Training by design



BE/EM Field Guide: DecontaminationBackground"Nuclear terrorism is the most serious danger the world is facing." Mohamed El BaradeiDoD will continue to invest in capabilities to detect, protect against, and respond to WMD use, should preventive measures fail.EPA is lead Federal agency for Decontamination after CBR incidents as ESF 10Purpose of Decontamination Shield & Sustain (3rd S in Sense, Shape, Shield, Sustain of passive defense operational pillar); contamination control leads into mission sustainment by minimizing performance degradation, casualties, loss of materiel Consequence Management- Remediation by reducing, removing, neutralizing contaminationReduce radiation burden, salvage equipment/materials, remove loose CBRN contaminants, fix remaining contaminants in place in preparation for protective storage or permanent disposalEffectiveness: expressed as decontamination factor (DF), ratio of contamination level before decontamination to the level after decontaminationGeneral Methods of DecontaminationPhysicalChemicalMechanicalElectrokinetic/ElectrochemicalThermalLevels of Decontamination Immediate- initiated without command as soon as aware of contamination on skin (ideally within 1 min) using RSDL, M291/M295, or brushing off radiation and washing area Operational-limits spread and transfer of contamination, allows temporary relief from MOPP 4, facilitates additional decontamination; with weathering it may eliminate need for thorough decontamination Thorough-reduces and sometimes eliminates contamination from equipment and personnel, allowing MOPP to be reducedClearance- final level, most resource intensive, decontaminates to level allowing unrestricted transportation, maintenance, employment, disposalFixed Site, Port, Airfield DecontaminationDecontamination as soon as possibleDecontamination only what is necessaryDecontamination by priorityLimit spread of contaminationSTB is preferred decontaminant for helipads, etcGeneral Considerations for Decontamination for CMRapid response needed, but rushing into scene can cause injury to respondersDetailed contingency planning needed to prepare for scopeTerrorist CBRN incident is crime scene, preserve evidenceRunoff control necessary Specific Chemical Agent DecontaminationMethods of DecontaminationPhysical Decontamination- removes substances from surfaces; includes weathering, hot air, hot water, surfactants and Fuller's Earth high pressure removes gross contamination, reduced levels before other decontamination; good for skin and equip; water pressure equal or less than 3000 psilow pressure delivery of water such as showers for personnel are effective Soap neutralizes some agents somewhat through slow hydrolysis; emulsifies mustardHigh temp saturated steam flushes away materials and dissolves resins and tarSimple Inert Sorbent- materials that physically remove (synthetics adsorb, natural sorbents absorb) examples are soil, diatomaceous earth, activated charcoal, Fuller's EarthFuller's Earth is a non-plastic form of kaolin containing aluminum-magnesium silicate physically removes agent from surface but itself must be detoxified/disposedWeathering is passive decontamination where natural heat, UV, precipitation & wind decontamination equipment, structure, terrain by evaporation or destruction via hydrolysis, effectiveness depends on agent persistency Surfactants consist of anionic, cationic, and nonionic materials that solubilize agent into solution for removal; anionic generally more powerful for CBRN than cationic or anionicSolvent Wash- non-reactive solvent removes CBRN contaminants (water, alcohol, Freon, diesel fuel, kerosene, de-icer, etc) typically applied with a sprayer in open area, but can be done in closed area ; can be toxic, most are fire hazards, action of liquid depends on nature of contaminated surface and contaminant, swabs used on small areasChemical Decontamination- conversion of toxic chemicals into harmless products by degradation or detoxification ; substances neutralize CBRN Contaminants; most are reactive chemicals. Includes Oxidizers, strong bases, micro emulsionsOxidizers such as sodium hypochlorite or sodium hydroxide both remove and neutralize agentssodium hydroxide dissolved in organic solvents breaks down most substances, not suitable for skin decontaminationChloramines effective against mustard and V but not GCaustic Soda(Lye or Sodium Hydroxide) substances effective on G on contact, hastens hydrolysis of lewisite, mustard destroyed