Universiteit van Amsterdam



Combined forces: Thinking and/or Feeling?How news consumption affects anti-Muslim attitudes through perceptions and emotions about the economyLaura Jacobs, Mark Boukes, Rens VliegenthartAmsterdam School of Communication Research (ASCoR), University of AmsterdamAccepted for publication in Political StudiesAbstractThis study develops a model that contributes to our understanding of the complex relationship between economic motivations and anti-Muslim attitudes by analysing the underexplored role of news consumption. Using a large-scale Dutch panel dataset (n = 2,694), we test a structural equation model theoretically grounded in group conflict theory, in which the relationship between news consumption and anti-Muslim attitudes is mediated by perceptions and emotions about the economy. Findings offer sound empirical support for the hypothesized model: news consumption increases pessimistic economic perceptions and negative emotions about the economy, which in turn strengthen anti-Muslim attitudes. The mechanism, however, largely depends upon the type of news outlet and genre: watching television seems more decisive than reading newspapers; moreover, especially exposure to soft and popular news formats play a dominant role.Keywords: News consumption, anti-Muslim attitudes, economic motivations, structural equation modeling, panel survey.IntroductionIn contemporary Western democracies, various outgroups become the target of hostile attitudes. At present, Muslims are one of the most salient outgroups in multiple Western societies ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Semyonov", "given" : "Moshe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Raijman", "given" : "Rebeca", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gorodzeisky", "given" : "Anastasia", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Sociological Review", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "page" : "426-449", "title" : "The rise of anti-foreigner sentiment in European societies, 1988\u20132000", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "71" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Semyonov, Raijman, & Gorodzeisky, 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Semyonov, Raijman, & Gorodzeisky, 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Semyonov, Raijman, & Gorodzeisky, 2006)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Semyonov, Raijman, & Gorodzeisky, 2006). A substantial body of literature shows that perceived threat is a core determinant of negative attitudes towards outgroups ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Do economic considerations shape attitudes toward immigration? In this article, we consider the relationship between economic interests and immigration preferences by examining how developments in individuals' sectors of employment affect these views. Using survey data across European countries from 2002 to 2009 and employing new measures of industry-level exposure to immigration, we find that sectoral economies shape opinions about immigration. Individuals employed in growing sectors are more likely to support immigration than are those employed in shrinking sectors. Moreover, the economic context matters: Making use of the exogenous shock to national economies represented by the 2008 financial crisis, we show that sector-level inflows of immigrant workers have little effect on preferences when economies are expanding, but that they dampen support for immigration when economic conditions deteriorate and confidence in the economy declines. These sectoral effects remain even when controlling for natives' views about the impact of immigration on the national economy and culture. When evaluating immigration policy, individuals thus appear to take into account whether their sector of employment benefits economically from immigration.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dancygier", "given" : "Rafaela M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Donnelly", "given" : "Michael J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of Politics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "17-35", "title" : "Sectoral economies, economic contexts, and attitudes toward immigration.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "75" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "One of the most established approaches to explain attitudes toward immigration is group conflict theory. However, even though the theory was articulated in dynamic terms, previous research has almost exclu- sively tested it through cross-sectional analyses. The aim of this study is to disentangle the dynamic character of ethnic competition from more permanent determinants of ethnic threat. The findings show that a remarkable variation of concern over immigration, usually attributed to permanent positions of economic vulnerability, disappears when within-person variation is modeled. In line with a dynamic approach of ethnic competition, becoming unemployed or being laid off increases concern over immigration. This effect is independent of social class.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lancee", "given" : "Bram", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pardos-Prado", "given" : "Sergi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Migration Review", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "106-131", "title" : "Group conflict theory in a longitudinal perspective: Analyzing the dynamic side of ethnic competition", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Anti-immigration attitudes and its origins have been investigated quite extensively. Research that focuses on the evolution of attitudes toward immigration, however, is far more scarce. In this paper, we use data from the first three rounds of the European Social Survey (ESS) to study the trend of anti-immigration attitudes between 2002 and 2007 in 17 European countries. In the first part of the paper, we discuss the critical legitimacy for com- paring latent variable means over countries and time. A Multiple-Group Multiple Indicator Structural Equation Modeling (MGSEM) approach is used to test the cross-country and cross-time equivalence of the variables under study. In a second step, we try to offer an explanation for the observed trends using a dynamic version of group conflict theory. The country-specific evolutions in attitudes toward immigration are shown to coincide with national context factors, such as immigration flows and changes in unemployment rates", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meuleman", "given" : "Bart", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Davidov", "given" : "Eldad", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Billiet", "given" : "Jaak", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social Science Research", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "352-365", "title" : "Changing attitudes toward immigration in Europe, 2002\u20132007: A dynamic group conflict theory approach", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "38" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Meuleman, Davidov, & Billiet, 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Meuleman, Davidov, & Billiet, 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Meuleman, Davidov, & Billiet, 2009)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Meuleman, Davidov, & Billiet, 2009). Realistic group conflict theory asserts that a major source of negative attitudes towards outgroups relates to intergroup competition and struggles for scarce resources ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blalock", "given" : "Hubert M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1967" ] ] }, "publisher" : "New York: Capricorn", "title" : "Toward a theory of minority group relations.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blumer", "given" : "Herbert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Pacific Sociological Review", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1958" ] ] }, "page" : "3-7", "title" : "Race prejudice as a sense of group position.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Following the work of Blumer (1958), I extend and test a theory of prejudice based on perceived threats to dominant racial or national groups by subor- dinate groups. Perceived threat is hypothesized to be a function of economic conditions and of the size of the subordinate group relative to the dominant group. I test the group-threat theory using a multilevel model that combines population data with survey results on attitudes towards immigrants and ra- cial minorities from Eurobarometer Survey 30. \"Group threat\" explains most of the variation in average prejudice scores across the 12 countries in the sample and has a small but statistically significant effect on the influence of certain individual-level variables on prejudice. These results demonstrate the importance of perceived intergroup threat in the formation of prejudicial at- titudes and suggest a re-interpretation of past findings on the relations be- tween individual characteristics and expressions of prejudice. L", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Quillian", "given" : "Lincoln", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Sociological Review", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1995" ] ] }, "page" : "586-611", "title" : "Prejudice as a response to perceived group threat : Population composition and anti-immigrant and racial prejudice in Europe", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "60" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958; Quillian, 1995)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958; Quillian, 1995)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958; Quillian, 1995)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958; Quillian, 1995). Previous research confirms that economic factors play a crucial role in shaping these attitudes; subjective perceptions of the economy are especially decisive ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This paper tests hypotheses concerning the effects of economic factors on public opinion toward immigration policy. Using the 1992 and 1994 National Election Study surveys, probit models are employed to test diverse conceptualizations of the effects of economic adversity and anxiety on op- position to immigration. The results indicate that personal economic circumstances play little role in opinion formation, but beliefs about the state of the national economy, anxiety over taxes, and gen- eralized feelings about Hispanics and Asians, the major immigrant groups, are significant determinants of restrictionist sentiment. This restricted role of economic motives rooted in one's personal circum- stances held true across ethnic groups, among residents in communities with different numbers of foreign-born, and in both 1992 and 1994", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Citrin", "given" : "Jack", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Green", "given" : "Donald P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Muste", "given" : "Christopher", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wong", "given" : "Cara", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of Politics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1997" ] ] }, "page" : "858-881", "title" : "Public opinion toward immigration reform: The role of economic motivations", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "59" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "What explains variation in individuals\u2019 opposition to immigration? While scholars have consistently shown cultural concerns to be strong predictors of opposition, findings regarding the labor-market competition hypothesis are highly contested. To help understand these divergent results, we distinguish between the prevalence and conditional impact of determinants of immigration attitudes. Leveraging a targeted sampling strategy of high-technology counties, we conduct a study of Americans\u2019 attitudes toward H-1B visas. The plurality of these visas are occupied by Indian immigrants, who are skilled but ethnically distinct, enabling us to measure a specific skill set (high technology) that is threatened by a particular type of immigrant (H-1B visa holders). Unlike recent aggregate studies, our targeted approach reveals that the conditional impact of the relationship in the high-technology sector between economic threat and immigration attitudes is sizable. However, labor-market competition is not a prevalent source of threat and therefore is generally not detected in aggregate analyses.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Malhotra", "given" : "Neil", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Margalit", "given" : "Yotam", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mo", "given" : "Cecilia Hyunjung", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Political Science", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "391-410", "title" : "Economic explanations for opposition to immigration: Distinguishing between prevalence and conditional impact", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "57" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Citrin, Green, Muste, & Wong, 1997; Malhotra, Margalit, & Mo, 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Citrin, Green, Muste, & Wong, 1997; Malhotra, Margalit, & Mo, 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Citrin, Green, Muste, & Wong, 1997; Malhotra, Margalit, & Mo, 2013)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Citrin, Green, Muste, & Wong, 1997; Malhotra, Margalit, & Mo, 2013). While it is widely acknowledged that economic motivations offer an explanation for anti-outgroup attitudes, the origin of these motivations has attracted less scholarly attention. A significant source shaping economic motivations is news exposure ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The 2008\u20132009 worldwide economic crisis serves as a backdrop to this study of the dynamics of citizens\u2019 economic expectations. Economic expectations are identified as crucial for a range of political attitudes. This study is the first to consider how information affects evaluations in times of a severe crisis, as prior research of information effects on economic evaluations took place in more stable economic times. It links citizens\u2019 news exposure and the content of economic news coverage with changes in prospective economic assessments. Drawing on a three-wave panel study and on a media content analysis between the panel waves, we thus provide a dynamic assessment of media influences on changes in economic evaluations. The results demonstrate that media exposure strongly affected expectations regarding the future development of the national economic situation, while being largely unrelated to personal economic expectations. We furthermore show that media dependency increases the magnitude of the media effect. We discuss the disconnect between personal and national economic evaluations with regard to mass-mediated economic information", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boomgaarden", "given" : "Hajo G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Spanje", "given" : "Joost", "non-dropping-particle" : "Van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vreese", "given" : "Claes H.", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Acta Politica", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "353-379.", "title" : "Covering the crisis: Media coverage of the economic crisis and citizens\u2019 economic expectations.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "46" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hagen", "given" : "Lutz M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The SAGE handbook of public opinion research", "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Donsbach", "given" : "Wolfgang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Traugott", "given" : "Michael W.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "title" : "Public opinion and the economy.", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Boomgaarden, Van Spanje, Vliegenthart, & De Vreese, 2011; Hagen, 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Boomgaarden, Van Spanje, Vliegenthart, & De Vreese, 2011; Hagen, 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Boomgaarden, Van Spanje, Vliegenthart, & De Vreese, 2011; Hagen, 2008)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Boomgaarden, Van Spanje, Vliegenthart, & De Vreese, 2011; Hagen, 2008). News about the economy is mainly negative in nature ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "There is a growing body of work suggesting that responses to positive and negative information are asymmetric\u2014 that negative information has a much greater impact on individuals\u2019 attitudes than does positive information. This paper explores these asymmetries in mass media responsiveness to positive and negative economic shifts and in public responsiveness to both the economy itself and economic news coverage. Using time-series analyses of U.K. media and public opinion, strong evidence is found of asymmetry. The dynamic is discussed as it applies to political com- munications and policymaking and more generally to public responsiveness in representative democracies. here", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Soroka", "given" : "Stuart N.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of Politics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "page" : "372-385", "title" : "Good news and bad news: Asymmetric responses to economic information", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "68" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The news media's `surveillance' (Lasswell, 1960) of the economy has\\nbeen a matter of concern in U.S communication research. Previous\\nstudies found that news media tended to be skewed toward negative\\nnews (Wattenberg, 1984; Harrington, 1989). Furthermore, studies found\\nthat public perception of the economy was closely associated with\\nthe news media's economic coverage (Blood & Phillips, 1995; Goidel\\n& Langley, 1995; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Wu, Stevenson, Chen, & G{\"u}ner,\\n2002). This study examines whether negatively skewed economic news\\ncoverage and its influences on public perception of the economy can\\nbe demonstrated in South Korea. For more than 25 years, most economic\\ncommunication studies have been conducted in the USA. Recently, the\\ntriple relationships between the economy, its coverage in the news,\\nand public perception of the economy have also been studied in Japan\\n(Wu, McCracken, & Saito, 2004) and Britain (Soroka, 2006). The current\\ninvestigation will give some empirical knowledge on whether the news\\nmedia's negatively skewed coverage and its impact on public perception\\nof the economy also appear in a nonwestern society that has seen\\na history of a rapid economic growth, South Korea. The country has\\nrisen to become the 12th largest economy in the world in 2006.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ju", "given" : "Youngkee", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Journal of Public Opinion Research", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "237-249", "title" : "The asymmetry in economic news coverage and its impact on public perception in South Korea", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Data from a content analysis of forty-eight months of print and broadcast news about the economy were combined in time-series analyses with two indicators of consumer economic evaluations and three measures of real economic conditions to investigate second-level agenda-setting effects. Economic news was framed as negative more often than as positive, and negatively framed news coverage was one of several significant predictors of consumer expectations about the future of the economy. The study supports the argument that media coverage, particularly the media's emphasis on negative news, may have serious consequences for both expectations of and performance of the economy.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hester", "given" : "Joe Bob", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gibson", "given" : "Rhonda", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "73-90", "title" : "The economy and second-level agenda setting: A time-series analysis of economic news and public opinion about the economy.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "80" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006), making news exposure a significant factor in affecting citizens’ negative perceptions and emotions about the economy ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This paper studies the empirical relationship between the real economy, consumer confi- dence and economic news coverage in national newspapers for the Netherlands during the period 1990\u20132009. Media-attention for economic developments is associated with con- sumer confidence, with more negative news decreasing consumer confidence; this result holds after controlling for the real economy (stock-market). The relationship differs for dif- ferent business-cycles. The effect is in particular stronger for the months following the beginning of the credit-crisis. This suggests that in line with many popular concerns neg- ative news is among factors influencing the hardness of the landing of the current credit- crisis.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hollanders", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Economic Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "367-373.", "title" : "The influence of negative newspaper coverage on consumer confidence: The Dutch case.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "32" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Economic conditions, thestoryusuallygoes, influence consumer confidence, which in turn influencesbothpolitical evaluations and votes. But we have little sense ofthe origins of consumer confidence itself. It is generally assumed that monthly reports ofthe nations level of consumer confidence respond to objective economic conditions. We argue that politics is important for understanding consumer sentiment beyond what we know from economic conditions. Specifically, we demonstrate a direct effect of political evaluations ofthepresidenfs management ofthe economy, theparty ofthepresident, extraordinary political events, and monetary policy, as well as an indirect effect ofmedia coverage ofthe economy, on consumer sentiment, after controlling for economic conditions. When news coverage is positive, citizens give favorable evaluations, leading to morepositive sentiment. Ourfindings suggest that understanding the political economy requires an emphasis on the causal effect of politics as well as economics.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boef", "given" : "Suzanna", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kellstedt", "given" : "Paul M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Political Science", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "633-649", "title" : "The political (and economic) origins of consumer confidence", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "48" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lischka", "given" : "Juliane A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "publisher" : "VS Verlag f\u00fcr Sozialwissenschaften Springer", "title" : "Economic news, sentiment, and behavior: How economic and business news effects the economy", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(De Boef & Kellstedt, 2004; Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011; Lischka, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(De Boef & Kellstedt, 2004; Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011; Lischka, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(De Boef & Kellstedt, 2004; Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011; Lischka, 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(De Boef & Kellstedt, 2004; Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011; Lischka, 2015). This study integrates prior insights by proposing a theoretical model aimed at increasing our knowledge of the relationship between economic motivations and anti-outgroup attitudes by bringing in the underexplored role of news consumption. The assumption is that economic perceptions and emotions play a mediating role between news consumption and attitudes towards outgroups: News consumption may evoke anti-outgroup attitudes by fostering negative perceptions and emotions about the economy. This study contributes to the debate on economic motivations’ role in explaining hostile attitudes toward Muslims, who are considered a major outgroup in the Netherlands, in several ways. In this way, we advance the understanding of why prejudice, which presents one of the main worldwide challenges, occurs. First, we make a theoretical contribution by arguing that with regard to attitudes toward Muslims the role of economic threats should not be overlooked; in this regard, we examine the role of news consumption as an understudied factor in explaining economic motivations of anti-outgroup attitudes. Second, the study sheds light on the process through which news consumption shapes economic perceptions and emotions which in turn impact citizens’ attitudes towards Muslims. Third, we not only assess general news exposure, but also focus on different outlet types (hard vs. soft news; quality vs. popular newspapers) as these may have opposite effects (see ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The possibly detrimental consequences of soft news are subject of popular and academic debate. This study investigates how watching particular news genres\u2014soft versus hard\u2014relates to cynicism about politics among Dutch citizens. A nuanced and novel scale measuring relative exposure to soft versus hard news is introduced using nonparametric unidimensional unfolding. The analysis of three public opinion surveys demonstrates a strong relationship between people\u2019s position on this hard versus soft news exposure scale and political cynicism. People who watched relatively more soft news were more cynical about politics than people who watched relatively more hard news. This relationship was not conditional on individuals\u2019 level of political knowledge and interest.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boukes", "given" : "Mark", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boomgaarden", "given" : "Hajo G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Communication Research", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "701-731", "title" : "Soft news with hard consequences? Introducing a nuanced measure of soft versus hard news exposure and its relationship with political cynicism", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "42" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Public and commercial news follow distinct logics. We evaluate this duality in television news coverage on immigration. First, by means of a large-scale content analysis of Flemish television news (N = 1630), we investigate whether immigration coverage diverges between both broadcasters. Results show that, despite an overall negativity bias and relative homogeneity between the broadcasters, commercial news contains slightly more sensational and tabloid characteristics than public news. The latter promotes a more balanced view of immigration. These differences are stable over time. Second, using cross-sectional and panel data, we assess whether a preference for public versus commercial news is associated with an attitudinal gap in anti-immigrant attitudes. Findings demonstrate that individuals who prefer commercial news are more negative towards immigrants. We suggest that differences in news content may explain this attitudinal gap. In light of the debate around \u2018public value\u2019 offered by public service media across Europe, we tentatively conclude that public broadcasters have the potential to foster tolerance and provide balanced information by prioritizing a normative view over a market logic. The linkage between news coverage and the gap in attitudes between commercial and public news viewers warrants closer investigation in the future.