Mr Fitzgerald's History | "To know nothing of what ...
Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe 1920-1945
Key concepts
A key to developing understanding will be learning to identify the main issues through a familiarity with key concepts:
• Inflation; the Depression; protectionism; collectivisation; communism; fascism; dictatorship; personality cult; totalitarianism; democracy; propaganda; anti-Semitism; herrenvolk; Reichskirche; the Holocaust; collaboration; resistance; lebensraum; blitzkrieg.
Key personalities
In their study of the topic, students should become aware of the role of certain key personalities. Students should be aware of the contribution of the following to the developments listed under the elements above:
• J.M. Keynes; Adolf Hitler; Benito Mussolini; Vladimir Ilyich Lenin; Josef Stalin; Winston Churchill; Joseph Goebbels; Leni Riefenstahl; Bing Crosby; Charlie Chaplin.
Case studies
Stalin's show trials, 1936-1938
The Jarrow March, 1936
The Nuremberg Rallies
Apart from 2007 and 2011 (Jarrow), NONE of these case studies have been asked DIRECTLY as a question BUT there has been at least one question every year in which a case study could have been used as the basis for an answer.
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PAST QUESTIONS
2006
• During the inter-war period, what conditions in Europe contributed to the growth of fascist regimes?
• To what extent did Stalin transform the society and economy of the Soviet Union?
• How successfully did Britain deal with the social and economic problems of the inter-war period?
• What developments took place in the technology of warfare during the period, 1920 - 1945?
2007
• What problems did the Third Republic of France encounter between 1920 and 1940?
• What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany between 1933 and 1939?
• What were the causes and the consequences of the Jarrow March, October, 1936?
• How significant was the role played by the Soviet Union in World War II?
2008
• What did Lenin and Stalin contribute to communism in Russia?
• Which had the greater social and economic problems during the inter-war years, Britain or Germany? Argue your case,
referring to both countries.
• What contribution did Joseph Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl make to Nazi propaganda?
• What was the impact of World War II on the civilian population of Britain and/or France?
2009
• Why was France unstable during the period, 1920-1940?
• How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?
• What were the main social and economic challenges facing Britain, 1920-1945?
• What did you learn about World War II from your study of one or more of the following: wartime alliances;
collaboration/resistance; technology of warfare?
2010
• How successfully did German governments deal with the social and economic problems of the period, 1920-1939?
• How effective were the internal and external policies of Josef Stalin?
• What were the main developments in church-state relations under Hitler and Mussolini?
• What was the impact of Anglo-American popular culture on Europe, 1920-1945?
2011
• To what extent did Lenin and/or Stalin bring about social and economic change?
• How effective were the internal and external policies of Benito Mussolini?
• What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933-9?
• What did one or more of the following achieve in Britain during the period 1920-1945: J.M. Keynes; those who took part
in the Jarrow March, October 1936; Winston Churchill?
PERSPECTIVE: Politics and administration
• Origins and growth of the fascist regimes in Europe; Nazi state in peace and war.
• Communism in Russia: regimes of Lenin and Stalin; Stalinist state in war and peace.
• France: the Third Republic, 1920-1940, and the Vichy state.
• Wartime alliances, 1939-1945.
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What were the reasons for the origins and growth of the fascist regimes in Europe, 1920-33?
1. Introduction: In post-war Europe, numerous crises threatened the stability that was promised by the Paris Peace Treaties in 1919. Ranging from economic depression, social unrest and the disillusionment of war veterans to rising unemployment and falling living standards, these problems meant that the parliamentary democracies which inherited them became more unpopular. Ordinary citizens became impatient with the slow pace of recovery. In this chaotic environment, promises of strong leadership in government, an end to economic problems, nationalistic and foreign policy triumphs were well received. Allied to threats of mob violence and use of propaganda, these factors combined to aid the growth of the fascist regimes in Europe between 1920 and 1933.