after prolonged contact, produces a highly toxic byproduct on V agents, but if in an alcoholic solution (5 pounds in 6 gallons of water and 6 gallons of alcohol) effectiveWashing Soda (Sodium Carbonate)- alkaline, destroys blister, but not as well as caustic soda or sodium hypochlorite, destroys V but not as easily as sodium hypochlorite, hot solution effective on CN, very effective for G agentsDS-2 (Decontamination solution 2) contains sodium hydroxide, ethylene glycol monomethyl ether and diethylene triamine, works as nucleophile and hydrolyzes toxic agents into nontoxic counterparts; works on liquid blister and nerve, bio agents except bacterial spores. Reacts with GB and HD to effectively reduce hazards within 5 min, within 30 it neutralizes all known toxic chemicalsBleach is most effective; typically calcium hypochloriteDetergents are effective on facility surfaces, equipment, clothes and glass but not metal corrosion or long-standing contaminationOrganic solvents remove organic materialsMultiphase treatment processes combine varied chemicals/processesHydrogen peroxide widely available but typically combined with other reagents (Sandia foam and Decontamination green are formulations with H2O2 as active ingredient)Strong bases such as CaO, Ca(OH)2, NaOH, and potassium hydroxide (KOH) produce high concentration of hydroxide ions when mixed with water and are used in decontamination solutionsNaOH applicable to persistent agents and G agents where main reaction is alkaline hydrolysis; not as effective for VX; also can be used for HDMicro emulsions are thermodynamically stabled mixtures of water, oil, surfactants, and co-surfactants organic compounds with limited water solubility in which water-soluble decontaminants can be dissolved; examples are C* a German multipurpose decontamination reagent of tetrachloroethylene, water, and anionic surfactant effective against VX, G, and HD. nucleophilic reactions, electrophilic reactions, thermal destruction, phytochemical, radiochemical reactionsReactive sorbents adsorb contaminant then chemically detoxifies it; prepared with alkaline or caustic solutions, polymeric materials, or microcrystalline metal oxides (aluminum oxide, magnesium oxide)Catalytic Sorbents....Mechanical DecontaminationLaser decontamination- "neodymium YAG", Normally a near-infrared laser, turns to UV at high frequency & breaks molecular bonds to decompose VX into harmless materials; also turns water in cracks of porous materials into steam & carrying them to surface for decontamination; Lasers work photochemically or photothermally; can be done remotely Electrokinetic/electrochemical Thermal Decontaminants (like hot air, steam, hot water, hot gases) remove agents Army demonstrated 99.9999% decontamination of structural components using hot gas to thermally decompose/volatize chemical agentsDelivery Systems-liquid and foam or reactive gaseous Liquids/foams effective for rooms, vehicles, equipment not sensitive to chemical reactions, takes time to apply and clean; must be applied over all contact surfaces Reactive Gases- entire rooms filled with chemically reactive gases such as formaldehyde, ethylene dioxide, chlorine dioxide can reach all corners but can be extremely toxicDecontamination Shelters for personnel decontaminationDecontamination kits for personnel and equipmentContainment systems collect decontamination wasteMobile Decontamination Systems contain all components/subsystems for personnel, equipment, infrastructureTypes of Decontamination Dry Decontamination Wet DecontaminationWater and scrubbing- variables such as temperature, humidity, pressure importantWater and soap- inconclusive if better than waterMass Decontamination-rapid removal/reduction of agent from skin, also called emergency, gross, immediate decontaminationTechnical Decontamination-Deliberate decontamination of responders, equipment, evidence; emphasis on neutralizing agents otherwise referred to as detailed, thorough, deliberate, definitive, responder decontaminationDecontamination Agents Approved AF AgentsM291M295RSDLCloth and water washwarm water and soap washSuper Tropical Bleachhot, soapy waterM100 SDS-for operator wipe down, two packs of reactive sorbent powder, two wash mitt applicators, a case, two strapsM12A1 PDDAM17 LDSMPDS Commercially available productsDiphoterineSee table for decontamination methods/selectionDecontamination MethodsPersonnel- varying effective means exist; removes/destroys CBRN contaminants from skin and personal