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jacobs", "given" : "Laura", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meeusen", "given" : "Cecil", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "D'Haenens", "given" : "Leen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "European Journal of Communication", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "642 \u2013660", "title" : "News coverage and attitudes on immigration: Public and commercial television news compared.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "31" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Boukes & Boomgaarden, 2015; Jacobs, Meeusen, & D\u2019Haenens, 2016)", "manualFormatting" : "Boukes & Boomgaarden 2015; Jacobs, Meeusen, & d'Haenens, 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Boukes & Boomgaarden, 2015; Jacobs, Meeusen, & D\u2019Haenens, 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Boukes & Boomgaarden, 2015; Jacobs, Meeusen, & D\u2019Haenens, 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }Boukes & Boomgaarden 2015; Jacobs, Meeusen, & d'Haenens, 2016). Fourth, we test the relative role of news consumption in shaping attitudes, perceptions and emotions about the economy, while controlling for individuals’ socioeconomic positions and neighborhood characteristics. Hence, we investigate the interplay between both cognitive and affective factors, and take into account real-world indicators. We use data from a three-wave panel study (n=2,694), which allows for the application of detailed measurements of individual citizens’ media use, emotions, their socioeconomic position and their anti-Muslim attitudes, and which disentangles the temporal ordering of variables: this goes beyond a simple cross-sectional mediation analysis, even while not being fully conclusive about causality.Impact of News Consumption on Perceptions and Emotions about the Economy Journalists, in their traditional role as gatekeeper, rely on a set of news values ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Galtung", "given" : "Johan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ruge", "given" : "Mari Holmboe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Peace Research", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1965" ] ] }, "page" : "64-90", "title" : "The structure of foreign news: The presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus crises in four Norwegian newspapers", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This study aims to shed light on the news selection process by examining the news values currently operational in British newspapers. The study takes as its starting point Galtung and Ruge\u2019s widely cited taxonomy of news values established in their 1965 study and puts these criteria to the test in an empirical analysis of news published in three national daily UK newspapers. A review of Galtung and Ruge\u2019s original study as well as a wider review of related literature is provided. The ?ndings of the news content analysis are used to evaluate critically Galtung and Ruge\u2019s original criteria and to propose a contemporary set of news values", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Harcup", "given" : "Tony", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "O'Neill", "given" : "Deirdre", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism Studies", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "261-280", "title" : "What is news? Galtung and Ruge revisited", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Galtung & Ruge, 1965; Harcup & O\u2019Neill, 2001)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Galtung & Ruge, 1965; Harcup & O\u2019Neill, 2001)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Galtung & Ruge, 1965; Harcup & O\u2019Neill, 2001)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Galtung & Ruge, 1965; Harcup & O’Neill, 2001) while selecting topics to cover from the unlimited range of issues that potentially could be covered ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This article is about causal explanations for the way journalists report the news. In its first part, the article reviews traditional and current models or theories of journalists\u2019 news decisions, concentrating on news factors, institutional objectives, the manipulative power of public relations by news sources and the subjective beliefs of journalists. It comes to the conclusion that most of these approaches do not explain the underlying processes leading to news judgements. Starting from these shortcomings and from the assumption that most of journalists\u2019 work is about perceptions, conclusions and judgements, it then attempts to apply psychological theories to news decision-making. The author holds that two general needs or functions involving specific psychological processes can explain news decisions: a need for social validation of perceptions and a need to preserve one\u2019s existing predispositions. Empirical data from several surveys and studies among journalists are used to demonstrate the appropriateness of this approach to journalists\u2019 behavior", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Donsbach", "given" : "Wolfgang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "131-157", "title" : "Psychology of news decisions factors behind journalists\u2019 professional behavior", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "5" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schulz", "given" : "Winfried", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1976" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Freiburg/M\u00fcnchen: Verlag Karl Alber.", "title" : "Die Konstruktion Von Realit\u00e4t in Den Nachrichtenmedien Analyse Der Aktuellen Berichtenerstattung", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Donsbach, 2004; Schulz, 1976)", "manualFormatting" : "(Donsbach, 2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Donsbach, 2004; Schulz, 1976)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Donsbach, 2004; Schulz, 1976)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Donsbach, 2004). Probably the most well-known news value is negativity: “good news is no news”. Empirical research confirms this strong focus on negativity in news, particularly in the context of economic news. By comparing real-world economic developments to actual news coverage, Soroka ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "There is a growing body of work suggesting that responses to positive and negative information are asymmetric\u2014 that negative information has a much greater impact on individuals\u2019 attitudes than does positive information. This paper explores these asymmetries in mass media responsiveness to positive and negative economic shifts and in public responsiveness to both the economy itself and economic news coverage. Using time-series analyses of U.K. media and public opinion, strong evidence is found of asymmetry. The dynamic is discussed as it applies to political com- munications and policymaking and more generally to public responsiveness in representative democracies. here", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Soroka", "given" : "Stuart N.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of Politics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "page" : "372-385", "title" : "Good news and bad news: Asymmetric responses to economic information", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "68" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Soroka", "given" : "Stuart N.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "2012", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "514\u2013528", "title" : "The gatekeeping function: Distributions of information in media and the real world", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "74" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Soroka, 2006, 2012)", "manualFormatting" : "(2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Soroka, 2006, 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Soroka, 2006, 2012)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(2006) showed that economic news is negatively skewed: journalists pick out negative developments regarding unemployment rates and inflation. This negativity bias in economic news has been confirmed in many geographical contexts and time periods ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Harrington", "given" : "David E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Public Opinion Quarterly", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1989" ] ] }, "page" : "17-40", "title" : "Economic news on television: The determinants of coverage.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "53" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Data from a content analysis of forty-eight months of print and broadcast news about the economy were combined in time-series analyses with two indicators of consumer economic evaluations and three measures of real economic conditions to investigate second-level agenda-setting effects. Economic news was framed as negative more often than as positive, and negatively framed news coverage was one of several significant predictors of consumer expectations about the future of the economy. The study supports the argument that media coverage, particularly the media's emphasis on negative news, may have serious consequences for both expectations of and performance of the economy.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hester", "given" : "Joe Bob", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gibson", "given" : "Rhonda", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "73-90", "title" : "The economy and second-level agenda setting: A time-series analysis of economic news and public opinion about the economy.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "80" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "In the following analysis, we investigate two important questions:\\n(1) how closely does media coverage of the economy reflect real changes\\nin economic conditions? and (2) to what extent does economic coverage\\nof the economy exert an independent effect on economic evaluations?\\nWe then use this information to explore Republican claims that media\\ncoverage of the economy hurt the Bush reelection campaign. Consistent\\nwith previous research, we find that, overall, the media tend to\\nfollow negative economic conditions more closely than positive economic\\nconditions. In addition, news coverage appears to be strongly related\\nto aggregate public evaluations of the economy, even after controlling\\nfor real economic conditions. Finally, we also find that news coverage\\nof the economy was significantly different during 1982, 1991, and\\n1992 than during other years under study. During these years, coverage\\nof the economy was more negative than would have been expected on\\nthe basis of economic conditions alone. The implications of these\\nfindings, particularly with respect to Republican claims of media\\nbias, are explored.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Goidel", "given" : "Robert K.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Langley", "given" : "Ronald E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Political Research Quarterly", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1995" ] ] }, "page" : "313-328", "title" : "Media coverage of the economy and aggregate economic evaluations: Uncovering evidence of indirect media effects.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "48" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The news media's `surveillance' (Lasswell, 1960) of the economy has\\nbeen a matter of concern in U.S communication research. Previous\\nstudies found that news media tended to be skewed toward negative\\nnews (Wattenberg, 1984; Harrington, 1989). Furthermore, studies found\\nthat public perception of the economy was closely associated with\\nthe news media's economic coverage (Blood & Phillips, 1995; Goidel\\n& Langley, 1995; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Wu, Stevenson, Chen, & G{\"u}ner,\\n2002). This study examines whether negatively skewed economic news\\ncoverage and its influences on public perception of the economy can\\nbe demonstrated in South Korea. For more than 25 years, most economic\\ncommunication studies have been conducted in the USA. Recently, the\\ntriple relationships between the economy, its coverage in the news,\\nand public perception of the economy have also been studied in Japan\\n(Wu, McCracken, & Saito, 2004) and Britain (Soroka, 2006). The current\\ninvestigation will give some empirical knowledge on whether the news\\nmedia's negatively skewed coverage and its impact on public perception\\nof the economy also appear in a nonwestern society that has seen\\na history of a rapid economic growth, South Korea. The country has\\nrisen to become the 12th largest economy in the world in 2006.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ju", "given" : "Youngkee", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Journal of Public Opinion Research", "id" : "ITEM-4", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "237-249", "title" : "The asymmetry in economic news coverage and its impact on public perception in South Korea", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-5", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "One of the normative functions of economic news is surveillance, making monitorial citizens aware of significant economic developments. In this light, it is important to look at the way economic news covers periods of recession and economic boom. Previous studies have focused on how the media cover monthly developments of the economy rather than how coverage varies over the course of the economic cycle. Based on parallels between self-reinforcing news waves or media hypes, on the one hand, and coverage of recession and economic boom, on the other, we argue that the media amplify periods of prolonged economic growth or contraction by making the economy more visible and reporting with an overly positive or negative tone. A time-series analysis of the relation between economic developments and the automatically coded tone and visibility of economic news in Danish newspapers (1996\u20132012) shows that the media functioned as a magnify- ing glass. During recession, the economy became more negative and visible than economic devel- opments would predict. During economic boom, economic news became more positive, but not more visible. The media adjusted the tone downwards before the economy entered recession. These results are assessed in light of the surveillance function. KEYWORDS", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dalen", "given" : "Arjen", "non-dropping-particle" : "Van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vreese", "given" : "Claes H.", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Albaek", "given" : "Erik", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism Studies", "id" : "ITEM-5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "Economic news through the magnifying glass: How the media cover economic boom and bust.", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Goidel & Langley, 1995; Harrington, 1989; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Van Dalen, De Vreese, & Albaek, 2015)", "manualFormatting" : "(Goidel & Langley, 1995; Harrington, 1989; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Goidel & Langley, 1995; Harrington, 1989; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Van Dalen, De Vreese, & Albaek, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Goidel & Langley, 1995; Harrington, 1989; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Van Dalen, De Vreese, & Albaek, 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Goidel & Langley, 1995; Harrington, 1989; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008). By consuming economic news, citizens will thus be exposed to a more negative picture than might be warranted by real-world circumstances. The dominance of negativity in economic news coverage impacts perceptions of the national economy and decreases consumer confidence: the tone of economic news is a significant predictor of consumers’ evaluation of economic conditions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blood", "given" : "Debora J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Phillips", "given" : "Peter C. B.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Journal of Public Opinion Research", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1995" ] ] }, "page" : "2-22", "title" : "Recession headline news, consumer sentiment, the state of the economy and presidential popularity: A time-series analysis 1989-1993.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "7" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Economic conditions, thestoryusuallygoes, influence consumer confidence, which in turn influencesbothpolitical evaluations and votes. But we have little sense ofthe origins of consumer confidence itself. It is generally assumed that monthly reports ofthe nations level of consumer confidence respond to objective economic conditions. We argue that politics is important for understanding consumer sentiment beyond what we know from economic conditions. Specifically, we demonstrate a direct effect of political evaluations ofthepresidenfs management ofthe economy, theparty ofthepresident, extraordinary political events, and monetary policy, as well as an indirect effect ofmedia coverage ofthe economy, on consumer sentiment, after controlling for economic conditions. When news coverage is positive, citizens give favorable evaluations, leading to morepositive sentiment. Ourfindings suggest that understanding the political economy requires an emphasis on the causal effect of politics as well as economics.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boef", "given" : "Suzanna", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kellstedt", "given" : "Paul M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Political Science", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "633-649", "title" : "The political (and economic) origins of consumer confidence", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "48" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This paper studies the empirical relationship between the real economy, consumer confi- dence and economic news coverage in national newspapers for the Netherlands during the period 1990\u20132009. Media-attention for economic developments is associated with con- sumer confidence, with more negative news decreasing consumer confidence; this result holds after controlling for the real economy (stock-market). The relationship differs for dif- ferent business-cycles. The effect is in particular stronger for the months following the beginning of the credit-crisis. This suggests that in line with many popular concerns neg- ative news is among factors influencing the hardness of the landing of the current credit- crisis.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hollanders", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Economic Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "367-373.", "title" : "The influence of negative newspaper coverage on consumer confidence: The Dutch case.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "32" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Blood & Phillips, 1995; De Boef & Kellstedt, 2004; Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Blood & Phillips, 1995; De Boef & Kellstedt, 2004; Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Blood & Phillips, 1995; De Boef & Kellstedt, 2004; Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Blood & Phillips, 1995; De Boef & Kellstedt, 2004; Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011) and expectations about the future economy ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The 2008\u20132009 worldwide economic crisis serves as a backdrop to this study of the dynamics of citizens\u2019 economic expectations. Economic expectations are identified as crucial for a range of political attitudes. This study is the first to consider how information affects evaluations in times of a severe crisis, as prior research of information effects on economic evaluations took place in more stable economic times. It links citizens\u2019 news exposure and the content of economic news coverage with changes in prospective economic assessments. Drawing on a three-wave panel study and on a media content analysis between the panel waves, we thus provide a dynamic assessment of media influences on changes in economic evaluations. The results demonstrate that media exposure strongly affected expectations regarding the future development of the national economic situation, while being largely unrelated to personal economic expectations. We furthermore show that media dependency increases the magnitude of the media effect. We discuss the disconnect between personal and national economic evaluations with regard to mass-mediated economic information", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boomgaarden", "given" : "Hajo G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Spanje", "given" : "Joost", "non-dropping-particle" : "Van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vreese", "given" : "Claes H.", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Acta Politica", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "353-379.", "title" : "Covering the crisis: Media coverage of the economic crisis and citizens\u2019 economic expectations.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "46" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lischka", "given" : "Juliane A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "publisher" : "VS Verlag f\u00fcr Sozialwissenschaften Springer", "title" : "Economic news, sentiment, and behavior: How economic and business news effects the economy", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sanders", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Marsh", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ward", "given" : "Hugh", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "British Journal of Political Science", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1993" ] ] }, "page" : "175-210", "title" : "The electoral impact of press coverage of the British economy, 1979\u201387.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "23" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Boomgaarden et al., 2011; Lischka, 2015; Sanders, Marsh, & Ward, 1993)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Boomgaarden et al., 2011; Lischka, 2015; Sanders, Marsh, & Ward, 1993)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Boomgaarden et al., 2011; Lischka, 2015; Sanders, Marsh, & Ward, 1993)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Boomgaarden et al., 2011; Lischka, 2015; Sanders, Marsh, & Ward, 1993). This effect is particularly strong for negative news about the economy, as positive economic news has been found to hardly influence public perceptions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Data from a content analysis of forty-eight months of print and broadcast news about the economy were combined in time-series analyses with two indicators of consumer economic evaluations and three measures of real economic conditions to investigate second-level agenda-setting effects. Economic news was framed as negative more often than as positive, and negatively framed news coverage was one of several significant predictors of consumer expectations about the future of the economy. The study supports the argument that media coverage, particularly the media's emphasis on negative news, may have serious consequences for both expectations of and performance of the economy.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hester", "given" : "Joe Bob", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gibson", "given" : "Rhonda", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "73-90", "title" : "The economy and second-level agenda setting: A time-series analysis of economic news and public opinion about the economy.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "80" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "In the following analysis, we investigate two important questions:\\n(1) how closely does media coverage of the economy reflect real changes\\nin economic conditions? and (2) to what extent does economic coverage\\nof the economy exert an independent effect on economic evaluations?\\nWe then use this information to explore Republican claims that media\\ncoverage of the economy hurt the Bush reelection campaign. Consistent\\nwith previous research, we find that, overall, the media tend to\\nfollow negative economic conditions more closely than positive economic\\nconditions. In addition, news coverage appears to be strongly related\\nto aggregate public evaluations of the economy, even after controlling\\nfor real economic conditions. Finally, we also find that news coverage\\nof the economy was significantly different during 1982, 1991, and\\n1992 than during other years under study. During these years, coverage\\nof the economy was more negative than would have been expected on\\nthe basis of economic conditions alone. The implications of these\\nfindings, particularly with respect to Republican claims of media\\nbias, are explored.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Goidel", "given" : "Robert K.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Langley", "given" : "Ronald E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Political Research Quarterly", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1995" ] ] }, "page" : "313-328", "title" : "Media coverage of the economy and aggregate economic evaluations: Uncovering evidence of indirect media effects.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "48" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The news media's `surveillance' (Lasswell, 1960) of the economy has\\nbeen a matter of concern in U.S communication research. Previous\\nstudies found that news media tended to be skewed toward negative\\nnews (Wattenberg, 1984; Harrington, 1989). Furthermore, studies found\\nthat public perception of the economy was closely associated with\\nthe news media's economic coverage (Blood & Phillips, 1995; Goidel\\n& Langley, 1995; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Wu, Stevenson, Chen, & G{\"u}ner,\\n2002). This study examines whether negatively skewed economic news\\ncoverage and its influences on public perception of the economy can\\nbe demonstrated in South Korea. For more than 25 years, most economic\\ncommunication studies have been conducted in the USA. Recently, the\\ntriple relationships between the economy, its coverage in the news,\\nand public perception of the economy have also been studied in Japan\\n(Wu, McCracken, & Saito, 2004) and Britain (Soroka, 2006). The current\\ninvestigation will give some empirical knowledge on whether the news\\nmedia's negatively skewed coverage and its impact on public perception\\nof the economy also appear in a nonwestern society that has seen\\na history of a rapid economic growth, South Korea. The country has\\nrisen to become the 12th largest economy in the world in 2006.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ju", "given" : "Youngkee", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Journal of Public Opinion Research", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "237-249", "title" : "The asymmetry in economic news coverage and its impact on public perception in South Korea", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "There is a growing body of work suggesting that responses to positive and negative information are asymmetric\u2014 that negative information has a much greater impact on individuals\u2019 attitudes than does positive information. This paper explores these asymmetries in mass media responsiveness to positive and negative economic shifts and in public responsiveness to both the economy itself and economic news coverage. Using time-series analyses of U.K. media and public opinion, strong evidence is found of asymmetry. The dynamic is discussed as it applies to political com- munications and policymaking and more generally to public responsiveness in representative democracies. here", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Soroka", "given" : "Stuart N.