2. Failure of Parliamentary Democracy: One main reason for the rise of fascist regimes was the failure of parliamentary democracies to provide a successful alternative. In Germany, various armed uprisings from the ‘left’ (the Spartacist Revolt of 1919 by the Berlin Communists) and the ‘right’ (the 1920 Kapp Putsch) put the Weimar Republic under pressure, as these reflected social unrest among the working classes. For example, the 1920 Putsch originated from right-wing Freikorps members protesting against demobilisation. Also, the Weimar government was associated with the ‘Diktat’ of Versailles and the degrading aspects of the settlement (reparations, loss of territories), especially Weimar acceptance of the war-guilt clause, article 231. This was the basis for Hitler’s attacks and gained the Nazis much support.
Similarly, in Italy, weak governments between 1918-1922 meant that Mussolini’s fascists gained support from a scared population. Demobilisation mean there were millions of ex-soldiers out of work. Also, society was under threat from widespread crime. The success of the Bolshevik revolution encouraged communists to seize land and factories. The failure of Prime Minister Giolitti to deal with these problems led to fears of a Communist revolution in the minds of the middle- and upper-classes. While two parties, the Socialists and the Catholic Party, emerged in Italy after the war, neither was able to provide stable government. For example, between 1918 and 1922, there were five coalition governments with numerous reshuffles. Thus, the failure of democratic governments in Italian/German politics led to a desire for strong leaders like Mussolini and Hitler to replace them.
3. Impact of World Economic Crisis: Many European countries were devastated by the impact of the global economic crises of the early 1920s and the Wall Street Crash. In Italy, inflation rose by 500% between 1914 and 1920 while the country was crippled by strikes, food riots and social discontent in the aftermath of World War One. In Germany, following relative prosperity in the 1920s, the 1929 Wall Street Crash destroyed the demand for German goods. The fragile economy collapsed and unemployment in Germany rose to 6 million by January 1933. The reparations debt of 6.6 billion pounds was crippling while inflation was at ludicrous levels throughout this period. In response, strong leaders who promised employment through rearmament and conscription created a morale-boosting militaristic atmosphere. Mussolini and Hitler promised to supervise industry closely (but allowed industrialists like Alfred Krupp make huge profits). Both the Blackshirts and the Nazi Party introduced policies of self-sufficiency in food (autarky) while the promised modernisation and public works programmes would provide badly needed employment, especially in the construction of the autobahnen and autostrada (national road networks). These economic policies were, in many cases, superficial and unfulfilled but it gained the fascist regimes in Italy and Germany support and led to their growth and electoral successes.
4. Paramilitary Violence: The use of violence was also a key factor in the growth of fascist regimes in Europe between 1920 and 1933. In Germany, the Sturmabteilungen (SA) were a paramilitary group consisting of assorted thugs, discontented soldiers and ex-convicts recruited by the Nazi party. Since their foundation in 1921, their purpose was to provide ‘support’ at meetings and annual rallies (Reichparteitag). They also disrupted opposition meetings and speeches. They got the nickname ‘Brownshirts’ from their uniform. However, the real instrument of political violence and terror was the Schutzstaffel (SS) or ‘guard squadrons’ (est. 1925) who were more disciplined than the SA. The success of the SS was due partly to the organisational qualities of Reichsfuhrer SS Heinrich Himmler. Auxiliary organisations such as the Geheimestaatspolizei (Gestapo) or ‘state police’, est. 1933, helped to eliminate anti-Nazi supporters. Similarly, in Italy, Mussolini tightened his control with the aid of his ‘Blackshirts.’ Their mixture of speeches and mob violence led to a hardcore group of fanatical support, which grew steadily. Ex-soldiers, anti-communists and middle-class professionals flocked to its ranks. By 1922, there were over a quarter of a million members of the Fascio di Combattimento. After 1922, the Blackshirts became the state militia– Volunteer Militia for National Security or MVSN– with responsibility for imposing public order, showing how significant the use of violence was in the growth of fascist regimes.