equipment, must be quick and efficient, devices require FDA approvalremoval of clothing =80% removal soap and water washdry decontamination such as talcum powder, flour, etcspecialized polymersM291 Skin Decontamination Kit- thorough physical removal, absorption, neutralization toxic agent RSDL- remove/neutralize CWA's and T2 Utilize CCA and TFA's to process personnel PatientsM291 or RSDL, clean & dry earth, soap & water for liquid contamination; soap and water for aerosol contamination; 0.5% hypochlorite is undesirable but usableTVI 3 Mass Casualty Decontamination System- physical removal, 3 lanes, includes nonambulatory TVI Individual Decontamination Shelter- physical removal, single responder TVI USAR Decontamination system, 3 lanes, includes nonambulatory Reeves 3-Lane Rigid Frame System, 5 lanes' Equipment/Materiel- removes/destroys contaminants from interior and exterior surfaces of large/small equipment itemsTools to useM295 Kit- physical removal & absorption Macaw Compressed Air Foam BackpackMPDS Aircraft Spot decontamination Aircraft thorough decontamination- limitation is interior; soap or aircraft cleaner used externally, spot decontaminate hot spots inside with rags/sponges dipped in warm, soapy water or other approved decontaminant Air Cargo Decontamination- spray with water, aerate, use M295 depending on priorityShipboard Decontamination-calcium hypochlorite, detergent, other soap, 9% solution in seawater, do not use harsh detergents or oxidizersInfrastructure/Environmental- removes contaminants from large-scale itemsGL 1800DClarus Room Bio-Decontamination ServiceService Component Decontamination PhilosophiesArmyNavyAir ForceDecontamination Lessons LearnedWorking with othersHost Nation ConsiderationsDSCA and Major CatastrophesRoles and ResponsibilitiesEMBEFireEODMedicalRadiological DecontaminationTypes of Contamination- smearable and fixedSmearable- removed by wiping, comparable with dustFixed-held tightly to surface, contaminants diffused into material, formed electrostatic or chemical bond, requires harsh techniques like chemical dissolution, corrosion; decontamination can create smearable contaminationConsiderations: Effectiveness, cost, rate of decontamination, quantity of wasteCost-decontamination dominates other accident costs Waste-carefully consider implications of quantities & types when selecting decontamination methodsUsing onsite treatment reduces volumeUse RCRA permitted disposal facilities for clean, minimally contaminated wasteUse LLRW capacity for highly contaminated materials Long-term health risks-formerly contaminated material can present long-term health risks due to exposure to low levels of residual contamination so must be annotated in vehicle/equip lifecycle documents & personnel health records with agent type, detector reading, MOPP level, exposure time Best Practicesapply fixative to exterior surfaces in interdicted areas to prevent re-contamination; several thin coats of road oil most practical by aircraft to cover to .4 gal/sq meter Ideally, decontamination should be done within first 1-2 min after exposure; self-decontamination makes difference between survival and deathBest decontamination agent/process neutralizes all agents, nontoxic, non corrosive, easily applied by hand, readily available, rapid action, doesn't produce toxic end products, stable in long-term storage, short-term stability, affordability, non-enhancement of percutaneous agent absorption, no irritation potential, hypoallergenic, easily disposed One of the best decontaminants is mild soap and water for skin and hair and most smooth, nonporous surfacesMethods of DecontaminationChemical Decontamination: uses concentrated/dilute reagents (chemical solutions, multiphase treatment processes, foam, gels, pastes, fogs, gas) dissolve contamination layer, most effective on non-porous surfaces, must account for chemistry of contaminant, substrate and ability to manage waste; for nuclear facilities can circulate reagent through system or soaking parts in tank containing reagentMild: noncorrosive agents like detergent, complexing agents, dilute acids, alkalies; used when objective is to remove contamination without attacking base materials, low corrosion rates and low chemical concentrations facilitating disposal/treatment of byproducts. Can be made more effective by combining with other processes, increasing treatment temperaturesAggressive: concentrated strong acids and alkalies, other corrosives, typically involves several stages