce stimulated manufacturing. Specialized agricultural regions emerged. All the developments stimulated population and urban growth. The prosperity was shared by all classes in Western Europe, but there were victims of the changes. Commercialization created a new rural and urban proletariat that suffered from increased food prices. For the more prosperous, commercialization supported a more elaborate family life and demystification of nature. The many changes stimulated popular protest during the first half of the 17th century. Witchcraft hysteria reflected economic and religious uncertainties; women were the most common targets.” ~ World Civilizations

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Reflections:

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