5. Propaganda: The fascist regimes in Germany and Italy recognised the power of propaganda and media manipulation to increase support from their inception. Dr Joseph Goebbels was made the Propaganda chief of the Nazi Party in 1928. He famously stated “Any lie frequently repeated will ultimately gain belief.” By Goebbels’s clever and manipulative use of the media, particularly newspapers such as Der Angriff (‘The Attack’), Hitler’s rivals were destroyed inside and outside the party. Youth movements such as the Hitlerjugend (Hitler Youth, 1926) and the Bund Deutscher Madchen (League of German Maidens, 1928) created a future generation of supporters while adding to Hitler’s status as a cult figure. This was reinforced by the use of uniforms, salutes and mass meetings. Of course, Hitler’s qualities as an outstanding public speaker were central to this growth in popularity. The party organised public spectacles such as the Nuremburg rallies to illustrate the greatness of Germany and Hitler, as well as aiding the growth of the fascist regime.
Similarly, a Mussolini personality cult was at the centre of the Fascist propaganda campaign. He was depicted as a superman- an Italian slogan at the time was ‘Mussolini ha sempre ragione’ (Mussolini is always right). The historian Denis Mack Smith wrote that Mussolini’s ‘...most important quality was that of being a stupendous poseur. His mixture of showmanship and vulgarity appealed to the common people.’ Mussolini used such propaganda (newsreels, posters and newspapers such as Il Popolo d’ltalia) to foster the growth of fascism and his own popularity. Like Germany, the youth of Italy were key targets in fascist propaganda. It was compulsory to join a Fascist youth organisation such as the Sons of the She-Wolf, the Balilla and the Avantguardisti while in schools, fascist text-books told how fascism saved Italy from communism. Therefore, propaganda was central to the growth of the fascist regimes.
6. Aggressive Foreign Policy: Hitler and Mussolini, as with most fascist leaders, believed that the totalitarian state was involved in an eternal ‘struggle’ against enemy forces, whether in political, social or economic terms. In the area of foreign policy, the fascist regimes of Hitler and Mussolini found huge support. The punitive aspects of Versailles gave Hitler the opportunity of declaring the entire Diktat as unfair. The German nation eagerly supported the Nazis’ idea of ‘Dolchstoss’ (‘stab in the back’) by the Weimar government. Hitler and the Nazis used this myth of the ‘enemy within’ to bolster the confidence of the German people and gain support in the 1920s for reclaiming the lands lost by Versailles – the Saarland, Rhineland, Anschluss with Austria, the Sudetenland. It contributed to the popularity of Nazi policies: the formation of Greater Germany and lebensraum (living room) for the German population.
Similarly, Mussolini’s foreign policy promises won huge support for his fascist regime. The populist aims were simple: to win new territories and prestige for Italy. By careful manipulation of public opinion at home, Mussolini gained approval for opportunist moves against weak opponents abroad (e.g. Abyssinia, Albania, Corfu), In spite of Italy’s lack of industrial resources, triumphs such as the 1923 Lausanne Conference won Rhodes and the Dodecanese Islands. Between 1922 and 1924, commercial treaties were signed with many of Italy’s European neighbours. The signing of the 1925 Locarno Pact with France and Britain guaranteed Germany’s western borders and projected the image of Italy as a major ‘player’ on the international stage. Overall, the fascist regimes gained support by their nationalistic policies and promises of foreign expansion.
7. Conclusion
The origins and growth of the fascist regimes in Europe, whether in Salazar’s Portugal or Mussolini’s Italy, Hitler’s Germany or Franco’s Spain, were due to a variety of factors. The weaknesses of post-war governments, the impact of the global economic depression on civilian populations, the willingness of democratic societies to impart power to extreme political groups, the appeal of violence and aggressive nationalism, the fear of communism- all played their part in the growth of fascism. The lack of a long or lasting tradition of democratic government in either Italy or Germany – allied to the above factors – meant that they were vulnerable to the promises of stability and prosperity made by Hitler and Mussolini. Eventually, it was these ‘promises’ which resulted in the totalitarianism of Mussolini and Hitler’s regimes and the rigid control of all aspects of life in these states.