using different chemical solutions Complexing agents form stable complexes with metal ions, solubize them, prevent redistribution out of solutionStrong mineral acids (phosphoric, fluorboric ,nitric, etc) attack and dissolve metal oxide films, lower PH to increase solubility & ion exchangeNitric acid dissolves metallic oxide film, .layers in stainless steelNitric acid/potassium permanganate/oxalic acid used for remote ops, high efficiency, low wasteSulphuric acid use limited to remove deposits not containing calcium compoundsSalts of acids can be used instead or with acids on metal surfacesSodium permanganate & strontium nitrate remove actinides & radiostrontium from wasteOrganic acids used during plant operations on metal, plastic, other polymersOxalic acid is good complexer for niobium & fission productsAcetone, trichlorethylene, Freon 113, frozen CO2Mechanical Decontamination works best on large, regular, readily accessible surfaces; selection of best method depends on contaminants, surface materials, costsFlushing with water simplest, dissolves chemicals, flushes loose debris, involves flooding surface & collecting waste waterDusting, vacuuming, wiping, scrubbing physically remove dust, aerosol, particles; suction most useful as a pretreatmentStripping coating involves applying a polymer & removal of stabilized polymer and contaminants, best on nonporousSteam cleaning uses solvent/kinetic energy for complex shapes, large surfaces even with grease present; removes contaminated soil from earth moving/drilling equipment; produces low levels of waste that can be vacuumed or otherwise collectedAbrasive cleaning uses abrasive medium like plastic, glass or steel beads, grit like garnet, soda, aluminum oxide by removing smearable/fixed contamination from metal/concrete, most effective on flat surfaces, can use on hard to reach surfaces, can be done wet or dry, abrasive is applied mechanically but produces lots of secondary waste; Sponge blasting uses sponge made of water-based urethane that creates scrubbing effect through expansion/contraction; aggressive sponge impregnated with abrasives can erode materials like paints, protective coatings, rustCO2 blasting is grit blasting using CO2 pellets as medium; effective with plastics, ceramics, composites, stainless but softer materials can damage/brittle ones can shatter; most of waste is gaseous, which is easy to treatHigh pressure liquid nitrogen injects abrasive into liquid nitrogen jet which propels it onto surface needing decontamination and "freezes" contaminantFreon jetting directs high-pressure Freon cleaning solvent on discrete components within a glove-box, so not in-site; regulations limit the use of FreonWet ice blasting propels water and ice crystals to remove coatings & some fixed surface contaminants, but won't remove more than the surface layer from concreteHigh pressure removes contamination from surface; good for inaccessible surfaces, high pressure can remove paint, coatings, galvanized layers from sheet steel, tenacious deposits without damaging underlying surfaces. Can use glycerin.Grinding/shaving uses coarse grained abrasives in water-cooled, dry diamond grinding wheels or tungsten carbide surfacing discs. Recommended for thin layers of contamination.Scarifying/scabbling/planing abrades concrete to remove contamination, uses several pneumatically operated piston heads simultaneously striking surface; also can use needle gun with pneumatically driven several millimeter needlesMetal milling uses rotating cutters to shave off layers, most effective when many similarly shaped items need decontaminationDrilling and spalling makes 24-40 mm diameter holes, 75mm deep, hydraulic spalling tool inserts expandable tool into holes to spall off concrete; recommended for contamination penetrating a few cm into surfaceExpansive grout can remove thick layer of concretePaving breaker/chipping hammer (jackhammer) for demolition removes surface contamination but leaves rough surfaceElectrohydraulic scabbling (EHS) removes surface layers of contaminated concrete while generating minimal secondary waste. The EHS device delivers powerful shock waves to the concrete surface originated by a pulsed, high-voltage electric discharge between two electrodes. The hydraulic shock wave propagates through water between the discharge channel and the concrete, causing the concrete to crack and peelVecLoader-trailer mounted system for removing contaminated insulationElectrokinetic decontamination used