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of Politics", "id" : "ITEM-4", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "page" : "372-385", "title" : "Good news and bad news: Asymmetric responses to economic information", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "68" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Goidel & Langley, 1995; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Goidel & Langley, 1995; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Goidel & Langley, 1995; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Goidel & Langley, 1995; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006). Arguably, the effect of economic news is not only restricted to cognitive perceptions of the economy, but may also impact emotions about the economy: recent research demonstrated that news tone influences people’s emotional state ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The underlying psychological processes that enable framing effects are often described as cognitive. Yet, recent studies suggest that framing effects may also be mediated by emotional response. The role of specific emotions in mediating the framing effect process, however, has yet to be fully empirically investigated. In an experimental survey design (n = 161), this study tests two positive (enthusiasm and contentment) and two negative emotions (anger and fear) as mediators of framing effects. Our results show that while anger and enthusiasm mediate a framing effect, contentment and fear do not. These find- ings deepen our understanding of which discrete emotions are relevant when studying mediated framing effects.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lecheler", "given" : "Sophie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schuck", "given" : "Andreas R.T.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vreese", "given" : "Claes H.", "non-dropping-particle" : "de", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Communications - The European Journal of Communication Research", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "189-209", "title" : "Dealing with feelings: Positive and negative discrete emotions as mediators of news framing effects", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "38" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This study aimed to analyze the respective effects of cognitive and emotional elements on political judgments, and the effects of media use and political talk on those two elements. Along with the cognitive judgment about political and economic issues/policies, we explored the effect of emotional responses to political and economic situations. During this process, we also looked at the effect of media use and interpersonal communication channels. By analyzing survey data gathered in December 2007, it was first found that voters\u2019 cognitive judgment and emotional responses to political and economic situations, respectively, affected their evaluation of the incumbent president. Second, emotional reactions such as \u2018pride\u2019 in politics, and \u2018hope\u2019 and \u2018anger\u2019 for economics, showed significant influence on their evaluation of the president\u2019s performance. Third, voters\u2019 patterns of media use and interpersonal talk appeared to exert significant influences on those cognitive judgments and emotional responses to political and economic reality.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Na", "given" : "Eun Kyung", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lee", "given" : "Gang Heong", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kim", "given" : "Hyun Suk", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Asian Journal of Communication", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "124-138", "title" : "\"Everything is always President Roh\u201ds fault?\u2019: Emotional reactions to politics and economy as sources of presidential evaluations and the role of media use and interpersonal communication.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Lecheler, Schuck, & de Vreese, 2013; Na, Lee, & Kim, 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Lecheler, Schuck, & de Vreese, 2013; Na, Lee, & Kim, 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Lecheler, Schuck, & de Vreese, 2013; Na, Lee, & Kim, 2010)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Lecheler, Schuck, & De Vreese, 2013; Na, Lee, & Kim, 2010). Hence, we expect that: H1: Frequently (a) watching television news and (b) reading newspapers negatively affects economic perceptions. H2: Frequently (a) watching television news and (b) reading newspapers negatively affects emotions about the economy.News outlets can be split into two categories –hard/quality and soft/popular news: the formats have different effects on economic emotions and perceptions. Hard and soft news outlets on television and in newspapers cover different topics (political vs. non-political), rely on different styles (impersonal vs. emotional), and take different perspectives (societal vs. individual) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Over 30 years, a large body of research on what is often called \u2018hard\u2019 and \u2018soft news\u2019 has accumulated in communication studies. However, there is no consensus about what hard and soft news exactly is, or how it should be defined or measured. Moreover, the concept has not been clearly differentiated from or systematically related to concepts addressing very similar phenomena \u2013 tabloidization and \u2018infotainment\u2019. Consequently, the results of various studies are hard to compare and different scientific discourses on related issues remain unconnected. Against this backdrop, this article offers a conceptual analysis of the concept based on studies in English and other languages. We identify key dimensions of the concept and make suggestions for a standardized definition and multi-dimensional measurement of harder and softer news. In doing so, we propose to distinguish thematic, focus and style features as basic dimensions that \u2013 in their combination \u2013 make up harder and softer types of news", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Reinemann", "given" : "Carsten", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Stanyer", "given" : "James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Scherr", "given" : "Sebastian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Legnante", "given" : "Guido", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "221-239", "title" : "Hard and soft news: A review of concepts, operationalizations and key findings.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "13" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Reinemann, Stanyer, Scherr, & Legnante, 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Reinemann, Stanyer, Scherr, & Legnante, 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Reinemann, Stanyer, Scherr, & Legnante, 2012)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Reinemann, Stanyer, Scherr, & Legnante, 2012). Instead of fact-based reporting, soft and popular news outlets are more likely than hard news outlets cover economic news with more dramatic, personalized and sensational stories in an attempt to appeal and engage their audience ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This study investigates the processes by which competition in the television news market might promote the presence of arousing characteristics in television news. A total of 3,024 news stories from six Dutch television news programs over the period 1990 to 2004 were investigated through content analysis. The findings of the study show overall increases in all 6 arousing characteristics. The findings also show that commercial newcomers included more arousing characteristics in their news stories than the public service broadcasters, that commercial newcomers developed a news format that featured more arousing characteristics, and that existing programs reacted to newcomers by increasing the amount of arousing characteristics in their news stories.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vettehen", "given" : "Paul Hendriks", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Beentjes", "given" : "Johannes", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nuijten", "given" : "Koos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Peeters", "given" : "Allerd", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Mass Communication and Society", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "93-112", "title" : "Arousing news characteristics in Dutch television news 1990\u20132004: An exploration of competitive strategies", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "14" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "For at least the past three decades journalism scholars have focused on two types of news \u2013 soft and hard \u2013 without reassessing these categories or adding to them. The present article investigates whether such neglect is warranted, through a questionnaire and in-depth interviews with 32 journalists and editors from the three main Israeli dailies: Yediot Ahronot, Maariv and Haaretz. The findings argue strongly for a third, intermediate category of news \u2013 \u2018general news\u2019 \u2013 as well as for more rigorous and comprehensive definitions of \u2018hard\u2019 news and \u2018soft\u2019 news that are here supplied. These three news categories were then tested on 465 news items of the above dailies which led to the categorization of a new newspaper type, lying somewhere between the elite and populist press. Methodological and substantive ramifications of this addition are discussed", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lehman-Wilzig", "given" : "Sam N.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Seletzky", "given" : "Michal", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "37-56", "title" : "Hard news, soft news, \u2018general\u2019 news: The necessity and utility of an intermediate classification", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "11" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Patterson", "given" : "Thomas E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Cambridge, United Kingdom: Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy.", "title" : "Doing well and doing good: How soft news and critical journalism are shrinking the news audience and weakening democracy - and what news outlets can do about it.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Lehman-Wilzig & Seletzky, 2010; Patterson, 2000; Vettehen, Beentjes, Nuijten, & Peeters, 2010)", "manualFormatting" : "(Lehman-Wilzig & Seletzky, 2010; Vettehen, Beentjes, Nuijten, & Peeters, 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Lehman-Wilzig & Seletzky, 2010; Patterson, 2000; Vettehen, Beentjes, Nuijten, & Peeters, 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Lehman-Wilzig & Seletzky, 2010; Patterson, 2000; Vettehen, Beentjes, Nuijten, & Peeters, 2010)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Lehman-Wilzig & Seletzky, 2010; Vettehen, Beentjes, Nuijten, & Peeters, 2010). Economic news has been found to be more balanced and ambiguous in quality outlets, with more focus on diverse angles and perspectives than popular outlets, which are more negative ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Journalistic practice emphasizes both positive and negative aspects of news stories. Nevertheless, the effects of ambiguous news, which includes both positive and negative information, are underinvestigated. This study examines how exposure to ambiguous economic news affects uncertainty and \u2018consumer confidence\u2019. Consumer confidence refers to citizens\u2019 evaluations of their personal economic situation and of the national economy and is an antecedent of economic behaviour. Using a two-wave national panel survey and a media content analysis, the study demonstrates that ambiguous news exposure and individual level changes in consumer confidence are linked. Our analysis suggests that the relation between exposure to ambiguous news and changes in consumer confidence is mediated by economic uncertainty. This article bridges insights from research on consumer confidence, economic psychology and media effects and unravels one of the mechanisms at play in this cross-field", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Svensson", "given" : "Helle M\u00f8lgaard", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alb\u00e6k", "given" : "Erik", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dalen", "given" : "Arjen", "non-dropping-particle" : "Van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vreese", "given" : "Claes H.", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "European Journal of Communication", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "page" : "85-99", "title" : "The impact of ambiguous economic news on uncertainty and consumer confidence", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "32" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "A growing body of research shows that uncertainty affects individual perceptions and preferences. However, we still know little about how uncertainty in news content affects public opinion formation. Building upon literature on the processing of uncertain information and prospect theory, we argue that uncertainty in the news lowers public expectations and fosters pessimism. A time-series analysis of national monthly consumer confidence data, economic indicators, and an auto- mated content analysis of economic newspaper coverage between 1996 and 2012 confirms this expectation. The analysis shows that uncertainty in economic news decreases consumer confidence, after controlling for real economic developments and the tone of the news. The effect of uncertainty cannot be explained as an asymmetrical response to ambigu- ous information, since uncertainty in the news did not make negative information more salient. Finally, we discuss influences of the nature of reporting on uncertainty in the news", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dalen", "given" : "Arjen", "non-dropping-particle" : "Van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vreese", "given" : "Claes H.", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alb\u00e6k", "given" : "Erik", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Public Opinion Quarterly", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "111-130", "title" : "Mediated uncertainty. The negative impact of uncertainty in economic news on consumer confidence.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "81" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Svensson, Alb\u00e6k, Van Dalen, & De Vreese, 2017; Van Dalen, De Vreese, & Alb\u00e6k, 2016)", "manualFormatting" : "(Svensson, Alb\u00e6k, Van Dalen, & De Vreese, 2017; Van Dalen, De Vreese, & Alb\u00e6k, 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Svensson, Alb\u00e6k, Van Dalen, & De Vreese, 2017; Van Dalen, De Vreese, & Alb\u00e6k, 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Svensson, Alb\u00e6k, Van Dalen, & De Vreese, 2017; Van Dalen, De Vreese, & Alb\u00e6k, 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Svensson, Alb?k, Van Dalen, & De Vreese, 2017; Van Dalen, De Vreese, & Alb?k, 2016). Additionally, quality news outlets pay more attention to news about the economy than popular outlets ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This study takes crisis coverage as the dependent variable. Focusing on the Netherlands, we inves- tigate how print media framed the economic crisis (2007\u20132013) and to what extent temporal and outlet factors account for variation in the use of frames. Relying on an in-depth qualitative content analysis followed up by a quantitative analysis, five major frames are identified that journalists use when discussing the crisis. Our findings, based on variance analyses, show that frame variation is mainly due to temporal factors. While the specific appearance of frames might differ across outlets, we found a remarkable similarity in over-time frame prominence. These results raise doubts about the availability of varied media content to the public in the context of an all-encompassing crisis.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Damstra", "given" : "Alyt", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism Studies", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "0", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "1-21", "title" : "(Un)covering the economic crisis?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "0" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Damstra & Vliegenthart, 2016)", "manualFormatting" : "(Damstra & Vliegenthart, in press)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Damstra & Vliegenthart, 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Damstra & Vliegenthart, 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Damstra & Vliegenthart, in press). This soft news style potentially strengthens news exposure’s negative effect on economic perceptions and emotions for at least three reasons. First, by using exemplars, news increases emotional engagement with the story and is more likely to evoke emotions of anger and fear ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "An impressive body of research shows that the framing of an issue affects citizens\u2019 attitudes, but also that some frames are more influential than others. Yet, we have sur- prisingly limited knowledge of the factors that affect the strength of a frame, that is, the frame\u2019s capacity to influence citizens\u2019 opinions. Therefore, this study investigates the relative strength of episodic and thematic frames to argue that our understand- ing of the dynamics of frame strength can be advanced through a better incorporation of citizens\u2019 emotional reactions. Based on experimental data, I demonstrate that the relative strength of episodic and thematic frames depends on the intensity of citizens\u2019 emotional reactions. When there are no or weak emotional reactions, thematic frames are stronger than episodic frames, whereas the relative strength is increasingly reversed when intense emotional reactions are inflamed in the audience. I conclude by discussing the implications of the findings", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Aar\u00f8e", "given" : "Lene", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Political Communication", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "207-226", "title" : "Investigating frame strength: The case of episodic and thematic frames.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "28" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cho", "given" : "Jaeho", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boyle", "given" : "Michael P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Keum", "given" : "Heejo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Shevy", "given" : "Mark D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McLeod", "given" : "Douglas M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "V.", "family" : "Shah", "given" : "Dhavan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pan", "given" : "Zhongdang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "309-327", "title" : "Media, terrorism, and emotionality: Emotional differences in media content and public reactions to the September 11th terrorist attacks", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gross", "given" : "Kimberly A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Political Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "169-192", "title" : "Framing persuasive appeals: Episodic and thematic framing, emotional response, and policy opinion.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "29" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Aar\u00f8e, 2011; Cho et al., 2003; Gross, 2008)", "manualFormatting" : "(Aar\u00f8e, 2011; Cho et al., 2003; Gross, 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Aar\u00f8e, 2011; Cho et al., 2003; Gross, 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Aar\u00f8e, 2011; Cho et al., 2003; Gross, 2008)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Aar?e, 2011; Cho et al., 2003; Gross, 2008). Second, compared to factual reports with statistics, personal examples of news topics (e.g., unemployment, financial difficulties) increase the audience’s tendency to overestimate the severity of issues ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Aust", "given" : "Charles F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zillmann", "given" : "Dolf", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1996" ] ] }, "page" : "787\u2013803.", "title" : "Effects of victim exemplification in television news on viewer perception of social issues.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "73" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Aust & Zillmann, 1996)", "manualFormatting" : "(Zillmann, 1999)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Aust & Zillmann, 1996)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Aust & Zillmann, 1996)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Zillmann, 1999). Third, explicit focus on sensational elements in (especially soft) news has also been shown to evoke emotions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This article considers whether `sensational' news stories are intrinsically more likely to elicit emotional responses in audiences than other TV news stories. The research analyses a sample of British televised news in respect of empirically validated attributes, to identify the presence of particular content elements that audience research has shown to possess emotion-eliciting capabilities. The results show that news stories traditionally classified as `sensational' a term that implies a dramatic and therefore emotion-arousing imperative do not necessarily contain more emotionally arousing features than other types of news story. Only crime stories (among the most frequently occurring `sensational' news categories) and, to a limited extent, political stories (a classic `non-sensational' news topic) provide clear manifestations of the presence of high and low emotion-laden attributes. Moreover, those topics containing more emotion-laden material are not the same over time or across public and commercial TV channels.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Uribe", "given" : "Rordrigo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gunter", "given" : "Barrie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "European Journal of Criminology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "207-228", "title" : "Are 'sensational' news stories more likely to trigger viewers' emotions than non-sensational news stories?: A content analysis of British TV news", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "22" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Uribe & Gunter, 2007)", "manualFormatting" : "(Uribe & Gunter, 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Uribe & Gunter, 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Uribe & Gunter, 2007)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Uribe & Gunter, 2007). We expect that: H3: Consuming (a) soft news television or (b) popular newspapers is more negatively related to economic perceptions than consuming hard news television or quality newspapers. H4: Consuming (a) soft news television or (b) popular newspapers is more negatively related to emotions about the economy than consuming hard news television or quality newspapers. How Perceptions and Emotions about the Economy Shape Anti-outgroup Attitudes Intergroup Threat Theory (ITT) describes the process in which intergroup relations are perceived to be conflictual in nature (Riek, Mania & Gaertner, 2006). Outgroups, Muslims for example, are hypothesized to pose threats to the well-being of native citizens within society. Typically, both symbolic and realistic threats are distinguished. Symbolic threats arise due to perceived conflictual values and norms as well as outgroups’ perceived reluctance to integrate and adapt to the prevailing standards of society. Realistic threat entails two components: (a) perceived threats posed by outgroups to people’s physical safety (criminal component), and (b) the anticipation that outgroups may endanger the ingroups’ privileges and goods, such as money and jobs (economic component). With regard to religious outgroups, such as Muslims, often symbolic threats are emphasized. The current study, however, explicitly deals with economic-based perceived threats, thereby complementing studies addressing perceived symbolic threats posed by Muslims. An extensive body of literature has examined the role of economic motivations as a key factor determining anti-outgroup attitudes ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "What explains variation in individuals\u2019 opposition to immigration? While scholars have consistently shown cultural concerns to be strong predictors of opposition, findings regarding the labor-market competition hypothesis are highly contested. To help understand these divergent results, we distinguish between the prevalence and conditional impact of determinants of immigration attitudes. Leveraging a targeted sampling strategy of high-technology counties, we conduct a study of Americans\u2019 attitudes toward H-1B visas. The plurality of these visas are occupied by Indian immigrants, who are skilled but ethnically distinct, enabling us to measure a specific skill set (high technology) that is threatened by a particular type of immigrant (H-1B visa holders). Unlike recent aggregate studies, our targeted approach reveals that the conditional impact of the relationship in the high-technology sector between economic threat and immigration attitudes is sizable. However, labor-market competition is not a prevalent source of threat and therefore is generally not detected in aggregate analyses.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Malhotra", "given" : "Neil", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Margalit", "given" : "Yotam", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mo", "given" : "Cecilia Hyunjung", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Political Science", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "391-410", "title" : "Economic explanations for opposition to immigration: Distinguishing between prevalence and conditional impact", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "57" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This study analyses the relationship between attitudes toward immigration and deteriorating economic conditions in times of crisis. We examine three questions: First, how are a vulnerable position in the labour market and recent changes to an individual's economic situation related to perceived ethnic threat? Second, what is the role of the nation's economic and immigration context? Last, are relationships at the individual level between economic conditions and perceived ethnic threat affected by contextual variables? Data from 23 countries sampled in the fifth round of the European Social Survey (ESS-5, 2010) is used. At the micro level, unemployment, job insecurity and income deprivation during the three years prior to the survey affect perceived ethnic threat, as predicted by group conflict theory. These effects are, however, relatively small. Among the contextual variables, only growth in gross domestic product (GDP) shows an effect in the expected direction: perceived threat is higher in countries where GDP growth is lower. However, the study design does not allow the conclusion that changes in the economic context lead to changes in attitudes toward immigrants. The significant cross-level interaction for economic growth indicates that the threat-inducing effect of unemployment is stronger in contexts where the growth in GDP is high. This finding contradicts our hypothesis. One could explain this by the emergence of a generalized feeling of economic insecurity in countries severely hit by the economic crisis. In these countries, strong feelings of economic insecurity--and the resulting levels of perceived ethnic threat--might also be present among those who are employed, thereby diminishing the gap between them and the unemployed.