What were the main developments in Vichy France during the period, 1940-1944?
1. Introduction
France declared war on Germany on 3 September, 1939. The Germans launched their blitzkrieg attack on Western Europe on 10 May, 1940. The French Army collapsed after the Germans overcame the defences of the Maginot Line. The French government signed the armistice and surrendered on 22 June 1940. France: divided into occupied and unoccupied zones. Germany occupied all the north and west of France. Rest of the country administered by Marshal Phillippe Pétain as Chief of State and Pierre Laval as head of government from their capital at Vichy. Pétain blamed France’s defeat on the weakness of the Third Republic during the 1930s. Other members of the Vichy administration such Josef Darnand were strongly supportive of Nazi policies, particularly their anti-Semitism. The Vichy government thought that collaboration with Nazi Germany was the best long-term strategy for protecting France’s position in the new Europe which they thought would be dominated by Hitler’s Thousand Year Reich. Since 1945, the phrase ‘les années noires’ (‘the black years’) has been used to describe the years of Vichy rule.
2. Anti-Semitic legislation
Racist laws created by Pétain's government (Statut des Juifs) of October 1940. All French Jews were registered by the French police. All foreign Jews residing in France were sent to Germany. There was a curfew placed on Jews and restricions on movement. A yellow Star of David had to be worn at all times. Jews were forbidden to go out in public and were restricted to end carriages on trains. The Vichy government deported 76,000 Jews to German extermination camps. During the Vel'd'Hiv raid in 1942, nearly 13,000 Jews were arrested and sent to the concentration camps. These extra arrests were not required by the Gestapo. Source of on-going controversy in French academic debate; fewer French Jews killed than in other countries but Vichy government was fully complicit in Nazi atrocities. Still viewed as the most shameful episode in French history.
3. State Collaboration
The Free French forces led by Charles De Gaulle were the main political group to oppose Vichy. De Gaulle based HQ in London and Algiers. Civil war between the French Resistance and French pro-Nazi groups. Pétain and Laval- ‘reasons’ for state collaboration: - hoped for the return of over 1.5 million prisoners of war- less money to be paid for France’s ‘war indemnity’- hoped that the ‘guarantee of sovereignty’ would be observed by Germany- full co-operation’ already agreed under Article 3 of Armistice Convention- German authorities had a veto on any Vichy law or policy- Vichy officials tried to win favour with Germany by applying Nazi laws (anti-Semitic legislation).
4. Germany and Vichy
Senior Nazi officials treated Vichy with disdain as a defeated and cowardly nation. Herman Göring, Hitler’s second-in-command, saw Vichy France as a huge source of raw materials, manufactured goods and labour to be exploited for the benefit of the Third Reich. Vichy’s treatment was seen as justified after years of German humiliation under the Treaty of Versailles. Josef Goebbels, Minister for Propanganda, took advantage of the situation; systematic humiliation was a warning to all occupied countries. To the German military, Vichy’s collaboration meant that France was now out of the war and required less Nazi resources to administer. N.B. Contrary to the claims of its authorities, Nazi Germany did not view Vichy as an ‘ally’ or even as an independent fascist state.
4. Economic Collaboration
Private companies forced to work for the Nazis, especially in the coal and steel, aircraft and motor vehicle industries. In many cases, these companies had no alternative- produce for Germany or be taken over. However, many companies and individuals were more than willing to work for the Germans for profit. From 1941, photographic company Photomaton produced identity photos for Jews in German camps. Collaboration seen in the French aircraft industry in particular. Supply of foreign labour became a huge concern for Nazi Germany by 1942 (labourers from Poland and Russia had been decimated). Fritz Sauckel in charge of ‘recruiting’ new labour but all his schemes to recruit the required number failed. February 1943: Vichy ‘introduced’ a compulsory labour service, le Service du travail obligatoire (STO). By 1945, over 700,000 French people had been sent to labour camps in Germany. France was the second-largest contributor of unskilled labour after Poland. 40% of the wealth Nazi Germany acquired from occupied territories came from France.