in-situ for porous concrete by applying electric field to induce ionic compound migrationElectropolishingUltrasonic cleaningMeltingLight ablationMicrowave scabblingThermal degradationBiodecontaminationFlameless burning of powdersSupercritical fluid extractionEmerging Technologies-vapor-phase transport separation, gaseous decontamination, catalytic extraction solvent washing, explosive removal, atmospheric pressure plasma tool...Electrochemical Decontamination essentially chemical decontamination assisted by electrical field uses directed electric current resulting in anodic dissolution and removal of metal and oxide layer, good for easily accessible surfaces but only good for removing radionuclide contamination from conducting surfacesDecontamination Process for Specific MaterialsCesium- wetting surface, absorb with rag, rinsing several times. On porous surfaces vacuum first. If persisting, detergent and scrub brush. Metallic surfaces treated with strong minerals, oxidizing acidsCobalt- Detergent or EDTA followed by treatment with mineral acids. Particles readily removed with ultrasonic cleaners, or dipping into nitric, hydrochloric, or sulfuric acid. Can vacuum large areas. Solutions containing cobalt decontaminated with water. Plutonium- Vacuum small areas, wash with detergent, seal remaining contamination with paint, varnish, plastic. Large areas like fields decontaminated by removal of top layer of soil. Strontium- dilutions containing it decontaminated by absorbing and washing with detergent solution, if persistent remove top layer of surface then seal Tritium- if area release as gas, flush area with air; objects exposed to gas for long time must be disposed Uranium-remove by brushing/vacuuming then treat with mineral acids or oxidizing acids and seal. Remove top layer of surface or seal area if it is large.Decontamination Actions: plow, vacuum blast, strippable coating, defoliate, leaching/EDTA, foam, three-inch asphalt, cover with 6" soil (no trees), high pressure water, steam clean, wash and scrub/shampoo carpet, resurface, leaching FeCl3, Close mowing, clear/harvest, plane/scarify/radical prune, thin asphalt/concrete layer, very high pressure water, remove and replace, sandblasting, vacuum, low pressure water, scrape 4-6", deep plow, remove structure, cover with 6" soil (trees in place), hand scrape, fixative/aerial application, double vacuum, double scrape,RDD: strippable coating, chemical decontamination, washing and cleaning, abrasive techniques such as scabbling Will be in populated area, extensiveness of decontamination must be balanced with need to access affected area and minimize disruption, which could be years because decontamination processes are not well-developed, practiced- widespread societal disruption likely most dangerous consequence; additionally terrorists may use material with long half-life, causing cleanup may be more extensiveDecontamination AgentsApproved AF Agentsbrush, wash, wipe off Commercially available products"Count off" and" RadiacWash" work better than plain soap and water on metal isotopes and isotopes bound to metal and may contain EDTA; homemade EDTA solutions can be made by adding 1% EDTA to soap and waterUses of ceric acid are patented to decontamination metal surfacesWhat must be decontaminated: agricultural fields, orchards, vacant land, wooded land, exterior walls wood, exterior walls brick, linoleum floors, wood floors, carpeted floors, concrete floors, painted interior walls, concrete interior walls, asphalt streets, concrete streets, roofs, lawns, auto exteriors, auto interiors, auto tires, auto engine and drive train, asphalt paved surfaces, concrete paved surfaces Paved Surfaces (asphalt, concrete)Mobile Vacuuming- street sweeper-lower efficiency, low cost (< 1 cent/m2), couple with other methods, 8,000 m2/hrLow-Pressure Wash- removes ~95%, use standard street flushers costs $.0013/m2, results in contaminated water to dispose; may run into storm drainsHigh-Pressure wash (80-120 lbs/inch2) sing fire hydrants-scours, can drive into surface, costs $.021/m2, fire departments can do but costly ($.32/m2), water tank trucks $.020/m2Very high pressure water (400 lbs/inch2) using specially equipped tanker truck one mile/hr at $.022/m2Foam- acidic, reverse osmosis, sprayed from specially equipped tanker, vacuum remaining foam , $.09/m2, 12,000 m2/hrStrippable coating-(like decongel)- spray/paint on, peel off, also protective coating; may not be sufficient inventories for large scale