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Billiet", "given" : "Jaak", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meuleman", "given" : "Bart", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Witte", "given" : "Hans", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Migration Studies", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "page" : "135-161", "title" : "The relationship between ethnic threat and economic insecurity in times of economic crisis: Analysis of European Social Survey data", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This paper tests hypotheses concerning the effects of economic factors on public opinion toward immigration policy. Using the 1992 and 1994 National Election Study surveys, probit models are employed to test diverse conceptualizations of the effects of economic adversity and anxiety on op- position to immigration. The results indicate that personal economic circumstances play little role in opinion formation, but beliefs about the state of the national economy, anxiety over taxes, and gen- eralized feelings about Hispanics and Asians, the major immigrant groups, are significant determinants of restrictionist sentiment. This restricted role of economic motives rooted in one's personal circum- stances held true across ethnic groups, among residents in communities with different numbers of foreign-born, and in both 1992 and 1994", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Citrin", "given" : "Jack", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Green", "given" : "Donald P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Muste", "given" : "Christopher", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wong", "given" : "Cara", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of Politics", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1997" ] ] }, "page" : "858-881", "title" : "Public opinion toward immigration reform: The role of economic motivations", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "59" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "One of the most established approaches to explain attitudes toward immigration is group conflict theory. However, even though the theory was articulated in dynamic terms, previous research has almost exclu- sively tested it through cross-sectional analyses. The aim of this study is to disentangle the dynamic character of ethnic competition from more permanent determinants of ethnic threat. The findings show that a remarkable variation of concern over immigration, usually attributed to permanent positions of economic vulnerability, disappears when within-person variation is modeled. In line with a dynamic approach of ethnic competition, becoming unemployed or being laid off increases concern over immigration. This effect is independent of social class.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lancee", "given" : "Bram", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pardos-Prado", "given" : "Sergi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Migration Review", "id" : "ITEM-4", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "106-131", "title" : "Group conflict theory in a longitudinal perspective: Analyzing the dynamic side of ethnic competition", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-5", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Do economic considerations shape attitudes toward immigration? In this article, we consider the relationship between economic interests and immigration preferences by examining how developments in individuals' sectors of employment affect these views. Using survey data across European countries from 2002 to 2009 and employing new measures of industry-level exposure to immigration, we find that sectoral economies shape opinions about immigration. Individuals employed in growing sectors are more likely to support immigration than are those employed in shrinking sectors. Moreover, the economic context matters: Making use of the exogenous shock to national economies represented by the 2008 financial crisis, we show that sector-level inflows of immigrant workers have little effect on preferences when economies are expanding, but that they dampen support for immigration when economic conditions deteriorate and confidence in the economy declines. These sectoral effects remain even when controlling for natives' views about the impact of immigration on the national economy and culture. When evaluating immigration policy, individuals thus appear to take into account whether their sector of employment benefits economically from immigration.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dancygier", "given" : "Rafaela M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Donnelly", "given" : "Michael J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of Politics", "id" : "ITEM-5", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "17-35", "title" : "Sectoral economies, economic contexts, and attitudes toward immigration.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "75" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-6", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This paper explores the impact of labor market competition measured within occupations on attitudes toward immigrants in the U.S. including perceived group threat and policy preferences. Multilevel analyses of data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, O*NET, and the General Social Survey demonstrate that labor market competition accounts for threat perceptions \u2013 threat is lower in occupations with greater expected employment growth. Individual-level characteristics also explain differences across occupations. Perceived group threat is higher in some occupations because job incumbents have less education. Occupational differences in threat perceptions account for all occupational differences in policy attitudes.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kunovich", "given" : "Robert M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Migration Review", "id" : "ITEM-6", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "643-685", "title" : "Labor market competition and anti-immigrant sentiment: Occupations as contexts", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Billiet, Meuleman, & De Witte, 2014; Citrin et al., 1997; Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Kunovich, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Malhotra et al., 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Billiet, Meuleman, & De Witte, 2014; Citrin et al., 1997; Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Kunovich, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Malhotra et al., 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Billiet, Meuleman, & De Witte, 2014; Citrin et al., 1997; Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Kunovich, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Malhotra et al., 2013)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Billiet, Meuleman, & De Witte, 2014; Citrin et al., 1997; Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Kunovich, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Malhotra et al., 2013). The underlying justification originates from realistic group conflict theory ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blalock", "given" : "Hubert M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1967" ] ] }, "publisher" : "New York: Capricorn", "title" : "Toward a theory of minority group relations.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blumer", "given" : "Herbert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Pacific Sociological Review", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1958" ] ] }, "page" : "3-7", "title" : "Race prejudice as a sense of group position.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Following the work of Blumer (1958), I extend and test a theory of prejudice based on perceived threats to dominant racial or national groups by subor- dinate groups. Perceived threat is hypothesized to be a function of economic conditions and of the size of the subordinate group relative to the dominant group. I test the group-threat theory using a multilevel model that combines population data with survey results on attitudes towards immigrants and ra- cial minorities from Eurobarometer Survey 30. \"Group threat\" explains most of the variation in average prejudice scores across the 12 countries in the sample and has a small but statistically significant effect on the influence of certain individual-level variables on prejudice. These results demonstrate the importance of perceived intergroup threat in the formation of prejudicial at- titudes and suggest a re-interpretation of past findings on the relations be- tween individual characteristics and expressions of prejudice. L", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Quillian", "given" : "Lincoln", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Sociological Review", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1995" ] ] }, "page" : "586-611", "title" : "Prejudice as a response to perceived group threat : Population composition and anti-immigrant and racial prejudice in Europe", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "60" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958; Quillian, 1995)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958; Quillian, 1995)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958; Quillian, 1995)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958; Quillian, 1995) which asserts that hostile attitudes toward a specific outgroup (usually ethnic or religious minorities, or immigrants) are inspired by rising levels of competition for scarce goods in society, typically jobs or social benefits ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "High levels of worldwide migration paired with increasingly negative attitudes toward immigrants and immigration in host countries indicate that it is crucial to gain an understanding of the bases of these attitudes. This article discusses one determinant of negative attitudes toward immigrants and immigration: perceived competition for resources. We present our instrumental model of group conflict, which suggests that competition for resources, and attempts to remove this competition, are important determinants of intergroup attitudes and behavior. We then review relevant research on perceived competition and attitudes toward immigrants and immigration. We conclude by discussing the implications of this research for attempts to alleviate tension between immigrants and members of host populations, and for our more general model of group conflict.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Esses", "given" : "Victoria M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jackson", "given" : "Lynne M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Armstrong", "given" : "Tamara L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Social Issues", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1998" ] ] }, "page" : "699\u2013724", "title" : "Intergroup competition and attitudes toward immigrants and immigration: An instrumental model of group conflict", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "54" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Esses, Jackson, & Armstrong, 1998)", "manualFormatting" : "(Esses et al. 1998)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Esses, Jackson, & Armstrong, 1998)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Esses, Jackson, & Armstrong, 1998)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Esses et al. 1998). The presence of outgroups in society is anticipated to place a burden on government spending and to contribute to competition in the labour market, putting the often precarious social welfare system under pressure. In times of economic insecurity, citizens search for scapegoats to blame for worsening economic conditions (Kunovich, 2013). Following group conflict theory, the foundation of anti-outgroup attitudes is largely embedded in the economic sphere: economic insecurity elicits ethnic competition for scarce goods ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "One of the most established approaches to explain attitudes toward immigration is group conflict theory. However, even though the theory was articulated in dynamic terms, previous research has almost exclu- sively tested it through cross-sectional analyses. The aim of this study is to disentangle the dynamic character of ethnic competition from more permanent determinants of ethnic threat. The findings show that a remarkable variation of concern over immigration, usually attributed to permanent positions of economic vulnerability, disappears when within-person variation is modeled. In line with a dynamic approach of ethnic competition, becoming unemployed or being laid off increases concern over immigration. This effect is independent of social class.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lancee", "given" : "Bram", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pardos-Prado", "given" : "Sergi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Migration Review", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "106-131", "title" : "Group conflict theory in a longitudinal perspective: Analyzing the dynamic side of ethnic competition", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This paper explores the impact of labor market competition measured within occupations on attitudes toward immigrants in the U.S. including perceived group threat and policy preferences. Multilevel analyses of data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, O*NET, and the General Social Survey demonstrate that labor market competition accounts for threat perceptions \u2013 threat is lower in occupations with greater expected employment growth. Individual-level characteristics also explain differences across occupations. Perceived group threat is higher in some occupations because job incumbents have less education. Occupational differences in threat perceptions account for all occupational differences in policy attitudes.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kunovich", "given" : "Robert M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Migration Review", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "643-685", "title" : "Labor market competition and anti-immigrant sentiment: Occupations as contexts", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kunovich, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kunovich, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kunovich, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Kunovich, 2013; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013). Regarding economic perceptions, studies assessing objective economic factors and subjective perceptions of the economic situation proclaim that particularly the latter are a critical determinant of anti-outgroup attitudes ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "One of the most established approaches to explain attitudes toward immigration is group conflict theory. However, even though the theory was articulated in dynamic terms, previous research has almost exclu- sively tested it through cross-sectional analyses. The aim of this study is to disentangle the dynamic character of ethnic competition from more permanent determinants of ethnic threat. The findings show that a remarkable variation of concern over immigration, usually attributed to permanent positions of economic vulnerability, disappears when within-person variation is modeled. In line with a dynamic approach of ethnic competition, becoming unemployed or being laid off increases concern over immigration. This effect is independent of social class.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lancee", "given" : "Bram", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pardos-Prado", "given" : "Sergi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Migration Review", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "106-131", "title" : "Group conflict theory in a longitudinal perspective: Analyzing the dynamic side of ethnic competition", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blalock", "given" : "Hubert M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1967" ] ] }, "publisher" : "New York: Capricorn", "title" : "Toward a theory of minority group relations.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "What explains variation in individuals\u2019 opposition to immigration? While scholars have consistently shown cultural concerns to be strong predictors of opposition, findings regarding the labor-market competition hypothesis are highly contested. To help understand these divergent results, we distinguish between the prevalence and conditional impact of determinants of immigration attitudes. Leveraging a targeted sampling strategy of high-technology counties, we conduct a study of Americans\u2019 attitudes toward H-1B visas. The plurality of these visas are occupied by Indian immigrants, who are skilled but ethnically distinct, enabling us to measure a specific skill set (high technology) that is threatened by a particular type of immigrant (H-1B visa holders). Unlike recent aggregate studies, our targeted approach reveals that the conditional impact of the relationship in the high-technology sector between economic threat and immigration attitudes is sizable. However, labor-market competition is not a prevalent source of threat and therefore is generally not detected in aggregate analyses.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Malhotra", "given" : "Neil", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Margalit", "given" : "Yotam", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mo", "given" : "Cecilia Hyunjung", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Political Science", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "391-410", "title" : "Economic explanations for opposition to immigration: Distinguishing between prevalence and conditional impact", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "57" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Malhotra et al., 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Malhotra et al., 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Malhotra et al., 2013)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Blalock, 1967; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Malhotra et al., 2013). The psychological underpinning stems from the Thomas theorem: “if men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences” ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thomas", "given" : "William", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thomas", "given" : "Dorothy Swaine", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1928" ] ] }, "publisher" : "New York: A. A. Knopf", "title" : "The child in America: Behavior problems and programs", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Thomas & Thomas, 1928)", "manualFormatting" : "(Thomas and Thomas 1928, p. 572)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Thomas & Thomas, 1928)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Thomas & Thomas, 1928)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Thomas and Thomas 1928, p. 572). In terms of perceived economic threat from outgroups, studies emphasize the pervasiveness of sociotropic considerations about how a country’s economy is performing ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Are concerns about labor market competition a powerful source of anti-immigrant sentiment? Several prominent studies have examined survey data on voters and concluded that fears about the negative effects of immigration on wages and employment play a major role generating anti-immigrant attitudes. We examine new data from a targeted survey of U.S. employees in 12 different industries. In contrast with previous studies, the findings indicate that fears about labor market competition do not appear to have substantial effects on attitudes toward immigration, and preferences with regard to immigration policy, among this large and diverse set of voters.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hainmueller", "given" : "Jens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hiscox", "given" : "Michael J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Margalit", "given" : "Yotam", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of International Economics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "193-207", "title" : "Do concerns about labor market competition shape attitudes toward immigration? New evidence", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "97" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Do economic considerations shape attitudes toward immigration? In this article, we consider the relationship between economic interests and immigration preferences by examining how developments in individuals' sectors of employment affect these views. Using survey data across European countries from 2002 to 2009 and employing new measures of industry-level exposure to immigration, we find that sectoral economies shape opinions about immigration. Individuals employed in growing sectors are more likely to support immigration than are those employed in shrinking sectors. Moreover, the economic context matters: Making use of the exogenous shock to national economies represented by the 2008 financial crisis, we show that sector-level inflows of immigrant workers have little effect on preferences when economies are expanding, but that they dampen support for immigration when economic conditions deteriorate and confidence in the economy declines. These sectoral effects remain even when controlling for natives' views about the impact of immigration on the national economy and culture. When evaluating immigration policy, individuals thus appear to take into account whether their sector of employment benefits economically from immigration.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Dancygier", "given" : "Rafaela M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Donnelly", "given" : "Michael J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of Politics", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "17-35", "title" : "Sectoral economies, economic contexts, and attitudes toward immigration.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "75" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Hainmueller, Hiscox, & Margalit, 2015)", "manualFormatting" : "(Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Hainmueller, Hiscox, & Margalit, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Hainmueller, Hiscox, & Margalit, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Hainmueller, Hiscox, & Margalit, 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Dancygier & Donnelly, 2013; Hainmueller, Hiscox, & Margalit, 2015). Sociotropic considerations signal citizens’ perspectives on one of the most critical aspects of a society, since the state of the economy affects the well-being and welfare of all citizens ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mutz", "given" : "Diana C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Political Science", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1992" ] ] }, "page" : "483-508", "title" : "Mass media and the depoliticization of personal experience", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "36" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Mutz, 1992)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Mutz, 1992)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Mutz, 1992)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Mutz, 1992). Evidence shows that sociotropic judgments of national economic performance are influential, whereas personal socioeconomic circumstances are of subordinate importance (Citrin et al., 1997). In line with group conflict theory, citizens’ subjective perceptions of how their country’s economy is doing (sociotropic considerations) should exert a strong influence on attitudes towards outgroups: the perception that the country’s economy is performing poorly is expected to give rise to feelings of competition in the labour market and to the perception that increasing outgroup presence places a financial burden on society, resulting in higher levels of anti-outgroup attitudes. Optimistic sociotropic considerations, however, should have the opposite effect. Typically outgroups, such as immigrants or groups with different ethnic or religious backgrounds, are seen as undeserving. In many western societies, Muslims are — as well as being seen as culturally and religiously distant and threatening — often perceived to have low socioeconomic status, contributing less to society. In the minds of the native population, Muslims are sometimes considered to be less entitled to particular rights and privileges, due to their reputation as intruders, outsiders and free riders (Strabac & Listhaug, 2008). We therefore hypothesize that:H5: The more optimistic perceptions about the country’s economy are, the less negative attitudes toward Muslims will be.In addition to cognitive assessments of how a country’s economy is performing, social psychological studies have complemented the dominant line of research by including affective factors that may also shape attitudes towards Muslims ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Intergroup emotions theory seeks to understand and improve intergroup relations by focusing on the emotions engendered by belonging to, and by deriving identity from, a social group (processes called self-categorization and identification). Intergroup emotions are shaped by the very different ways in which members of different groups see group-relevant objects and events. These emotions come, with time and repetition, to be part and parcel of group membership itself. Once evoked, specific intergroup emotions direct and regulate specific intergroup behaviors. This approach has implications for theories of emotion as well as of intergroup relations. Because intergroup emotions derive from self-categorization and identification and because they strongly influence intergroup behavior, intergroup emotions theory provides an innovative framework for attempts to reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mackie", "given" : "Diane M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Smith", "given" : "Eliot R.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ray", "given" : "Devin G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social and Personality Psychology Compass", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "1866-1880", "title" : "Intergroup emotions and intergroup relations", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Mackie, Smith, & Ray, 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Mackie, Smith, & Ray, 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Mackie, Smith, & Ray, 2008)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Mackie, Smith, & Ray, 2008). Prior research, building upon intergroup emotions theory ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Smith", "given" : "Eliot R.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception", "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mackie", "given" : "Diane M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hamilton", "given" : "D. L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1993" ] ] }, "publisher" : "San Diego, CA: Academic Press", "title" : "Social identity and social emotions: Toward new conceptualizations of prejudice.", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Smith, 1993)", "manualFormatting" : "(Smith, 1993)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Smith, 1993)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Smith, 1993)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Smith, 1993), showed that emotional responses are instrumental in shaping attitudes towards outgroups. Particular attention has been paid to negative emotions, most notably anger and fear ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The authors suggest that the traditional conception of prejudice--as a general attitude or evaluation--can problematically obscure the rich texturing of emotions that people feel toward different groups. Derived from a sociofunctional approach, the authors predicted that groups believed to pose qualitatively distinct threats to in-group resources or processes would evoke qualitatively distinct and functionally relevant emotional reactions. Participants' reactions to a range of social groups provided a data set unique in the scope of emotional reactions and threat beliefs explored. As predicted, different groups elicited different profiles of emotion and threat reactions, and this diversity was often masked by general measures of prejudice and threat. Moreover, threat and emotion profiles were associated with one another in the manner predicted: Specific classes of threat were linked to specific, functionally relevant emotions, and groups similar in the threat profiles they elicited were also similar in the emotion profiles they elicited.