5. Military Collaboration
The Vichy government supported German military operations, mainly in the form of supply lines, naval operations and logistical support (as in 1941 in Syria and Tunisia). Up to 1942, Hitler and his generals kept French military involvement to a minimum. For example, Vichy officials wanted to form a ‘Légion’ in November 1942 to fight in Tunisia. This offer was refused as the Nazis did not see Vichy France as an ‘ally.’ By 1943, Germany’s multi-front war meant that they were willing to accept French help. In 1943, Frenchmen (previously seen as too ‘impure’ to be accepted) could join the Waffen-SS. The same year, Laval was finally granted permission to create the Milice (militia), headed by Joseph Darnand. This group fought with the Nazis against the Resistance. Military collaboration also occurred in Occupied France with the Légion des volontaires français contre le bolchevisme (LVF), a 10,000-volunteer unit that fought in Wehrmacht uniforms against the USSR.
6. Resistance and Vichy
In contrast to the actions of the Vichy government, the Resistance comprised of small local groups who opposed the Nazis- initially, no real nationwide structure- small-scale disruption of Vichy and Nazi forces. Supported by the Special Operations Executive (GB) in the form of dynamite, arms and supplies. Nicknamed the Maquis (after the Breton word for scrubland)- various activities inc. guerrilla warfare, helping Allied forces in behind-the-lines actions and propaganda (newspapers, etc). Greater organisation after the creation of the Conseil National de la Résistance (CNR) in May 1943 by Jean Moulin. CNR linked up with De Gaulle’s Free French units and their controlling body, Comité Français de Libération Nationale (CFLN). Huge role in D-Day invasions including intelligence, scouting and sabotage of German forces, especially communications and transport (roads, rail lines and bridges).
7. Conclusion
Not all occupied countries were as willing to co-operate as Vichy France. In the Netherlands, the Dutch civil service did not give Nazi forces any assistance other than ‘essential services.’
There were many forms of zealous French complicity:
– suppression of the Resistance by French police and the Milice
– deportation of over 70,000 Jews
– forced labour of 700,000 French people working in Germany
– trials and imprisonment of 135,000 French people
– internment of 70,000 `enemies of the state'
Following the D-Day invasion of France in 1944, Pétain, Laval and other Vichy ministers were smuggled to Germany and established a government-in-exile at Sigmaringen until April 1945. After Germany’s defeat, members of the Vichy government were arrested and charged with high treason. Trials and convictions followed with some ministers, including Laval and Darnand, being executed. Pétain was sentenced to death but, due to his record as a World War I hero, he received life imprisonment. Today, the ‘official’ view of the Vichy regime is that it was never more than ‘an illegal government’ which was separate from the Third Republic (i.e. they were traitors who collaborated with foreign invaders).
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Society and Economy
Economic and social problems of the inter-war years, with particular reference to Britain and Germany.
The Soviet alternative.
Society during World War II: the Home Front; rationing/evacuees; refugees; collaboration/resistance.
Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust
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Why was the Nazi government anti-Semitic and what was the government’s ‘final solution’?
1. Introduction
Hitler’s anti-Semitism was a personal obsession but he capitalised on a long tradition of anti-Semitism, which had existed in Europe for hundreds of years. The Nazis took advantage of the need for a scapegoat after World War One and its cult of violence, both of which centred on the Jews. To the Nazis, this provided a simple world view, which explained all of Germany’s woes. German fears of invasion by Russian communists merged neatly to become the ‘Jewish—Bolshevik’ threat which mirrored Nazi fears of the Ostjuden (what Hitler saw as a ‘dark and inferior Eastern race’) corrupting the Germanic blood. For the Nazis, this pseudo-scientific approach legitimised these theories by giving them the appearance of scientific ‘fact.’ It also undermined any logical example of Jewish talent and work ethic, regardless of achievement. As Paul Johnson has written: ‘A Jew who held a professorial chair, who wrote impeccable German, who had served throughout the war and won the Iron Cross, was just as dangerous a racial polluter as a Jewish-Bolshevik commissar.’ The Nazi believed Germans were the master race or Herrenvolk of Aryan descent. In contrast, the Jews were seen as physically, intellectually and morally inferior or untermenschen. This anti-Semitic view found full expression in Nazi legislation after Hitler came to power in 1933.