event, cost dependent on manufacturerPlaning- remove pavement, $2.43/m2 for asphalt, $2.91for concreteThin surface coating- sealer/road oil act as fixatives, $.30-.54/m2, can even be used on sandAsphalt overlay- shields, prevents re-suspension, thicker=more effective, 3 inches reduces exposure by half, $2.02/m2Remove and replace-most costlyRoofs-costly, variable efficiency due to variety in roofs VacuumLow Pressure WaterHigh Pressure WaterWet SandblastFixativeFoamStrippable CoatingRemove and replace Lawns -drive contamination below soil surface is optionVacuumWater- 85% effectiveness; Leaching- add chemicals like ferric chloride, EDTA, calcium chlorideClose Mowing- bag cuttings, 65% effectivenessFixative- improves effectiveness of removal, but difficult & messyRemove and Replace- most effective, most costlyAgricultural FieldsWaterFixative, CoherexLeach, FeCl3ScrapePlow 10-12 inchesClearCover with SoilOrchards- similar to fields, wooded areas, vacant land; unique problems due to tree foliage causes uneven distribution, saving trees important but costly, methods effective for ground not as good for treesWaterAerial application of fixativeGround application of fixativeDefoliateLeach, FeCl3Scrape w/o removing treesPlowRemove and ReplaceRadical PruneCover with soil, trees removedCover with soil, trees not removedScrape with trees removed Vacant Land -undeveloped land w/ grass & brushFixativeClearScrapeWaterLeachPlowDeep PlowCoverWooded Land- Difficult access Aerial fixativeDefoliateClearGrub and Scrape (grubbing is stump removal)Hand ScrapeCover, cleared landCover by Hand Soil can be decontaminated by bioleaching soil in tanks using thiobacteria Exterior Walls- painted wood and brick- same methods, different effectivenessWater washWash and scrubFixativeVacuumHydroblastMedium-pressure waterRemove, replace, repaintRemove StructureFoamStrippable CoatingInterior Floors and Walls -linoleum (asphalt tile, vinyl, etc), wood, carpet; painted wood, plaster, concrete; similar operations, different efficienciesVacuumScrub and WashStrippable CoatingFoamFixativeRemove and ReplaceSandSteam CleanShampooScarifyResurfaceMedium-Pressure waterHydroblastAutos- four "surfaces"- exteriors, interiors, tires, engine, drive train with different techniquesExteriorDrive Car AwayTow CarTruck CarOrdinary WashDetailed WashRepaintInteriorOrdinary VacuumDetailed vacuum and cleanRemove, clean, replaceRe-upholsterTiresOrdinary spray washDetailed wash and scrubSandblastRemove and replaceEngines and drive trainsSteam cleanClean with SolventHauling -removed items, byproducts must be moved to dump sites; costlyFluidsCoarse dispersion decontaminated with spontaneous sedimentationMicrodispersions decontaminated with precipitation, filtration through ion exchanger or sorbent, electroosmosisGases- adsorption, filtration through aerosol or sorption filtersOperational Systems of Nuclear Power Plants- Chemical cleaning, pickling Personnel removing clothes & rapid washing removes 95% ; .5% hypochlorite useable but must be careful not to cause skin irritation through which radiation can pass; second deliberate decontamination at MTF prevents spread to uncontaminated body parts, equipment, personnelUtilize CCS to process noninjured, operational personnel to remove contaminated overgarments; may reduce/eliminate need for actual decontamination PatientsTVI 3 Mass Casualty Decontamination System- physical removal, 3 lanes, includes nonambulatory TVI Individual Decontamination Shelter- physical removal, single responder TVI USAR Decontamination system, 3 lanes, includes nonambulatory Reeves 3-Lane Rigid Frame System, 5 lanesWound Decontamination- surgical irrigation solutions for wounds, the abdomen & chest; removed by suctionMedical "Decontamination" to reduce internal absorption- mobilizing or chelating agents, gastric lavage, purgatives/laxatives/enemas, ion exchange resins, blocking gents for radioiodineShudhika Kit- easy to use, complete, quick response kit housed in portable, light weight, waterproof case with locking system, IAW Atomic Energy Regulatory Board and International Atomic Energy Agency guidelines Operational Equipment/MaterielMPDS Wash down Decontamination System- diesel powered, high pressure cold/hot water wash to 176C , steam to 2840, dry steam to 4120 Nuclear ReactorsBoiling water reactors- corrosion filmsPressurized water reactorsEnvironmentalAir Force Decontamination Philosophy- TTPs indicate use of duct tape and baby wipes to spot decontamination vehicles and