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cottrell", "given" : "Catherine A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Neuberg", "given" : "Steven L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "page" : "770-789", "title" : "Different emotional reactions to different groups: a sociofunctional threat-based approach to \"prejudice\".", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "88" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Intergroup emotions theory seeks to understand and improve intergroup relations by focusing on the emotions engendered by belonging to, and by deriving identity from, a social group (processes called self-categorization and identification). Intergroup emotions are shaped by the very different ways in which members of different groups see group-relevant objects and events. These emotions come, with time and repetition, to be part and parcel of group membership itself. Once evoked, specific intergroup emotions direct and regulate specific intergroup behaviors. This approach has implications for theories of emotion as well as of intergroup relations. Because intergroup emotions derive from self-categorization and identification and because they strongly influence intergroup behavior, intergroup emotions theory provides an innovative framework for attempts to reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mackie", "given" : "Diane M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Smith", "given" : "Eliot R.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ray", "given" : "Devin G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social and Personality Psychology Compass", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "1866-1880", "title" : "Intergroup emotions and intergroup relations", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "We examine whether and how elite discourse shapes mass opinion and action on immigration policy. One popular but untested suspicion is that reactions to news about the costs of immigration depend upon who the immigrants are. We confirmthis suspicion in a nationally representative experiment: news about the costs of immigration boostswhite opposition far more when Latino immigrants, rather than European immigrants, are featured. We find these group cues influence opinion and political action by triggering emotions\u2014in particular, anxiety\u2014not simply by changing beliefs about the severity of the immigration problem. A second experiment replicates these findings but also confirms their sensitivity to the stereotypic consistency of group cues and their context.While these results echo recent insights about the power of anxiety, they also suggest the public is susceptible to error and manipulation when group cues trigger anxiety independently of the actual threat posed by the group. m", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Brader", "given" : "Ted", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Valentino", "given" : "Nicholas A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Suhay", "given" : "Elizabeth", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Political Science", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "959-978", "title" : "What triggers public opposition to immigration? Anxiety, group cues, and immigration threat", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "52" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Brader, Valentino, & Suhay, 2008; Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005; Mackie et al., 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Brader, Valentino, & Suhay, 2008; Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005; Mackie et al., 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Brader, Valentino, & Suhay, 2008; Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005; Mackie et al., 2008)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Brader, Valentino, & Suhay, 2008; Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005; Mackie et al., 2008). Anger and fear are considered basic emotions, and, arguing from a socio-functional approach, both emotional responses become prominent when essential resources and privileges are being endangered ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The authors suggest that the traditional conception of prejudice--as a general attitude or evaluation--can problematically obscure the rich texturing of emotions that people feel toward different groups. Derived from a sociofunctional approach, the authors predicted that groups believed to pose qualitatively distinct threats to in-group resources or processes would evoke qualitatively distinct and functionally relevant emotional reactions. Participants' reactions to a range of social groups provided a data set unique in the scope of emotional reactions and threat beliefs explored. As predicted, different groups elicited different profiles of emotion and threat reactions, and this diversity was often masked by general measures of prejudice and threat. Moreover, threat and emotion profiles were associated with one another in the manner predicted: Specific classes of threat were linked to specific, functionally relevant emotions, and groups similar in the threat profiles they elicited were also similar in the emotion profiles they elicited.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cottrell", "given" : "Catherine A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Neuberg", "given" : "Steven L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "page" : "770-789", "title" : "Different emotional reactions to different groups: a sociofunctional threat-based approach to \"prejudice\".", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "88" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)", "manualFormatting" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005). Individuals construct emotional responses toward economic reality, and these emotions may subsequently affect political attitudes ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Berezin", "given" : "Mabel", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Theory and Society", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "335\u2013346", "title" : "Exploring emotions and the economy: New contributions from sociological theory", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "38" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This study explores theoretically the general role of emotions in political evaluation and examines empirically the specific question of how emotional reactions to the economy have influenced evaluations of the economic performance of Ronald Reagan and his administra- tion. This empirical analysis employs data collected in Lexington, Kentucky, and measures emotional reactions with a format similar to that used in the 1980 National Election Study. Generally, the results indicate that (1) positive and negative reactions to the economy are to a certain degree independent; (2) affective and cognitive reactions to economic conditions are only weakly correlated, especially at the national level; and (3) emotional reactions to both personal and national economic conditions are important in explaining political evaluations", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Conover", "given" : "Pamela Johnston", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Feldman", "given" : "Stanley", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Political Science", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1986" ] ] }, "page" : "50-78", "title" : "Emotional reactions to the economy: I'm mad as hell and I'm not going to take it anymore", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "30" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Berezin, 2009; Conover & Feldman, 1986)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Berezin, 2009; Conover & Feldman, 1986)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Berezin, 2009; Conover & Feldman, 1986)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Berezin, 2009; Conover & Feldman, 1986). For instance, as noted by Na et al. ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This study aimed to analyze the respective effects of cognitive and emotional elements on political judgments, and the effects of media use and political talk on those two elements. Along with the cognitive judgment about political and economic issues/policies, we explored the effect of emotional responses to political and economic situations. During this process, we also looked at the effect of media use and interpersonal communication channels. By analyzing survey data gathered in December 2007, it was first found that voters\u2019 cognitive judgment and emotional responses to political and economic situations, respectively, affected their evaluation of the incumbent president. Second, emotional reactions such as \u2018pride\u2019 in politics, and \u2018hope\u2019 and \u2018anger\u2019 for economics, showed significant influence on their evaluation of the president\u2019s performance. Third, voters\u2019 patterns of media use and interpersonal talk appeared to exert significant influences on those cognitive judgments and emotional responses to political and economic reality.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Na", "given" : "Eun Kyung", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lee", "given" : "Gang Heong", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kim", "given" : "Hyun Suk", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Asian Journal of Communication", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "124-138", "title" : "\"Everything is always President Roh\u201ds fault?\u2019: Emotional reactions to politics and economy as sources of presidential evaluations and the role of media use and interpersonal communication.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Na et al., 2010)", "manualFormatting" : "(2010 p. 125)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Na et al., 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Na et al., 2010)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(2010 p. 125): “People may be worried about the decrease of the export rate, angry about unemployment or inflation.” Following cognitive appraisal theory, particular situational characteristics are instrumental in eliciting distinct types of emotional responses ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Roseman", "given" : "I. 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Derived from a sociofunctional approach, the authors predicted that groups believed to pose qualitatively distinct threats to in-group resources or processes would evoke qualitatively distinct and functionally relevant emotional reactions. Participants' reactions to a range of social groups provided a data set unique in the scope of emotional reactions and threat beliefs explored. As predicted, different groups elicited different profiles of emotion and threat reactions, and this diversity was often masked by general measures of prejudice and threat. Moreover, threat and emotion profiles were associated with one another in the manner predicted: Specific classes of threat were linked to specific, functionally relevant emotions, and groups similar in the threat profiles they elicited were also similar in the emotion profiles they elicited.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cottrell", "given" : "Catherine A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Neuberg", "given" : "Steven L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "page" : "770-789", "title" : "Different emotional reactions to different groups: a sociofunctional threat-based approach to \"prejudice\".", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "88" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)", "manualFormatting" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005); this holds particularly when citizens feel entitled to a specific outcome ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Roseman", "given" : "I. 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Derived from a sociofunctional approach, the authors predicted that groups believed to pose qualitatively distinct threats to in-group resources or processes would evoke qualitatively distinct and functionally relevant emotional reactions. Participants' reactions to a range of social groups provided a data set unique in the scope of emotional reactions and threat beliefs explored. As predicted, different groups elicited different profiles of emotion and threat reactions, and this diversity was often masked by general measures of prejudice and threat. Moreover, threat and emotion profiles were associated with one another in the manner predicted: Specific classes of threat were linked to specific, functionally relevant emotions, and groups similar in the threat profiles they elicited were also similar in the emotion profiles they elicited.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cottrell", "given" : "Catherine A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Neuberg", "given" : "Steven L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "page" : "770-789", "title" : "Different emotional reactions to different groups: a sociofunctional threat-based approach to \"prejudice\".", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "88" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)", "manualFormatting" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Cottrell & Neuberg, 2005), and when others — outgroups — are held responsible for a given outcome, resulting in feelings of a lack of control and insecurity. Economic uncertainty may therefore lead to the expression of negative emotions, like fear and anger. These negative emotions about the economy may subsequently impact anti-outgroup attitudes, like anti-Muslim attitudes, whenever outgroup presence is perceived to cause insecurity or vulnerability due to perceived unfairness in terms of economic and social benefits. Similarly, negative emotions about the economy may also affect anti-outgroups attitudes when outgroups are perceived to benefit from social resources or to compete on the labour market at the expense of citizens belonging to the dominant native majority.In sum, the theoretical framework suggest that negative emotions about the economy may be determinants of anti-Muslim attitudes ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Despite renewed interest in the affective and cognitive properties of attitudes, assessment of these constructs is plagued by a number of problems. Some techniques for overcoming these problems are outlined, and scales for assessing the affective and cognitive properties of attitudes are reported. Two studies examine the reliability and validity of these scales. Study 1 assesses the internal consistency and the discriminant and convergent validity of these scales and indicates that the scales are useful for assessing the affective and cognitive properties of attitudes toward a wide range of objects. In Study 2, the ability of the scales to differentiate attitudes that are based primarily on affective versus cognitive information is examined by experimentally creating affective or cognitive attitudes in subjects. Analyses reveal that the scales can differentiate between people whose attitudes are based primarily on either affective or cognitive information.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Crites", "given" : "Stephen L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fabrigar", "given" : "Leander R.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Petty", "given" : "Richard E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1994" ] ] }, "page" : "619-634", "title" : "Measuring the affective and cognitive properties of attitudes: Conceptual and methodological issues.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Past research suggests that beliefs and emotions operate as partially distinct deter of political attitudes. In addition, while positive and negative beliefs about a p object are bipolar in structure, positive and negative emotions have been demonstr be relatively independent. In this past research, beliefs and emotions have been with different measures. Yet current models of survey responding suggest that re to survey items are often influenced by the manner in which the researcher p questions. As such, it is not clear whether the uniqueness of these belief and e measures reflects a bona fide difference between two underlying constructs, or m artifactual difference induced by differing methods of measurement. In this study and emotions are shown to operate as partially unique predictors of candidate ev even when employing corresponding methods of measurement. The independenc itive and negative emotion, however, only arises when employing a dichotomo sure. When employing ordinal measures, positive and negative emotions contai stantial component of bipolarity. The theoretical implications of these find discussed", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ottati", "given" : "Victor C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Steenbergen", "given" : "Marco R.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Riggle", "given" : "Ellen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Political Behavior", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1992" ] ] }, "page" : "423-442", "title" : "The cognitive and affective components of political attitudes: Measuring the determinants of candidate evaluations.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "14" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Crites, Fabrigar, & Petty, 1994; Ottati, Steenbergen, & Riggle, 1992)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Crites, Fabrigar, & Petty, 1994; Ottati, Steenbergen, & Riggle, 1992)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Crites, Fabrigar, & Petty, 1994; Ottati, Steenbergen, & Riggle, 1992)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Crites, Fabrigar, & Petty, 1994; Ottati, Steenbergen, & Riggle, 1992). Extant studies have suggested that emotions may play a mediating role in the relationship between exposure to news frames about immigration and anti-immigrant attitudes ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The underlying psychological processes that enable framing effects are often described as cognitive. Yet, recent studies suggest that framing effects may also be mediated by emotional response. The role of specific emotions in mediating the framing effect process, however, has yet to be fully empirically investigated. In an experimental survey design (n = 161), this study tests two positive (enthusiasm and contentment) and two negative emotions (anger and fear) as mediators of framing effects. Our results show that while anger and enthusiasm mediate a framing effect, contentment and fear do not. These find- ings deepen our understanding of which discrete emotions are relevant when studying mediated framing effects.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lecheler", "given" : "Sophie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schuck", "given" : "Andreas R.T.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vreese", "given" : "Claes H.", "non-dropping-particle" : "de", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Communications - The European Journal of Communication Research", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "189-209", "title" : "Dealing with feelings: Positive and negative discrete emotions as mediators of news framing effects", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "38" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Current approaches explain the effects of news frames on judgments in terms of cognitive mechanisms, such as accessibility and applicability effects. We investigated the emotional effects of two news frames\u2014an \u201canger\u201d frame and a \u201csadness\u201d frame\u2014on information processing and opinion formation. We found that the two frames produced different levels of anger and sadness. Furthermore, the anger frame increased the accessibility of information about punishment and the preference for punitive measures in comparison with the sadness frame and the control group. In contrast, the sadness frame increased the accessibility of information about help for victims and the preference for remedial measures. More importantly, these effects were mediated by the anger and sadness that were elicited by the news frames.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kuhne", "given" : "Rinaldo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schemer", "given" : "Christian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Communication Research", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "387-407", "title" : "The emotional effects of news frames on information processing and opinion formation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "42" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kuhne & Schemer, 2015; Lecheler et al., 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kuhne & Schemer, 2015; Lecheler et al., 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kuhne & Schemer, 2015; Lecheler et al., 2013)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Kuhne & Schemer, 2015; Lecheler et al., 2013). We complement this line of research, and focus specifically on emotions about the economy following group conflict theory. Since theory leads us to expect similar mechanisms for anger and fear, we hypothesize that: H6: Stronger negative emotions regarding the economy cause more negative attitudes toward Muslims.This study complements prior work by considering the role of cognitive (economic perceptions) and affective (emotions) applications of economic evaluations as a mediator between news consumption and anti-Muslim attitudes. We suggest that one missing piece of the puzzle is the role of news consumption in shaping economic perceptions and emotional responses about the economy, which may subsequently impact anti-Muslim attitudes. Empirical Background: The Dutch Case The politicization of Islam ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Strabac", "given" : "Zan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Listhaug", "given" : "Ola", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Social Science Research", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "268-286", "title" : "Anti-Muslim prejudice in Europe: A multilevel analysis of survey data from 30 countries", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "37" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Strabac & Listhaug, 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Strabac & Listhaug, 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Strabac & Listhaug, 2008)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Strabac & Listhaug, 2008) makes the Netherlands a relevant case in which to consider effects of news consumption on anti-Muslim attitudes. Like other European countries, the Netherlands has witnessed the rise of radical-right parties: Geert Wilders’ Freedom Party (PVV) has won substantial votes during recent elections and gained a substantial share of seats in parliament. The PVV adopts a fierce stance against islamization and multiculturalism (Vossen, 2011). Public policies in the Netherlands have changed substantially, from being multicultural in nature in the 1980s, stressing the importance of socioeconomic participation of migrants in the 1990s, to emphasis on assimilation in the past decade-and-a-half ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Dutch immigrant integration policies have often been labelled \u2018multi- culturalist\u2019. This article empirically and conceptually challenges the idea of a Dutch multicultural model. First, it deconstructs the image that Dutch policies would have been driven by a single, coherent and consistent model, by drawing attention to the much more dynamic processes of problem framing, frame-shifts and frame conflicts that characterize Dutch policymaking. Second \u2013 and as a result of this dynamic perspective \u2013 it will become clear that Dutch policies were not that multicultural at all. Adopting a neo-institutionalist perspective, it reconceptualizes \u2018models of integration\u2019 as specific discourses or \u2018frames\u2019. On the basis of a rigorous analysis of policy documents and public debate (media records and parliamentary records), as well as an extensive review of the Dutch and international literature, the article analyzes how immigrant integration policies in the Netherlands have been framed over the past decades, and how the rise and fall of specific frames can be accounted for", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Duyvendak", "given" : "Jan Willem", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Scholten", "given" : "Peter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Comparative European Politics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "266-282", "title" : "Deconstructing the Dutch multicultural model: A frame perspective on Dutch immigrant integration policymaking.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "10" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Duyvendak & Scholten, 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Duyvendak & Scholten, 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Duyvendak & Scholten, 2012)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Duyvendak & Scholten, 2012). After 9/11 and terrorist attacks in Europe, the assassinations of populist politician Pim Fortuyn in 2002 and film-maker Theo van Gogh, the media and public debate changed considerably ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Three studies examined whether the perceived typicality of a threatening outgroup actor in media messages alters threat effects on attitudes toward the entire outgroup; and whether outgroup (dis)approval of the actor influences perceived typicality. Study 1 measured Dutch majority attitudes toward Moroccans before and after the Van Gogh murder by a Moroccan- Dutch Muslim. Low perceived typicality of the murderer mitigated less favorable attitudes toward Moroccans after the murder. Study 2 used a newspaper report involving a Moroccan perpetrator to manipulate (dis)approval by other Moroccans. Controlling for prior attitudes toward Moroccans, outgroup disapproval effectively reduced the perceived typicality of the perpetrator as a Moroccan. Study 3 manipulated threat to Psychology students\u2019 identity by an Economy student\u2019s insulting behavior and (dis)approval by other Economy students in a campus magazine interview. Outgroup disapproval reduced the perceived typicality of the insulting student and buffered threat effects on Psychology students\u2019 attitudes toward Economy students. We conclude that outgroup disapproval buffers threat effects of nega- tive outgroup behavior in mass media on outgroup attitudes through reducing perceived typicality.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meeussen", "given" : "Loes", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Phalet", "given" : "Karen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meeus", "given" : "Joke", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Acker", "given" : "Kaat", "non-dropping-particle" : "Van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Montreuil", "given" : "Annie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bourhis", "given" : "Richard", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Journal of Intercultural Relations", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "146-158", "title" : "\u201cThey are all the same\": Low perceived typicality and outgroup disapproval as buffers of intergroup threat in mass media", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "37" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "In this article we reconstruct how the issues of migration and integration have been framed in the Dutch public debate over the last decade. We examine the patterns in both the parliamentary arena and the media and look at similarities and differences between them. On the basis of two contradictory theories, we formulate hypotheses about overlap and differences between the two arenas and diversity within them. Our results reveal incongruence in framing between them. After 9/11, however, the framing in which Islam is perceived as a threat to Western society becomes dominant in both arenas. Furthermore, we do not find any proof of the idea that the media act as a civic forum, with a high diversity of framing. Framing in parliament, instead, is far more diverse. In contrast to the hegemonic framing in the media, the Islam-as-threat frame is actively contested in the political realm.