2. The Nuremburg Laws 1935 and ‘Aryanisation’
Anti-Jewish propaganda was a constant factor in 1930s Germany. The theme that the Jews deserved the same treatment as ‘rats’ was repeated endlessly in all forms of media. This belief was realised in legislation at the 1935 Nuremburg Party Rally when Hitler and the Nazis announced the racial decrees, ‘The Laws for the Protection of German Blood and Honour’ (i.e. the Nuremberg Laws). These laws deprived Jews of German citizenship and forbade marriage between Jews and ‘Aryans’. The Nazis banished Jews from teaching in universities and set a quota on Jewish students. Jews were barred from practising as doctors, dentists and judges. ‘Aryanisation’ of cultural institutions meant that Jews were forbidden to be publishers or editors. Legislation forbade Jews from using public parks, pools or spas. Those measures were widely accepted by the majority of the German public, despite overseas criticism. Therefore, the Nazi government exploited and promoted the anti-Semitism already prevalent in German society during the 1930s to gain power and consolidate its own position.
3. Kristallnacht 1938 and the Ghettoes 1940-41
In October 1938, 15,000 Polish Jews were expelled from Germany and dumped at the Polish border. The anti-Semitic Polish government denied them entry. In protest, a young Polish Jew in Paris shot Ernst Von Rath of the German Foreign Office. The Nazi Party saw it as part of a ‘Jewish conspiracy’ and, on the night of 9-10 November, responded with the Kristallnacht or ‘Crystal Night’ (so-called because of the shattered glass of Jewish properties, homes and synagogues). 300 synagogues were burned, 7,000 shops were destroyed and looted while over 20,000 Jews were arrested and imprisoned. By 1939 over half of Germany's Jews had emigrated. The next step in anti-Semitic persecution was the process of ‘ghettoisation.’ The ghettos were created with a dual aim: isolating the Jewish population and dehumanising them. The first ghetto at Lodz in April 1940 was followed by Warsaw, the largest ghetto, in October. The Jewish Councils (Judenrate) in charge of the ghettos complied with Nazi labour demands. They hoped that the level of industrial production (i.e. slave labour) forced on them was a guarantee against mass murder. However, by 1942, over 100,000 Jews had died due to the horrendous conditions in Warsaw. Furthermore, the Nazis demanded ‘non-productive Jews’ from the ghetto leaders for ‘resettlement’ (i.e. extermination). By now, the Nazis had committed fully to the Endlosung, the ‘Final Solution’ as new killing techniques were being developed in the camps run by the SS Economic Office.
4. Wannasee 1942: ‘Final Solution’
A conference took place in January 1942 at Wannasee near Berlin. The aim of the Conference was to co-ordinate the work of the groups that would be involved in the ‘Final Solution’ – the planned extermination and genocide of the Jewish race in Europe. Adolf Eichmann, SS Chief of the Gestapo Jewish Office, drew up the minutes of the conference, which was chaired by Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA). The conference dealt with many aspects of the racial war in the East. Hitler saw everything east of Poland as extra living space or lebensraum for the Aryan race. This racial hatred was mirrored in the combat directives for the Eastern Front. Field Marshal von Reichenau wrote that German soldiers had to understand the ‘…necessity for the complete annihilation and pitiless extermination of subhuman Jewry.’ Special Einsatzgruppen (murder squads) moved into conquered territories and set to work massacring whole Jewish communities in particular. Most volunteers for these Einsatz units were drawn from German professional middle classes, who were selected for their ideological motivation and efficiency. SS chief Heinrich Himmler advocated the use of gas vans to remove ‘…the unpleasantness connected with execution by shooting…’ New industrial killing methods were now deemed necessary in the concentration camps containing ‘enemies of the state’ since 1934.