aircraftDecontamination Lessons LearnedTomodachi- Doctrine does not address how to decontaminate radiologically contaminated vehicles and aircraft in hard to reach areas (i.e., radiators, grills, & vents). different platoons used different methods- hot water and paper towels, duct tape and paper towels; decisions on PPE and methods based on desire to not alarm local civilian population; no clearance standard setDoctrine does not address acceptable contamination levels during CM/FCM operationsUnit not organized to perform CM responsibilities; limited resources availableAll CBRN members must be trained to NFPA 472 HazMat Technician level to be better prepared for CM/FCM missionsJoint service training can aid in identifying best equipmentImproved, small group equipment and monitoring training needed for CM/FCM missions with equipment required by scenariosDosimetry was different for each serviceLeadership needs to know capabilities of interagency partnersWorking with othersCurrent CBRN Doctrine does not adequately cover actual joint unit CBRN operations in radiologically contaminated environmentsLack of collective body of knowledge; especially for nuclear power plantsContradictory guidance from different agenciesLack of clarity in technical language unique to each serviceDifferent units of measure for each serviceDifferent probes with different measurements for each service- AF has ADM 300, Army/Marines have AN/PDR-77 with no beta probeHost Nation ConsiderationsDSCA and Major CatastrophesRoles and ResponsibilitiesEMBEFireEODMedicalComparison of Various Decontamination Agents/MethodsDecontamination Equipment Selection FactorsCost: price of unit/system, plus reagents and consumables, does not include cost of waste disposal. All dollars converted to 2012Weight: size of equipment, total weight in transport mode and operational statusFunctional Application: areas where best employed- personnel, equipment, infrastructureDecontamination Process: processes used- chemical, physical, thermal, etcAgents Decontaminated: specific agents it is effective against if known, otherwise general (all, multiple, some, one, none)Capacity/Throughput/Rate of Decontamination: number of personnel, vehicles, areas of infrastructure per hour Set-Up Time: Power RequirementsDurability Operational Environment Resources WarrantySkill Level/Training RequirementsWaste ProducedLong-Term Health RisksSelection ChartsAdditional Resources to Include ReferencesAir Force Doctrine Document 2-8.8 (2007). Counter-chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear operations. AFTTP 3-2.60 (2006). Multiservice Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Decontamination.Allison, Graham. (2010). Nuclear terrorism fact sheet. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School.Severa, J, and Bar, J (1991). Handbook of Radioactive Contamination and Decontamination. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.Eraker, E. (2004). Cleanup after a radiological attack: U.S. prepares guidance . The Nonproliferation Review, 167-185. IPP FoS Supplemental Tech Handbook (2008). Chapter 8, Decontamination.Jablanowski, E., Kudarauskas, P., Lemieux, P., Michael, J., Parrish, C., Pike, J., & Schultheisz D. Report on waste disposal workshops for a radiological dispersal device (rdd) attack in an urban area - 11543. (2011). Paper presented at WM2011 conference, Phoenix, AZ.Kirk, M. & Cibulsky, S. (2011). Mass Human Chemical Decontamination. US Department of Health and Human Services and Department of Homeland Security.Kumar, V., Goel, R., Chawla, R., Silambarasn, M., & Sharma, R. (2010). Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear decontamination: Recent trends and future perspective. Journal of Pharmacy & BioAllied Sciences, 2(3), 220-238. doi: 10.4103/0975-7406.68505Laser decontamination: Shine a light. (2010). Department of Homeland Security.Lemieux, P., Wood, J., Hayes, C., Rodgers, M., Schultheisz, D., Peake, T., & Ierardi, M. (2010, March). A first-order estimate of debris and waste resulting from a hypothetical radiological dispersal device incident.Tawil, J., Bold, F., Harrer, B., Currie, J., (1982). Northwest Laboratory, Battelle Memorial Institute. Off-site consequences of radiological accidents: Methods, costs and schedules for decontamination. Pacific U.S. Nuclear Regulatory CommissionUSARPAC CBRNE Division & 71st Chemical Company Support to Japan, Operation Tomodachi. 2011. ................
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