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Roggeband", "given" : "Conny", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "West European Politics", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "524-548", "title" : "Divergent framing: The public debate on migration in the Dutch parliament and media, 1995\u20132004", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "30" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Meeussen et al., 2013; Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007)", "manualFormatting" : "(Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Meeussen et al., 2013; Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Meeussen et al., 2013; Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007), with anti-Muslim framing and sentiments gaining a prominent place. Although European integration and the Schengen agreement resulted in substantial immigration from Central and Eastern Europe, public debates largely focus on outgroups with an Islamic background, mostly people with Moroccan and Turkish roots who strongly identify with Islam ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "In this article we reconstruct how the issues of migration and integration have been framed in the Dutch public debate over the last decade. We examine the patterns in both the parliamentary arena and the media and look at similarities and differences between them. On the basis of two contradictory theories, we formulate hypotheses about overlap and differences between the two arenas and diversity within them. Our results reveal incongruence in framing between them. After 9/11, however, the framing in which Islam is perceived as a threat to Western society becomes dominant in both arenas. Furthermore, we do not find any proof of the idea that the media act as a civic forum, with a high diversity of framing. Framing in parliament, instead, is far more diverse. In contrast to the hegemonic framing in the media, the Islam-as-threat frame is actively contested in the political realm.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Roggeband", "given" : "Conny", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "West European Politics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "524-548", "title" : "Divergent framing: The public debate on migration in the Dutch parliament and media, 1995\u20132004", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "30" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "D'Haenens", "given" : "Leen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bink", "given" : "Susan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Media, Culture & Society", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "135-149", "title" : "Islam in the Dutch press: with special attention to the Algemeen Dagblad", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "29" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(D\u2019Haenens & Bink, 2007; Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007)", "manualFormatting" : "(Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(D\u2019Haenens & Bink, 2007; Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(D\u2019Haenens & Bink, 2007; Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007). They are the largest outgroup in Dutch society. Notably, Muslims are appraised more negatively by Dutch natives than any other outgroup ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Results of social distance research suggest the existence of consensual ethnic hierarchies in social distance in Western societies. The phenomenon comprises an ingroup bias and a pattern of cumulative intergroup biases on which majority and minority groups appear to agree. In this chapter an explanation is sought for this phenomenon. Realistic conflict theory and social identity theory seem to be able to explain certain aspects of it, such as ingroup bias and the ethnic hierarchies of subordinate ethnic groups, but not the ethnic hierarchy of dominant ethnic groups and intergroup consensus. These aspects may be explained by a model about the different functionality of stereotypes for dominant and subordi- nate ethnic groups. In order to test these explanations, the generality of ingroup bias, the cumulative structure of intergroup bias and the existence of intergroup consensus on the ethnic hierarchy are investigated in different societies.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hagendoorn", "given" : "Louk", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "European Review of Social Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1995" ] ] }, "page" : "199-228", "title" : "Intergroup biases in multiple group systems: The perception of ethnic hierarchies", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "6" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hagendoorn, 1995)", "manualFormatting" : "(Hagendoorn, 1995)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hagendoorn, 1995)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hagendoorn, 1995)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Hagendoorn, 1995). The Dutch media landscape is characterized by a wide variety of media outlets that are independent from political parties and highly professionalized. The Netherlands has a strong public broadcasting system, where air time is divided among public broadcast organizations that originally represented different ideologically separated groups (‘pillars’) in Dutch society based on their membership numbers ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Abstract This article provides an analysis of Dutch election posters in the period from 1946 to 2006. Based on the literature on the professionalization of political communication, several hypotheses are formulated regarding changes in textual and visual elements of those posters. These hypotheses focus on over-time changes in the presence and prominence of the party leader and party logo\u2019s as well as references to specific political issues and ideology in these posters. In total, 225 posters for 23 parties in 19 elections are analyzed. Results reveal that changes in visual elements are in line with the hypotheses, with an increased use of party logo, an increasing presence and prominence of the party leader, and a decreasing focus on ideology. The textual parts of the posters, however, show no or opposite trends. The results call for a more nuanced scientific treatment of the consequences of the professionalization of political communication and demonstrate the necessity to analyze both visual and textual elements of political parties\u2019 communication.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Behavioral Scientist", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "135-150", "title" : "The professionalization of political communication? A longitudinal analysis of campaign posters.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "56" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Vliegenthart, 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Vliegenthart, 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Vliegenthart, 2012)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Vliegenthart, 2012). Typically, political actors and their political discourse about issues like the economy and integration are prominent news topics ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This article elucidates the role of issue news and personality news in Germany and the Netherlands. A party with a popular leader is assumed to benefit from increased media attention. A party may also benefit from issue news. News on an issue favours its `issue owner' (e.g. the German Social Democrats in the case of news on social security). Good news on issue developments (e.g. rising employment) favours the parties who make up the Dutch coalition government, whereas bad news (e.g. rising unemployment) favours opposition parties. Content analysis of the 1994 and 1998 election campaigns in Germany and the Netherlands shows that issue news and personality portrayal vary heavily between countries and between subsequent elections within one country. A broad comparison of news patterns and election outcomes suggests that election outcomes do indeed correspond with the news. A closer examination of effects of news about issues and party leaders on party preference at the level of individual respondents confirms the results of the exploratory analysis.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kleinnijenhuis", "given" : "Jan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Maurer", "given" : "Marcus", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kepplinger", "given" : "Hans Mathias", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Oegema", "given" : "Dirk", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "European Journal of Communication", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "337-359", "title" : "Isues and personalities in German and Dutch television news", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "16" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kleinnijenhuis, Maurer, Kepplinger, & Oegema, 2001)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kleinnijenhuis, Maurer, Kepplinger, & Oegema, 2001)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kleinnijenhuis, Maurer, Kepplinger, & Oegema, 2001)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Kleinnijenhuis, Maurer, Kepplinger, & Oegema, 2001). Dutch news media are a dominant locus of political debate with a diversity of viewpoints and a multitude of issues being covered. The importance of news content in boosting anti-immigrant party support has been demonstrated empirically ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Anti-immigrant populism is on the rise throughout western Europe. Traditionally, economic and immigration-related factors are used to explain support for anti-immigrant parties at the aggregate level. Until recently, the role of news media has received only limited attention. The present study assesses the power of news content as an explanatory contextual factor, simultaneously con- trolling for the unemployment rate, the level of immigration, and leadership in the Netherlands for the period from 1990 to 2002. The results show that the prominence of immigration issues in national newspapers has a significant and positive impact: The more news media reported about immigration-related topics, the higher the aggregate share of vote intention for anti-immigrant parties, even when controlling for real-world developments. Future research explaining anti-immigrant party success needs to take into account the role of news media content", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boomgaarden", "given" : "Hajo G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Electoral Studies", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "404-417", "title" : "Explaining the rise of anti-immigrant parties: The role of news media content", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "26" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Boomgaarden & Vliegenthart, 2007)", "manualFormatting" : "(Boomgaarden & Vliegenthart, 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Boomgaarden & Vliegenthart, 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Boomgaarden & Vliegenthart, 2007)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Boomgaarden & Vliegenthart, 2007). The Dutch economy was affected by the economic crisis that started in 2008. Recently, however, there has been a stabilization, increase in GNP and employment levels. Overall, economic news in the Netherlands follows economic developments, but is especially sensitive to negative ones ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This paper studies the empirical relationship between the real economy, consumer confi- dence and economic news coverage in national newspapers for the Netherlands during the period 1990\u20132009. Media-attention for economic developments is associated with con- sumer confidence, with more negative news decreasing consumer confidence; this result holds after controlling for the real economy (stock-market). The relationship differs for dif- ferent business-cycles. The effect is in particular stronger for the months following the beginning of the credit-crisis. This suggests that in line with many popular concerns neg- ative news is among factors influencing the hardness of the landing of the current credit- crisis.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hollanders", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Economic Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "367-373.", "title" : "The influence of negative newspaper coverage on consumer confidence: The Dutch case.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "32" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011). Method DataWe use data from a three-wave panel survey conducted in the first half of 2015 by I&O Research, an ISO-certified research company, among a sample of the Dutch adult population. Respondents were selected using random sampling from population registers, leaving no option for self-registering. The time between each wave was 8 weeks. Exact fielding dates were February 23 (Wave 1), April 20 (Wave 2), and June 15, 2015 (Wave 3). While respondents had 24 days to complete the survey, the majority did so in the first days after its opening. The survey was conducted online: Internet access is nearly universal in the Netherlands, with one of the highest rates (96%) globally. In the spring of 2015, the EU migration crisis erupted with many refugees fleeing from Muslim countries, making immigration a salient theme, adding relevance to our analysis. Between the waves, no major changes/events took place in terms of economic development; the latter showing mixed signs of economic recovery. 22,879 people older than 18 were invited to participate in Wave 1: 9,112 started the questionnaire (response rate: 39.8%), of which 6,386 completed the survey (completion rate: 70.1%). In Wave 2 only those respondents that participated in Wave 1 were invited again: 4,301 respondents completed the questionnaire (completion rate: 69.0%). From those respondents, 3,270 completed Wave 3 (completion rate: 77.0%). Our analysis includes those respondents that completed all three waves without missing values on the variables in the analysis, resulting in a final sample of 2,694 adults. While drop-out is significant, response rates are similar to or better than other recently published studies based upon online surveys in the Dutch context ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "It is still not well understood how the media affect anti-immigrant party voting. In this paper, we argue and demonstrate empirically that mere exposure to immigration- and crime-related news is positively related to the likelihood that a voter casts a vote for an anti-immigrant party. On the basis of a media content analysis (N=20,084 news items) in combination with a voter panel survey (N=17,014 respondents) conducted in 11 European countries we find for several anti-immigrant parties that - ceteris paribus - exposure to news about immigration or crime increases voters' probabilities to vote for these parties. We discuss our findings in light of prior research on issue ownership, and their implications for the role of the mass media in established democracies.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Burscher", "given" : "Bjorn", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Spanje", "given" : "Joost", "non-dropping-particle" : "Van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vreese", "given" : "Claes H.", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Electoral Studies", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "59-69", "publisher" : "Elsevier Ltd", "title" : "Owning the issues of crime and immigration: The relation between immigration and crime news and anti-immigrant voting in 11 countries", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "38" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This study investigates the role of emotions in the (bandwagon) effect of opinion polls on vote choice. It combines a media content analysis of poll reporting (N \u00bc 2,772)on an individual basis with a two wave panel survey (N \u00bc 1,064) during the 2013 German Bundestag election campaign. Results show that anxiety and enthusiasm mediate the effect of poll exposure on vote choice. Furthermore, the effect of polls on vote choice is found to be a consequence of how these polls are presented in the media. Polls are more than neutral interim campaign statistics, as they influence vote choice, and do so partly because of the emotions they evoke", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Stolwijk", "given" : "Sjoerd B.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schuck", "given" : "Andreas R. T.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vreese", "given" : "Claes H.", "non-dropping-particle" : "de", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Journal of Public Opinion Research", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "title" : "How anxiety and enthusiasm help explain the bandwagon effect", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Burscher, Van Spanje, & De Vreese, 2015; Stolwijk, Schuck, & de Vreese, 2016)", "manualFormatting" : "(e.g., Burscher, Van Spanje, & De Vreese, 2015; Stolwijk, Schuck, & de Vreese, 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Burscher, Van Spanje, & De Vreese, 2015; Stolwijk, Schuck, & de Vreese, 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Burscher, Van Spanje, & De Vreese, 2015; Stolwijk, Schuck, & de Vreese, 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(e.g., Burscher, Van Spanje, & De Vreese, 2015; Stolwijk, Schuck, & de Vreese, 2016). Our sample slightly deviates from the general Dutch population with an overrepresentation of older (M=61.45, SD=11.08), male (66%), and highly educated respondents (51% obtained a university degree). These statistics do not differ substantially from those of all participants in Wave 1. Since we are interested in the underlying mechanism rather than in drawing generalizable conclusions and providing population parameters, the slight deviations from the Dutch population are not too problematic for our purpose. Methodologically, in this case a heterogeneous sample with considerable variation is sufficient. We prefer not to use weights in our (SEM) analyses, which brings its own issues and complications. Ideally, the sample would have been more representative. Yet, overrepresentation of highly educated people presents a conservative test of our hypotheses, since this group typically displays lower anti-Muslim attitudes and are less susceptible to media exposure. Importantly, our results correspond to findings in the literature based upon relatively more representative samples.MeasurementsDependent Variable. Being the most salient and heavily debated outgroup in the Netherlands ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "D'Haenens", "given" : "Leen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bink", "given" : "Susan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Media, Culture & Society", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "135-149", "title" : "Islam in the Dutch press: with special attention to the Algemeen Dagblad", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "29" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(D\u2019Haenens & Bink, 2007)", "manualFormatting" : "(Hagendoorn, 1995)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(D\u2019Haenens & Bink, 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(D\u2019Haenens & Bink, 2007)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Hagendoorn, 1995), negative attitudes toward Muslims are studied as clear case of anti-outgroup attitudes in the Dutch context. Prior research in Western Europe shows that hostile attitudes typically target outgroups which are non-European in origin, with distinct cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds, like Muslims ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Semyonov", "given" : "Moshe", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Raijman", "given" : "Rebeca", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gorodzeisky", "given" : "Anastasia", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Sociological Review", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "page" : "426-449", "title" : "The rise of anti-foreigner sentiment in European societies, 1988\u20132000", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "71" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Semyonov et al., 2006)", "manualFormatting" : "(Semyonov et al. 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Semyonov et al., 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Semyonov et al., 2006)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Semyonov et al. 2006). An attitude has been described by Fishbein and Ajzen ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fishbein", "given" : "Martin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ajzen", "given" : "Icek", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1975" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.", "title" : "Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)", "manualFormatting" : "(1975, p. 6)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(1975, p. 6) as a “learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to given object”, that is based upon belief patterns about these objects. We do not distinguish between Muslims who have acquired Dutch citizenship and those without (who may have a migration background); perceived membership of an outgroup is based upon visible characteristics, rather than defined by citizenship or nationality, and public opinion does not differentiate using this criterion ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This article introduces the symposium on the representation of immigrant-origin and ethnic minorities in Europe. It argues for the importance of research on this topic, not- ing the large, established populations of immigrant-origin citizens and their descendants across Western European countries and these minorities\u2019 underrepresentation in elected bodies. Current research gaps concern both empirical knowledge and the theoretical conceptualisation of immigrant and ethnic minority political involvement. The article argues that existing research on representation needs to be extended to suit the cases of immigrants and ethnic minorities. It ends by providing a brief overview of each contribution to the symposium.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bloemraad", "given" : "Irene", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sch\u00f6nw\u00e4lder", "given" : "Karen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "West European Politics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "564-579", "title" : "Immigrant and ethnic minority representation in Europe: Conceptual challenges and theoretical approaches", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "36" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Bloemraad & Sch\u00f6nw\u00e4lder, 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Bloemraad & Sch\u00f6nw\u00e4lder, 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bloemraad & Sch\u00f6nw\u00e4lder, 2013)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Bloemraad & Sch?nw?lder, 2013).Attitudes towards Muslims were measured using respondents’ average assessment of three items which have been validated by prior longitudinal research ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gijsberts", "given" : "M\u00e9rove", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lubbers", "given" : "Marcel", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Jaarrapport integratie 2009.", "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schnabel", "given" : "P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "254-290", "publisher" : "Den Haag: SCP", "title" : "\u2018Wederzijdse beeldvorming\u2019.", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gijsberts & Lubbers, 2009)", "manualFormatting" : "(Socon project, see Gijberts & Lubbers, 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gijsberts & Lubbers, 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gijsberts & Lubbers, 2009)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Socon project, see Gijberts & Lubbers, 2009). These items were inspired by theory-building regarding Islamophobia and have been developed by experts in the field. The scale focuses on three types of antecedents of negative attitudes, relating to a social distance measure or symbolic threat, and elements of realistic threats. The scale is designed to capture various types of threat that are experienced in reference to Muslims. The three statements were: “Muslims are isolating themselves from Dutch society”; “Muslims easily use violence to solve their problems”; and, “Muslims use their religion for political ends”. Answers were recorded on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 7 (“strongly agree”); these have been transformed into a summative scale, “Anti-Muslim attitudes”. A higher score indicates a more negative attitude and a lower score a more positive attitude toward Muslims (M=4.92, SD=1.83). The unidimensionality of these items is shown by a principal component analysis (Wave 2: Cronbach’s α=.84, explained variance: 75.83; Wave 3: α=.86, explained variance: 77.38), confirming the scale’s internal consistency and reliability. Mediators.Economic perceptions. Economic perceptions are operationalized as citizens’ judgments of how the Dutch and EU economy has/will evolve(d) based on the internationally validated consumer confidence scale. These types of sociotropic considerations are considered effective indicators of economic perceptions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mutz", "given" : "Diana C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Journal of Political Science", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1992" ] ] }, "page" : "483-508", "title" : "Mass media and the depoliticization of personal experience", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "36" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Mutz, 1992)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Mutz, 1992)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Mutz, 1992)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Mutz, 1992). Citizens are asked to judge the economic situation of the Netherlands and the EU, retrospectively (recent past) and prospectively (near future). Economic perceptions are measured on a scale constructed of four statements (“How do you think the economy of the Netherlands/European Union has/will evolve(d) in the past/following 12 months”), ranging from 1 (“economic situation has/will become worse”) to 10 (“economic situation has/will improve/d”). These items constitute a reliable scale of economic perceptions (α=.89, explained variance: 77.92).Negative emotions. Statements referring to anger and fear about the economy are used to measure negative emotions since explicit references to these types of emotions have been theorized to affect political attitudes ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This study aimed to analyze the respective effects of cognitive and emotional elements on political judgments, and the effects of media use and political talk on those two elements. Along with the cognitive judgment about political and economic issues/policies, we explored the effect of emotional responses to political and economic situations. During this process, we also looked at the effect of media use and interpersonal communication channels. By analyzing survey data gathered in December 2007, it was first found that voters\u2019 cognitive judgment and emotional responses to political and economic situations, respectively, affected their evaluation of the incumbent president. Second, emotional reactions such as \u2018pride\u2019 in politics, and \u2018hope\u2019 and \u2018anger\u2019 for economics, showed significant influence on their evaluation of the president\u2019s performance. Third, voters\u2019 patterns of media use and interpersonal talk appeared to exert significant influences on those cognitive judgments and emotional responses to political and economic reality.