5. The Camps
Three types of camp existed. The Concentration Camps , the original prison camps such as Buchenwald, were not equipped to kill large numbers of people. The Work Camps ranged from small camps supplying slave labour for local industries to the huge IG Farben camp at Auschwitz which employed over 20,000 Jews. Finally, the Extermination Camps like Chelmno and Treblinka were industrial killing centres where over 3 million people died. These were remotely located for the purpose of cost-effective mass extermination. Gas chambers were more ‘efficient’ as Jews were brought to sealed rooms into which carbon monoxide was pumped. For the first time, Jews were killed en masse without anyone specifically doing the killing. The disposal of bodies was carried out by Sonderkommandos (special squads of Jewish inmates) who buried them in mass graves. With the impending loss of the war, the Nazis continued to kill as many Jews as possible throughout 1944 and 1945. For example, in 1944, over 500,000 Hungarian Jews were gassed in two months. The fanaticism of these murders after the war was lost shows how effective the Nazis’ anti-Semitic propaganda had been.
6. Conclusion
Almost six million Jews were killed in the Holocaust. A long tradition of anti-Semitic feeling in Europe had been exploited by Hitler but race hatred did not end with the war. During the first few months after the war there were over 350 anti-Semitic murders in Poland while anti-Semitic riots broke out in Krakow, Sosnowiec and Lublin in August 1945. By now, the international community agreed that punishment must be inflicted on the Nazis in some way. War-crime trials began at Nuremberg on 20 November 1945, with the Final Solution as a principal element in the indictment. The first trial of the Nazi leadership concluded in October 1946, on the Jewish Day of Atonement. 12 defendants were sentenced to death, three to life imprisonment, four to prison terms, and three were acquitted. There were 12 more major trials of Nazi criminals, known as Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings. Overall, 177 Nazis were convicted and variously sentenced to death or to life imprisonment for their role in the Nazis’ attempted genocide of the Jewish race in Europe.
Culture, religion and science
• Nazi propaganda: State control & use of mass media.
• Church-state relations under Mussolini and Hitler
• Anglo-American popular culture in peace and war: radio and cinema.
• The technology of warfare.
Relevant Propaganda Questions
N.B: German Propaganda Archive at calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa
2011 What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933-1939?
2009 How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?
2008 What contribution did Joseph Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl make to Nazi propaganda?
2007 What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany between 1933 and 1939?
2006 During the inter-war period, what conditions in Europe contributed to the growth of fascist regimes?
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What was the significance of the Nuremburg Rallies in Nazi Germany?
1. Origins
First rallies: 1923 of Battle League – 1926: Parteitage or Party Days – September: annual Nazi Party Congress from 1929– spread Nazi propaganda in week-long festival – ‘Blood Flag’ of failed Munich Putsch 1923 (Andreas Bauriedl: revered as a martyr for the Nazi cause); logistics - Nazi Women’s Organisation, Labour Front – half a million people participated each year from 1933-8.
2. Speeches and Themes
Each rally had a theme – 1933: Rally of Victory (German Army); 1934: Rally of Unity and Strength (Rise to Power); 1935: Rally of Freedom (Race and National Health speech); 1936: Rally of Honour (Autarky); 1937: Rally of Labour; 1938: Rally of Greater Germany; 1939: Rally for Peace (planned). Albert Speer (architect): event manager- Director Leni Riefenstahl Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will) - crowds, marching, bands – glorify the Nazi regime and disseminate Nazi ideology and policies.