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Na", "given" : "Eun Kyung", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lee", "given" : "Gang Heong", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kim", "given" : "Hyun Suk", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Asian Journal of Communication", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "124-138", "title" : "\"Everything is always President Roh\u201ds fault?\u2019: Emotional reactions to politics and economy as sources of presidential evaluations and the role of media use and interpersonal communication.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Roseman", "given" : "I. J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Cognition & Emotion", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1991" ] ] }, "page" : "161-200", "title" : "Appraisal determinants of discrete emotions.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "5" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Na et al., 2010; Roseman, 1991)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Na et al., 2010; Roseman, 1991)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Na et al., 2010; Roseman, 1991)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Na et al., 2010; Roseman, 1991). The question was based upon prior studies that measure concrete emotions in reference to a specific issue ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gross", "given" : "Kimberly A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Political Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "169-192", "title" : "Framing persuasive appeals: Episodic and thematic framing, emotional response, and policy opinion.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "29" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Gross, 2008)", "manualFormatting" : "(Gross, 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Gross, 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gross, 2008)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Gross, 2008), even while caution is in order with regard to self-reported emotions: “If you think back about the occasions when you watched or read news about the economy in the past month, how strongly did you feel the following emotions: anger, frustration, fear, anxiety and nervousness?”. Every emotion was rated on an 8-point scale from 1 (“not at all”) to 8 (“very strongly”). These items formed a reliable measure of negative emotions about the economy (α= .86, explained variance: 65.04%). Operationalizing anger and fear as separate factors resulted in less coherent scales. Since expectations for anger and fear are similar, one scale for both was included; additional analysis yielded similar results if they were included separately.Independent variables. The main independent, exogenous variables are news consumption variables for television news viewing and newspaper readership. We constructed variables measuring general television viewing and newspaper readership, and detailed measures distinguishing between genres (popular vs. quality newspapers; soft vs. hard television news). News consumption was probed by asking: “If you think about an average week in the past two months, how often did you watch/read the following newscast/newspaper?” Scores ranged from 1 (“zero days”) to 8 (“seven days”).To measure general television news consumption, we included the sum of how frequently respondents watched five daily newscasts: NOS Journaal, Nieuwsuur, RTL Nieuws, Hart van Nederland, and Editie NL. These are daily Dutch news programs. Next, we splitted these programs into hard news programs (NOS Journaal, Nieuwsuur, RTL Nieuws) and soft news programs (Hart van Nederland, Editie NL). This categorization is based on the empirically verified classification of Boukes and Boomgaarden (2015) and confirmed by the finding that soft news, compared to hard news, is especially popular among lowly-educated citizens with little political interest. The measurement for general newspaper reading was created by summing responses of how often in an average week people read the following ten newspapers: Telegraaf, Algemeen Dagblad, Volkskrant, NRC Handelsblad, NRC Next, Trouw, Financieel Dagblad, Reformatorisch Dagblad, Nederlands Dagblad, and Metro. Two, Telegraaf and Algemeen Dagblad, are clear examples of popular newspapers– and are combined in a measure for popular newspaper consumption. These outlets have the biggest readership, are characterized by relatively short stories, large illustrations and big headlines, and their readers are “popular news consumers” (Boukes & Boomgaarden, 2015). Four newspapers can be identified as clear-cut quality newspapers with in-depth coverage, focusing on current affairs (Volkskrant, NRC Next, Handelsblad, Trouw). How often respondents read those four newspapers forms the measurement for quality newspaper consumption. Ideally, we would include a measurement of the frequency of economic news consumption. Since the economy is one of the most salient news issues, respondents that frequently consume news in general are automatically often exposed to economic news, making general news consumption a proxy measure. A simple count of attention to the economy in news in the first half of 2015 (February until mid-July) shows that newspapers devote more attention to economic news than television news, and that quality newspapers and hard television programs report economic issues more often than popular newspapers and soft news programs. Importantly, economic news in popular outlets is more negative and focuses more on personification (Boukes & Vliegenthart, in press). Because of space restrictions in the survey, news consumption was only measured in Wave 1. But, as this is the exogenous variable in our model and because patterns in news consumption prove to be stable ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Public and commercial news follow distinct logics. We evaluate this duality in television news coverage on immigration. First, by means of a large-scale content analysis of Flemish television news (N = 1630), we investigate whether immigration coverage diverges between both broadcasters. Results show that, despite an overall negativity bias and relative homogeneity between the broadcasters, commercial news contains slightly more sensational and tabloid characteristics than public news. The latter promotes a more balanced view of immigration. These differences are stable over time. Second, using cross-sectional and panel data, we assess whether a preference for public versus commercial news is associated with an attitudinal gap in anti-immigrant attitudes. Findings demonstrate that individuals who prefer commercial news are more negative towards immigrants. We suggest that differences in news content may explain this attitudinal gap. In light of the debate around \u2018public value\u2019 offered by public service media across Europe, we tentatively conclude that public broadcasters have the potential to foster tolerance and provide balanced information by prioritizing a normative view over a market logic. The linkage between news coverage and the gap in attitudes between commercial and public news viewers warrants closer investigation in the future.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jacobs", "given" : "Laura", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meeusen", "given" : "Cecil", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "D'Haenens", "given" : "Leen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "European Journal of Communication", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "642 \u2013660", "title" : "News coverage and attitudes on immigration: Public and commercial television news compared.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "31" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Jacobs et al., 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Jacobs et al., 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Jacobs et al., 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Jacobs et al., 2016), this does not impose restrictions for the analyses.Control variables. Control variables related to perceptions and emotions about the economy or anti-Muslim attitudes have been included to reduce the risk of spurious effects. If significant results can be established for news consumption while controlling for alternative explanations, this adds more strength to the analysis by suggesting a role for news consumption on top of these variables. First, sociodemographic background variables are included: Gender (binary, 1=male, 2=female), age (continuous, in years), income (range 1-12, 12=highest income), education (range 1-7, 7=highest educational level), unemployment (binary, 1=have become unemployed after leaving school, lost job), urban residence (range 1-5, 5=least urbanized), self-reported socioeconomic class (range 1-5, 5=highest). Second, we included respondents’ political left-right ideology (range 0-10, 10=very right-wing), whether they voted for the anti-immigrant party PVV during prior the Parliamentary elections (binary, 1=yes), and respondents’ political/economic knowledge (range 0-5, 5=high knowledge). Third, the individual-level data was supplemented with real-life indicators about one’s neighbourhood obtained from Statistics Netherlands at the municipal (% unemployment) and postal code level (% non-western foreigners). Details are given in the appendix. AnalysisThe theory predicts indirect relationships between news consumption and anti-Muslim attitudes via economic perceptions and emotions about the economy (mediators). Two models are tested: one for general news consumption patterns, and one where different genres of news are distinguished. To test both models, we have conducted structural equation modeling (SEM) since this analysis technique is well-suited to identify (multiple) mediators and estimating total, direct and indirect effects. We made use of the longitudinal set-up of the data by considering anti-Muslim attitudes (DV) in Wave 3, the mediators in Wave 2, and the independent and control variables in Wave 1. We also controlled for (lagged) anti-Muslim attitudes in Wave 2. Hence, the cause is always measured before the outcome, and the analysis controls for the pre-existing attitude.Results Model FitThe parameters show a good fit for both theoretical models. The χ2 (Chi-Square) is not significant, the RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) meets standard requirements (Model I: .003; Model II: .008), while the CFI is 1.000 in both models.Effects of News Exposure on Perceptions and Emotions about the Economy In Model I, watching television news is negatively associated with optimistic views about the economy in Wave 2, and positively associated with negative emotions about the economy in Wave 2, confirming H1a and H2a. Reading newspapers is not significantly associated with economic perceptions or negative emotions regarding the economy, disconfirming H1b and H2b. [Figure 1] [Table 1]In Model II, we consider news consumption in detail by distinguishing between newspaper type and television news outlets. In line with H3a, watching soft news on television negatively affects economic perceptions, and, confirming H4a, is positively associated with negative emotions regarding the economy. Watching hard television news, however, did not have a significant relationship with economic perceptions, but was positively associated with negative emotions regarding the economy.Using a 95% bias-corrected 10,000 bootstraps interval for the user-defined estimands in Amos, findings show that the effect of soft news on negative emotions is slightly stronger than that of hard news (Δb=.033, SE=.018, 95% CI [-.003, .078], p=.069). However, the effect of soft news on negative perceptions is not significantly stronger than the effect of hard news (Δb=-.014, SE=.014, 95% CI [-.042, .014], p=.314). [Figure 2]H3b is confirmed: reading popular newspapers negatively predicts optimistic economic perceptions. Yet the positive relationship between reading popular newspapers and negative emotions about the economy is not significant, disconfirming H4b. Furthermore, reading quality newspapers is not significantly related to economic perceptions or negative emotions. Bootstrapped estimates and confidence intervals show that the effects of reading popular vs. quality newspapers on economic perceptions (Δb=-.010, SE=.011, 95% CI [-.032, .011], p<.340) and emotions did not differ significantly (Δb=-.008, SE=.014, 95% CI [-.035, .018], p=.539). Effects of Economic Perceptions and Emotions on Anti-Muslim AttitudesWhile controlling for the lagged dependent variable (anti-Muslim attitudes in Wave 2), we find support for H5 and H6 in both models: Economic perceptions and negative emotions about the economy mediate the relationship between news consumption and anti-Muslim attitudes (when tested separately, fear and anger yield similar though weaker effects, likely due to multicollinearity): the more positive the perceptions about the economy, the less negative attitudes toward Muslims. Stronger negative emotions about the economy predict more negative attitudes toward Muslims, even though the latter is borderline significant.Direct, Indirect and Total Effects of News Exposure on Anti-Muslim AttitudesModel I reveals a direct effect from reading newspapers on anti-Muslim attitudes, while watching television news is not significantly related to anti-Muslim attitudes. In Model II, there is a direct effect from popular newspapers on anti-Muslim attitudes; all other direct effects (quality newspapers, soft television news, hard television news) were insignificant. Now we know that news exposure affects both perceptions and emotions about the economy, and that these influence anti-Muslim attitudes, it is likely that the indirect effect is significant. We formally test this employing a 95% bias-corrected 10,000 bootstraps interval for the user-defined indirect effect in Amos. For Model I, both indirect effects of exposure to television news through economic perceptions (b=.001, SE=.000, 95% CI [.000, .002], p=.009) and emotions (b=.001, SE =.000, 95% CI [.000, .002], p=.041) were significant. However, indirect effects of newspaper consumption through economic perceptions (b=.000, SE=.000, 95% CI [.000, .001], p=.633) and emotions (b=.000, SE=.000, 95% CI [.000, .001], p=.074) were not significant. For Model II, the indirect effect of exposure to hard television news through economic perceptions was not significant (b=.000, SE=.000, 95% CI [.000, .001], p=.128), while for emotions it was (b=.001 SE=.000, 95% CI [.000, .001], p=.037). The indirect effects of quality newspapers consumption through economic perceptions (b=.000, SE=.000, 95% CI [-.002, .000], p=.337) and emotions (b=.000, SE=.000, 95% CI [.000, .001], p=.220) were insignificant as well. However, both indirect effects of exposure to soft television news through economic perceptions (b=.002, SE=.001, 95% CI [.000, .004], p=.037) and emotions (b=.002, SE=.001, 95% CI [.000, .004], p=.043) were significant. Finally, the indirect effects of exposure to popular newspapers through economic perceptions were significant (b=.001, SE=.000, 95% CI [.000, .003], p=.029), but not for emotions (b=.000, SE=.000, 95% CI [.000, .002], p=.154). Altogether, we find softer/popular media to have several indirect effects on anti-Muslim attitudes, while for the hard/quality outlets this was barely the case.Finally, we test whether the total effects of news exposure on anti-Muslim attitudes are significant, using a 95% bias-corrected bootstraps interval (10,000 times) for total standardized effects in Amos. For Model I, the total effect of exposure to television news (at t1) on anti-Muslim attitudes (at t3) (β=.086, SE=.018, 95% CI [.050, .122], p<.001) and the total effect of exposure to newspapers (at t1) on anti-Muslim attitudes (at t3) are positive and significant (β=.056, SE=.018, 95% CI [.020, .092], p=.001). In Model II, the total effect of exposure to quality newspapers on anti-Muslim attitudes is negative, but not significant (β=-.033, SE=.020, 95% CI [-.072, .007], p=.098), while the total effect of exposure to popular newspapers on anti- Muslim attitudes is positive and significant (β=.122, SE=.019, 95% CI [.086, .159], p<.001). Similarly, whereas the total effect of exposure to hard television news on anti-Muslim attitudes is positive but insignificant (β=.032, SE=.020, 95% CI [-.007, .072], p=.107), the total effect of exposure to soft television news is positive and significant (β=.062, SE=.020, 95% CI [.024, .101], p=.002). For total effects, especially popular newspapers and soft television news matters. Our proposed theoretical model is thus confirmed: the relationship between news consumption and anti-Muslim attitudes is mediated by economic perceptions and negative emotions about the economy, although this is conditional upon the type of outlet (mostly TV) and genre (soft/popular forms of news). Effects are small, but meaningful. Control Variables Table 2 shows the relationships between the dependent variable, mediators and control variables for Model I and II. Except where explicitly noted, results are similar for both models. Regarding economic perceptions, we observe that the higher respondents’ income, education, social class, and political/economic knowledge, the more optimistic their perceptions about the economy. PVV voters have less positive economic perceptions. Right-wing respondents have a more optimistic economic outlook. Neighbourhood characteristics matter too: respondents living in areas with high unemployment have less optimistic economic perceptions, whereas a higher number of non-western foreigners is positively related to optimistic economic perceptions. Regarding negative emotions, a higher income and self-reported social class strongly reduce negative emotions about the economy; older respondents and PVV supporters hold more negative emotions about the economy. In terms of anti-Muslim attitudes, the strongest predictor is respondents’ anti-Muslim attitude in Wave 2 (lagged DV). Unsurprisingly, having a right-wing orientation and having voter for PVV is positively related to anti-Muslim attitudes. Women and the highly educated report lower levels of anti-Muslim attitudes. [Table 2]Discussion This study sought to develop a theoretical model that improves our understanding of the role of news consumption in explaining anti-Muslim attitudes. Building on group conflict theory ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blalock", "given" : "Hubert M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1967" ] ] }, "publisher" : "New York: Capricorn", "title" : "Toward a theory of minority group relations.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blumer", "given" : "Herbert", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Pacific Sociological Review", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1958" ] ] }, "page" : "3-7", "title" : "Race prejudice as a sense of group position.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Blalock, 1967; Blumer, 1958), we argue that exposure to news increases negative perceptions and emotions about the economy, which in turn foster anti-Muslim attitudes. Hence, this study makes a theoretical contribution by shedding light on the mechanism through which news consumption contributes to anti-Muslim attitudes. Particular attention was paid to the importance of subjective evaluations by examining both cognitive (economic perceptions) and affective measurements (emotions about the economy). Findings offer clear support for the proposed theoretical model, confirming the relevance of news consumption and realistic group conflict theory ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Blalock", "given" : "Hubert M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1967" ] ] }, "publisher" : "New York: Capricorn", "title" : "Toward a theory of minority group relations.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Following the work of Blumer (1958), I extend and test a theory of prejudice based on perceived threats to dominant racial or national groups by subor- dinate groups. Perceived threat is hypothesized to be a function of economic conditions and of the size of the subordinate group relative to the dominant group. I test the group-threat theory using a multilevel model that combines population data with survey results on attitudes towards immigrants and ra- cial minorities from Eurobarometer Survey 30. \"Group threat\" explains most of the variation in average prejudice scores across the 12 countries in the sample and has a small but statistically significant effect on the influence of certain individual-level variables on prejudice. These results demonstrate the importance of perceived intergroup threat in the formation of prejudicial at- titudes and suggest a re-interpretation of past findings on the relations be- tween individual characteristics and expressions of prejudice. L", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Quillian", "given" : "Lincoln", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "American Sociological Review", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1995" ] ] }, "page" : "586-611", "title" : "Prejudice as a response to perceived group threat : Population composition and anti-immigrant and racial prejudice in Europe", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "60" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "One of the most established approaches to explain attitudes toward immigration is group conflict theory. However, even though the theory was articulated in dynamic terms, previous research has almost exclu- sively tested it through cross-sectional analyses. The aim of this study is to disentangle the dynamic character of ethnic competition from more permanent determinants of ethnic threat. The findings show that a remarkable variation of concern over immigration, usually attributed to permanent positions of economic vulnerability, disappears when within-person variation is modeled. In line with a dynamic approach of ethnic competition, becoming unemployed or being laid off increases concern over immigration. This effect is independent of social class.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lancee", "given" : "Bram", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pardos-Prado", "given" : "Sergi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Migration Review", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "106-131", "title" : "Group conflict theory in a longitudinal perspective: Analyzing the dynamic side of ethnic competition", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This study analyses the relationship between attitudes toward immigration and deteriorating economic conditions in times of crisis. We examine three questions: First, how are a vulnerable position in the labour market and recent changes to an individual's economic situation related to perceived ethnic threat? Second, what is the role of the nation's economic and immigration context? Last, are relationships at the individual level between economic conditions and perceived ethnic threat affected by contextual variables? Data from 23 countries sampled in the fifth round of the European Social Survey (ESS-5, 2010) is used. At the micro level, unemployment, job insecurity and income deprivation during the three years prior to the survey affect perceived ethnic threat, as predicted by group conflict theory. These effects are, however, relatively small. Among the contextual variables, only growth in gross domestic product (GDP) shows an effect in the expected direction: perceived threat is higher in countries where GDP growth is lower. However, the study design does not allow the conclusion that changes in the economic context lead to changes in attitudes toward immigrants. The significant cross-level interaction for economic growth indicates that the threat-inducing effect of unemployment is stronger in contexts where the growth in GDP is high. This finding contradicts our hypothesis. One could explain this by the emergence of a generalized feeling of economic insecurity in countries severely hit by the economic crisis. In these countries, strong feelings of economic insecurity--and the resulting levels of perceived ethnic threat--might also be present among those who are employed, thereby diminishing the gap between them and the unemployed.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Billiet", "given" : "Jaak", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meuleman", "given" : "Bart", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Witte", "given" : "Hans", "non-dropping-particle" : "De", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Migration Studies", "id" : "ITEM-4", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "page" : "135-161", "title" : "The relationship between ethnic threat and economic insecurity in times of economic crisis: Analysis of European Social Survey data", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Billiet et al., 2014; Blalock, 1967; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Quillian, 1995)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Billiet et al., 2014; Blalock, 1967; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Quillian, 1995)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Billiet et al., 2014; Blalock, 1967; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Quillian, 1995)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Billiet et al., 2014; Blalock, 1967; Lancee & Pardos-Prado, 2013; Quillian, 1995): Perceptions and emotions about the economy mediate the relationship between news consumption and anti-Muslim attitudes. This relationship holds while controlling for a wide variety of socioeconomic variables, predispositions, and real-world indicators, demonstrating effects of news consumption on top of these factors. News consumption, hence, should not be overlooked as a factor contributing directly to economic perceptions and emotions as well as indirectly to anti-Muslim attitudes. These findings clarify the mechanism through which news consumption affects public opinion about Muslims. The relationship between news consumption and anti-Muslim attitudes seems to be partly indirect, running through economic motivations. An innovative finding is that news exposure not only operates at a cognitive level by affecting economic perceptions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This paper studies the empirical relationship between the real economy, consumer confi- dence and economic news coverage in national newspapers for the Netherlands during the period 1990\u20132009. Media-attention for economic developments is associated with con- sumer confidence, with more negative news decreasing consumer confidence; this result holds after controlling for the real economy (stock-market). The relationship differs for dif- ferent business-cycles. The effect is in particular stronger for the months following the beginning of the credit-crisis. This suggests that in line with many popular concerns neg- ative news is among factors influencing the hardness of the landing of the current credit- crisis.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hollanders", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Economic Psychology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "367-373.", "title" : "The influence of negative newspaper coverage on consumer confidence: The Dutch case.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "32" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011)", "manualFormatting" : "(Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Hollanders & Vliegenthart, 2011), but that it is also instrumental in eliciting negative emotions about the economy, most notably fear and anger, which intensify hostile attitudes toward Muslims. Hence, the findings corroborate the suggestion that whenever studying the relationship between news exposure and attitudes, one should not overlook the mediating role of affective measures and emotions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Emotions play an important role in explaining why news framing has effects on opinions about immigration. Yet, our knowledge regarding which emotions are relevant for different types of news frames is limited. This survey experiment (N = 715) determines to what extent positive and negative emotions mediate framing effects about immigration, and whether mediation depends on the type of frame at stake. We exposed participants to one of four preestablished frames: the emancipation, multicultural, assimilation, or victimization frame. Results show that the emancipation and multicultural frames cause the most emotional response. Positive emotions function as mediators of framing effects on immigration opinions.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lecheler", "given" : "Sophie", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bos", "given" : "Linda", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vliegenthart", "given" : "Rens", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "812-838", "title" : "The mediating role of emotions: news framing effects on opinions about immigration", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "92" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Current approaches explain the effects of news frames on judgments in terms of cognitive mechanisms, such as accessibility and applicability effects. We investigated the emotional effects of two news frames\u2014an \u201canger\u201d frame and a \u201csadness\u201d frame\u2014on information processing and opinion formation. We found that the two frames produced different levels of anger and sadness. Furthermore, the anger frame increased the accessibility of information about punishment and the preference for punitive measures in comparison with the sadness frame and the control group. In contrast, the sadness frame increased the accessibility of information about help for victims and the preference for remedial measures. More importantly, these effects were mediated by the anger and sadness that were elicited by the news frames.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kuhne", "given" : "Rinaldo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schemer", "given" : "Christian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Communication Research", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "page" : "387-407", "title" : "The emotional effects of news frames on information processing and opinion formation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "42" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Kuhne & Schemer, 2015; Lecheler, Bos, & Vliegenthart, 2015)", "manualFormatting" : "(Lecheler et al., 2015; Kuhne & Schemer, 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Kuhne & Schemer, 2015; Lecheler, Bos, & Vliegenthart, 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kuhne & Schemer, 2015; Lecheler, Bos, & Vliegenthart, 2015)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Lecheler et al., 2015; Kuhne & Schemer, 2015). A key contribution of our study, these results imply that attitudes toward Muslims are not only subject to symbolic threats (Strabac & Listhaug, 2008), but that economic threats have an influence as well. This suggests that both symbolic and realistic threats can offer independent explanations for hostility toward Muslims, as is suggested by Intergroup Threat Theory (Riek et al., 2006). In addition, there are direct effects of news consumption on anti-Muslim attitudes as well for popular and soft news outlets. Possibly, these effects could be attributed to their specific reporting style: while covering immigration-related topics, these outlets arguably adhere more to a sensational reporting style, with emphasis on conflict, negativity and negative emotions (Jacobs et al., 2016). One important nuance, however, is that the mechanism is largely dependent upon the type of news outlet and genre. Watching television news is positively associated with pessimistic sociotropic considerations and negative emotions about the economy, which in turn intensifies anti-Muslim attitudes, while general newspaper readership had no impact. Disentangling various types of news genres demonstrates that especially exposure to soft television news and popular newspapers affects citizens’ perceptions and emotions about the economy. This presumably is the consequence of their more clear-cut emotional nature, emphasis on conflict and negativity, and use of exemplars ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "For at least the past three decades journalism scholars have focused on two types of news \u2013 soft and hard \u2013 without reassessing these categories or adding to them. The present article investigates whether such neglect is warranted, through a questionnaire and in-depth interviews with 32 journalists and editors from the three main Israeli dailies: Yediot Ahronot, Maariv and Haaretz. The findings argue strongly for a third, intermediate category of news \u2013 \u2018general news\u2019 \u2013 as well as for more rigorous and comprehensive definitions of \u2018hard\u2019 news and \u2018soft\u2019 news that are here supplied. These three news categories were then tested on 465 news items of the above dailies which led to the categorization of a new newspaper type, lying somewhere between the elite and populist press. Methodological and substantive ramifications of this addition are discussed", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lehman-Wilzig", "given" : "Sam N.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Seletzky", "given" : "Michal", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "37-56", "title" : "Hard news, soft news, \u2018general\u2019 news: The necessity and utility of an intermediate classification", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "11" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Over 30 years, a large body of research on what is often called \u2018hard\u2019 and \u2018soft news\u2019 has accumulated in communication studies. However, there is no consensus about what hard and soft news exactly is, or how it should be defined or measured. Moreover, the concept has not been clearly differentiated from or systematically related to concepts addressing very similar phenomena \u2013 tabloidization and \u2018infotainment\u2019. Consequently, the results of various studies are hard to compare and different scientific discourses on related issues remain unconnected. Against this backdrop, this article offers a conceptual analysis of the concept based on studies in English and other languages. We identify key dimensions of the concept and make suggestions for a standardized definition and multi-dimensional measurement of harder and softer news. In doing so, we propose to distinguish thematic, focus and style features as basic dimensions that \u2013 in their combination \u2013 make up harder and softer types of news", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Reinemann", "given" : "Carsten", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Stanyer", "given" : "James", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Scherr", "given" : "Sebastian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Legnante", "given" : "Guido", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journalism", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "221-239", "title" : "Hard and soft news: A review of concepts, operationalizations and key findings.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "13" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Lehman-Wilzig & Seletzky, 2010; Reinemann et al., 2012)", "manualFormatting" : "(Lehman-Wilzig & Seletzky, 2010; Reinemann et al., 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Lehman-Wilzig & Seletzky, 2010; Reinemann et al., 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Lehman-Wilzig & Seletzky, 2010; Reinemann et al., 2012)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Lehman-Wilzig & Seletzky, 2010; Reinemann et al., 2012). Moreover, that television news especially matters for emotions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cho", "given" : "Jaeho", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Boyle", "given" : "Michael P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Keum", "given" : "Heejo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Shevy", "given" : "Mark D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McLeod", "given" : "Douglas M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "V.", "family" : "Shah", "given" : "Dhavan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pan", "given" : "Zhongdang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "309-327", "title" : "Media, terrorism, and emotionality: Emotional differences in media content and public reactions to the September 11th terrorist attacks", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Cho et al., 2003)", "manualFormatting" : "(Cho et al., 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Cho et al., 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Cho et al., 2003)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Cho et al., 2003) can be explained by prior research showing that coverage of outgroups on television news is rather emotional in nature with many references to negative emotions, such as fear and anger ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Public and commercial news follow distinct logics. We evaluate this duality in television news coverage on immigration. First, by means of a large-scale content analysis of Flemish television news (N = 1630), we investigate whether immigration coverage diverges between both broadcasters. Results show that, despite an overall negativity bias and relative homogeneity between the broadcasters, commercial news contains slightly more sensational and tabloid characteristics than public news. The latter promotes a more balanced view of immigration. These differences are stable over time. Second, using cross-sectional and panel data, we assess whether a preference for public versus commercial news is associated with an attitudinal gap in anti-immigrant attitudes. Findings demonstrate that individuals who prefer commercial news are more negative towards immigrants. We suggest that differences in news content may explain this attitudinal gap. In light of the debate around \u2018public value\u2019 offered by public service media across Europe, we tentatively conclude that public broadcasters have the potential to foster tolerance and provide balanced information by prioritizing a normative view over a market logic. The linkage between news coverage and the gap in attitudes between commercial and public news viewers warrants closer investigation in the future.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Jacobs", "given" : "Laura", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meeusen", "given" : "Cecil", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "D'Haenens", "given" : "Leen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "European Journal of Communication", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "642 \u2013660", "title" : "News coverage and attitudes on immigration: Public and commercial television news compared.", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "31" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Jacobs et al., 2016)", "manualFormatting" : "(Jacobs et al. 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Jacobs et al., 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Jacobs et al., 2016)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Jacobs et al. 2016). While such television content reaches the viewer through moving visuals, audio and even text, newspapers, particularly quality newspapers, are static and known to cover issues in greater depth, using thematic framing, which might explain why they seem to have smaller effects on perceptions and emotions (Cho et al., 2003). Hence, these differential effects for the type of outlet and news genre demonstrate that it is imperative to recognize the diversity of the media landscape by adopting fine-grained measures of news consumption.Some limitations should be acknowledged. First, although the negativity bias in economic news is well-established ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The news media's `surveillance' (Lasswell, 1960) of the economy has\\nbeen a matter of concern in U.S communication research. Previous\\nstudies found that news media tended to be skewed toward negative\\nnews (Wattenberg, 1984; Harrington, 1989). Furthermore, studies found\\nthat public perception of the economy was closely associated with\\nthe news media's economic coverage (Blood & Phillips, 1995; Goidel\\n& Langley, 1995; Hester & Gibson, 2003; Wu, Stevenson, Chen, & G{\"u}ner,\\n2002). This study examines whether negatively skewed economic news\\ncoverage and its influences on public perception of the economy can\\nbe demonstrated in South Korea. For more than 25 years, most economic\\ncommunication studies have been conducted in the USA. Recently, the\\ntriple relationships between the economy, its coverage in the news,\\nand public perception of the economy have also been studied in Japan\\n(Wu, McCracken, & Saito, 2004) and Britain (Soroka, 2006). The current\\ninvestigation will give some empirical knowledge on whether the news\\nmedia's negatively skewed coverage and its impact on public perception\\nof the economy also appear in a nonwestern society that has seen\\na history of a rapid economic growth, South Korea. The country has\\nrisen to become the 12th largest economy in the world in 2006.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ju", "given" : "Youngkee", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "International Journal of Public Opinion Research", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "237-249", "title" : "The asymmetry in economic news coverage and its impact on public perception in South Korea", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "20" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "There is a growing body of work suggesting that responses to positive and negative information are asymmetric\u2014 that negative information has a much greater impact on individuals\u2019 attitudes than does positive information. This paper explores these asymmetries in mass media responsiveness to positive and negative economic shifts and in public responsiveness to both the economy itself and economic news coverage. Using time-series analyses of U.K. media and public opinion, strong evidence is found of asymmetry. The dynamic is discussed as it applies to political com- munications and policymaking and more generally to public responsiveness in representative democracies. here", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Soroka", "given" : "Stuart N.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of Politics", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "page" : "372-385", "title" : "Good news and bad news: Asymmetric responses to economic information", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "68" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006)", "manualFormatting" : "(Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006)" }, "properties" : { }, "schema" : "" }(Ju, 2008; Soroka, 2006), future studies could combine our panel-survey approach with content analysis. Second, future studies should expand the scope by including more outgroups and contexts to assess the findings’ generalizability. It is likely that similar mechanisms affect attitudes regarding other outgroups than Muslims only, and possibly stronger effects play out for outgroups that are primarily associated with economic threat (e.g. East Europeans). Finally, we cannot be fully conclusive on causality, although we took multiple steps (use of temporal ordering of variables via panel data, inclusion of control variables and lagged dependent variable). Nevertheless, more efforts are needed to strengthen current findings which point to correlation and, possibly, a causal one.In conclusion, this study offers several additions to the literature: First, it clarifies the origin of economic threat and group conflict by showing that news exposure is a relevant factor in shaping citizens’ perceptions and emotions about the economy. 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Hypothesized theoretical model: television and newspapers. Wave 1Wave 2 Wave 360617101835150.030*.030*6027420640080-.043**-.043**551688014325600070789801097280Anti-Muslim attitudesAnti-Muslim attitudes550164056388000102870018440400010388602776220.115***.115***10515602092960-.061**-.061**1143000600710.032.032113919036830-.006-.0069829808153410011353808464540011201402482840033629601550670Negative emotions regarding the economyNegative emotions regarding the economycenter548640Optimistic economic perceptionsOptimistic economic perceptions-3695702171700Television newsTelevision news-289560237490NewspapersNewspapers13709650928370Anti-immigrant attitudesAnti-immigrant attitudesNotes. Entries are the result of a SEM analysis in AMOS 23. Reported are the standardized coefficients (β) and significance values (p). *** p < .001, ** p < .01, * p < .05, ? < .10 (two-tailed). Model includes control variables, which are not displayed for reasons of clarity.Table 1. Hypothesized relations between news consumption, economic perceptions and negative emotions, and anti-outgroup attitudes.PathβbSEpHypothesized relations Model IEconomic perceptions←Television news-0.061**-0.0130.0040.002Economic perceptions←Newspapers-0.006-0.0020.0050.738Negative emotions about economy←Television news 0.115*** 0.0310.0050.000Negative emotions about economy←Newspapers 0.032 0.0110.0060.103Anti-Muslim attitudes←Economic perceptions-0.043**-0.0470.0170.005Anti- Muslim attitudes←Negative emotions about economy 0.030* 0.0270.0130.046Anti- Muslim attitudes←Television 0.008 0.0020.0030.589Anti- Muslim attitudes←Newspapers 0.035* 0.0100.0040.012Hypothesized relations Model IIEconomic perceptions←Hard television news-0.029-0.0080.0060.170Economic perceptions←Soft television news-0.042*-0.0220.0110.043Economic perceptions←Quality newspapers 0.015 0.0050.0080.474Economic perceptions←Popular newspapers-0.044*-0.0190.0080.024Negative emotions about economy←Hard television news 0.062** 0.0210.0070.003Negative emotions about economy←Soft television news 0.084*** 0.0540.0130.000Negative emotions about economy←Quality newspapers 0.020 0.0090.0090.327Negative emotions about economy←Popular newspapers 0.024 0.0100.0100.217Anti-Muslim attitudes←Economic perceptions-0.042**-0.0540.0170.007Anti-Muslim attitudes←Negative emotions about economy 0.028? 0.0250.0130.062Anti-Muslim attitudes←Hard television news-0.007-0.0020.0040.651Anti-Muslim attitudes←Soft television news 0.016 0.0090.0090.238Anti-Muslim attitudes←Quality newspapers-0.001-0.0000.0060.945Anti-Muslim attitudes←Popular newspapers 0.050*** 0.0230.0070.000N 2,694Notes: Entries are the result of a SEM analysis in Amos 23. Reported are the standardized coefficients (β), unstandardized coefficients (b), standard errors (se) and significance values (p). *** p<0.001, ** p<0.01, * p<0.05, ?<0.10 (two-tailed). Model includes control variables (not displayed here). Figure 2. Hypothesized theoretical model: hard vs. soft television news and quality vs. popular newspapers. Wave 1Wave 2 Wave 31668379214496001612265590550 .062** .062**15976601438275 .084*** .084***0185420Hard television newsHard television news01001395Soft television newsSoft television news33470852452370Negative emotions regarding the economyNegative emotions regarding the economy167703516275051690370245237001831975Popular newspapersPopular newspapers02700655Quality newspapersQuality newspapers165417581280069049901429385Anti-Muslim attitudesAnti-Muslim attitudes16262350-.029-.02916052802999740 .020 .0205842000761365-.042**-.042**58420001910715.028?.028?320802058420Optimistic economic perceptions 00Optimistic economic perceptions 16927291187440016981719697400168184386088005355771643160016205209525-.042*-.042*52469135895001641475141605-.044**-.044**1595654162560..024 ..024 169272914087900162623566040 .015 .015Notes. Entries are the result of a SEM analysis in AMOS 23. Reported are the standardized coefficients (β), and significance values (p). *** p<.001, ** p<.01, * p<.05, ?<.10 (two-tailed). Model includes control variables, which are not displayed for reasons of clarity.Table 2. Model I and Model II: relationship between dependent variable, mediators and control variables.Model IModel IIPathΒBSEpβbSEpEconomic perceptions←Income level 0.058** 0.0480.0190.010 0.059** 0.0480.0190.009Economic perceptions←Unemployed-0.020-0.1590.1490.738-0.020-0.1620.1480.275Economic perceptions←Educational level 0.044* 0.0390.0200.048 0.031 0.0270.0200.177Economic perceptions←Self-reported social class 0.139*** 0.2300.0400.000 0.135*** 0.2240.0400.000Economic perceptions←Age-0.026 0.0030.0020.217 0.018 0.0020.0030.383Economic perceptions←Gender-0.030-0.0770.0530.146-0.028-0.0830.0530.117Economic perceptions←Left-right ideology 0.065*** 0.0430.0130.000 0.079*** 0.0520.0130.000Economic perceptions←% unemployed-0.047*-0.0430.0210.036-0.046*-0.0420.0200.039Economic perceptions←% non-Western foreigners 0.056* 0.6270.2670.036 0.056* 0.6710.2670.012Economic perceptions←Political/economic knowledge 0.064** 0.0800.0240.001-0.189***-1.1430.1140.000Economic perceptions←PVV vote-0.193***-1.1680.1140.000 0.062** 0.0770.0250.002Negative emotions about economy←Income level-0.047*-0.0470.0190.010-0.046*-0.0460.0230.043Negative emotions about economy←Unemployed 0.036? 0.3560.1850.054 0.036? 0.3590.1840.052Negative emotions about economy←Educational level 0.004 0.0050.0240.846 0.011 0.0120.0250.646Negative emotions about economy←Self-reported social class-0.159***-0.3220.0400.000-0.158***-0.3180.0500.000Negative emotions about economy←Age-0.103***-0.1600.0030.000-0.094***-0.0140.0030.000Negative emotions about economy←% unemployed 0.017 0.0190.0250.446 0.017 0.0190.0250.460Negative emotions about economy←% non-Western foreigners-0.041?-0.6010.3320.070-0.039?-0.5600.3320.091Negative emotions about economy←Political/economic knowledge-0.025-0.0390.0300.192-0.019-0.0290.0300.341Negative emotions about economy←PVV vote 0.104*** 0.7630.1390.000 0.101*** 0.7390.1400.000Anti-Muslim attitudes←Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1 0.626*** 0.6170.0150.000 0.620*** 0.6120.0150.000Anti-Muslim attitudes←Left-right ideology 0.086*** 0.0620.0100.000 0.076*** 0.0540.0110.000Anti-Muslim attitudes←Educational level-0.089***-0.0860.0140.000-0.076***-0.0750.0150.000Anti-Muslim attitudes←Gender-0.036**-0.1180.0450.010-0.036*-0.1160.0450.011Anti-Muslim attitudes←Political/economic knowledge-0.001-0.0010.0200.941 0.003 0.0040.0200.849Anti-Muslim attitudes←PVV vote 0.035* 0.2320.0950.015 0.033* 0.2190.0950.021Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←Income level-0.041?-0.0370.0200.057-0.041?-0.0380.0200.053Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←Unemployed-0.005-0.0490.1570.755-0.004-0.0400.1560.799Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←Educational level-0.111***-0.1080.0210.000-0.075***-0.0740.0210.000Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←Self-reported social class-0.049*-0.0900.0420.035-0.037-0.0690.0420.103Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←Age-0.036?-0.0050.0030.055-0.019-0.0030.0030.332Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←Gender-0.092***-0.3020.0590.000-0.085***-0.2790.0590.000Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←Left-right ideology 0.274*** 0.2000.0130.000 0.238*** 0.1730.0140.000Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←% unemployed 0.010 0.0100.0060.668 0.011 0.0110.0240.655Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←% non-Western foreigners-0.003-0.0420.2970.887-0.001-0.0070.2950.981Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←Political/economic knowledge-0.010-0.0130.0260.609-0.005-0.0070.0260.797Anti-Muslim attitudes t-1←PVV vote 0.169*** 1.1300.1210.000 0.160*** 1.0720.1200.000N 2,694Notes. Entries are the result of a SEM analysis in Amos 23. Reported are the standardized coefficients (β), unstandardized coefficients (b), standard errors (se) and significance values (p). *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05, ? < 0.10 (two-tailed).Appendix A. Operationalization of dependent variables, mediators and independent variables.Dependent variableAnti-Muslim attitudes in Wave 37-point scale from 1 (‘very positive’) to 7 (‘very negative’)‘Muslims are isolating themselves from the Dutch society.’‘Muslims easily use violence to solve their problems.’‘Muslims use their religion for political ends’MediatorsEconomic perceptions in Wave 210-point scale from 1 (‘economic situation got/becomes worse’) to 10 (‘economic situation has/will improve(d)’).‘How do you think the economy of the Netherlands/European Union has/will evolve(d) in the past/following 12 months?’Negative emotions in Wave 28-point scale from 1 (‘not al all’) to 8 (‘very strongly’)‘If you think back about the occasions when you watched or read news about the economy in the past month, how strongly did you feel the following emotions: anger, frustration, fear, anxiety and nervousness?’Independent variablesLagged dependent variable: anti-Muslim attitudes in Wave 2Same operationalization as anti-Muslim attitudes in Wave 3General television news consumptionSum of how frequently respondents watched the following daily newscasts: NOS Journaal, Nieuwsuur, RTL Nieuws, Hart van Nederland, and Editie NLHard television news consumptionSum of how frequently respondents watched the following hard newscasts: NOS Journaal, Nieuwsuur, and RTL NieuwsSoft television news consumptionSum of how frequently respondents watched the following soft newscasts: Hart van Nederland, Editie NLGeneral newspaper readingSum of how frequently respondent read the following newspapers: Telegraaf, Algemeen Dagblad, Volkskrant, NRC Handelsblad, NRC Next, Trouw, Financieel Dagblad, Reformatorisch Dagblad, Nederlands Dagblad, and Metro.Quality newspaper readingSum of how frequently respondent read the following quality newspapers: Volkskrant, NRC Next, Handelsblad and TrouwPopular newspaper readingSum of how frequently respondent read the following popular newspapers: Telegraaf, Algemeen DagbladControl variablesGenderBinary, 1 = ‘male’, 2 = ‘female’‘What is your gender?’AgeContinuous in years‘What is your age?’Household income 12-point scale 1 = ‘lowest income (less than 150 EUR to spend’) to 12 = ‘highest income, more than 10 000 EUR to spend’)‘In what range would classify the monthly net income of your household (all revenues combined)?’Educational level7-point scale from 1 (‘lowest level of education, no degree or primary school degree’) to 7 (‘highest level, university degree’)‘What is the highest level of education you have completed?’Unemployment Binary, 0 = ‘no’, 1 = ‘yes’‘Have you ever become unemployed after leaving school, or after losing your job?’Self-reported socioeconomic class 5-point scale from 1 (‘lowest, parents with low education level, income and professional status’) to 5 (‘highest, parents with high education level, income and professional status’)‘How would you describe the social economic class of the household in which you have been raised?’Self-reported political left-right orientation 10-point scale from 1 (‘very left-wing’) to 10 (‘very right-wing)‘In politics, often the terms left and right are used. Where would you position yourself on a scale where 1 means very left-wing and 10 very right-wing?’PVV voteBinary, 0 = ‘no’, 1 = ‘yes’‘Have you voted for the Freedom Party (PVV) during the past Parliamentary elections?’Political/economic knowledgeAverage of correct answers on the five knowledge questions: 5-point scale from 1 (‘very low political/ economic knowledge’) to 5 (‘very high political/economic knowledge’)1. If we consider the current interest rates for saving accounts or mortgages, is this interest nowadays lower than average, higher than average or average? (1) lower than average (?), (2) higher than average, (3) average, (4) I don’t know 2. Who is the current Minister for Finances in the Netherlands?(1) Frans Timmermans, (2) Lodewijk Asscher, (3) Jeroen Dijsselbloem (?), (4) Henk Kamp, (5) I don’t know3. Who is the current director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF)? (1) Dominique Strauss-Kahn, (2) Kofi Annan, (3) Christine Lagarde (?), (4) Ban Ki-moon, (5) I don’t know4. Which of the following countries does not make part of the five most important European trade partners of the Netherlands? (1) Germany, (2) Belgium, (3) France, (4) Spain (?), (5) I don’t know5. What is the credit worthiness for the Netherlands according to credit raters Fitch and Moody’s? (1) AAA (?), (2) A, (3) AB, (4) C, (5) I don’t knowPercentage unemployment at municipal level (in %)Percentage of unemployment at municipal level according to Statistics NetherlandsPercentage of non-Western foreigners at postal code level (in %)Percentage of non-Western foreigners at postal code level according to Statistics Netherlands ................
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