3. The Nuremburg Laws 1935
1935 Rally: most notorious for anti-Semitism – master race or Herrenvolk – untermenschen or subhumans – racial decrees (Nuremberg Laws): blatant attack on Jews – ideas on ‘racial purity’ were formulated by Dr Gerhard Wagner – also a supporter of euthanasia as a ‘solution’for the elderly, mentally ill and ‘antisocial elements’ in German society- Laws for the Protection of German Blood & Honour (16 September, 1935): deprived Jews of citizenship; forbade marriage and sexual relations between Jews and ‘subjects of the state of Germany’; forbade Jews to display the national flag or colours.
4. Goebbels and Riefenstahl
1933: Reichminister for Propaganda and Enlightenment Josef Goebbels: introduced the Arierparagraph (Aryan clause) which banned Jews from film industry- first internationally-acclaimed female director Leni Riefenstahl – monumental Nazi propaganda films – Sieg des Glanbens (Victory of Faith) 1933 – Goebbels and Riefenstahl: acrimony – documentaries: Triumph of the Will (1934) and Olympia (1936) Berlin Olympic Games – Triumph of the Will: tribute to WWI soldiers – Tomb of the Unknown Soldier – Olympia: Fest der Volker (Festival of the Nations) and Fest der Schonheit (Festival of Beauty).
5. International Propaganda
Mass media and propaganda also used to influence international opinion – earlier rallies were well received internationally – foreign journalists and diplomats invited – less in awe of Nazi ‘achievements’ after 1935 Rally – pageantry of the rallies apparent in the gargantuan building projects and Albert Speer’s designs – German Stadium or Great Hall (planned to hold 400,000); March Field (planned to hold 250,000), Zeppelin Field (200,000), Luitpold Arena (16,000): first two never developed beyond the planning/foundation stages.
N.B: kubiss.de/kulturreferat: detailed website on the Nuremburg Rally Grounds
propaganda: good site on the aims and consequences of Nazi propaganda.
6. Significance
Main reason: focus on Hitler as the chosen leader of the German people and promotion ideology of Nazi Party – – main organizations: army (Wehrmacht) – SS – youth groups – SA – Labour Front – Nazi policy – race laws of 1935 –– all swore unending loyalty – Riefenstahl: central to ‘spectacle’ of Nuremburg – speeches demonstrated power of German people marched through old Nuremberg: continuity between the Holy Roman Empire and NSDAP; performance of Wagner’s Meistersinger – all of these conformed with the Nazis' heroic Weltanschauung (world view) –propaganda value of rallies cannot be overstated
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What role did propaganda play in the growth of the Nazi Party?
As per previous essay (paragraphs 1, 2, 4 and 6) but with particular emphasis on:
• Propaganda and Work: May 1933 compulsory membership of German Labour Front or DAF (Robert Ley) – TUs/strikes banned – increased production– women to stay home: Kinder, Kuche, Kirche - Children, Kitchen and Church.
• Josef Goebbels: 1928 NP propaganda chief; 1933 Reichsminister for Enlightenment and Propaganda – People’s Radio, newspapers
• Education and Youth: German, History and Biology –Hitler Youth (Hitlerjugend) – League of German Maidens (Bund Deutscher Madchen).
• Elections: Presidential election 1932: 13 million votes for Hitler – March 1933 – ‘masterpiece of propaganda’ – 288 Reichstag seats – Enabling Law (rule by decree)
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What role did the Nuremburg Rallies play in Nazi propaganda?
As per N’burg Rallies essay BUT with specific emphasis on:
• Speeches and themes of individual rallies: Victory – Unity and Strength – Freedom – Honour – Labour – Greater Germany – Peace
• Racial decrees: further promotion of anti-Semitism: Wagner speech 1935: euthanasia – Der Angriff (Goebbels); Der Sturmer (Julius Streicher): special editions for Party Days, etc.
• Education and Youth: German, History and Biology –Hitler Youth (Hitlerjugend) – League of German Maidens (Bund Deutscher Madchen).
N.B: Pay particular attention to general questions which incorporate other elements of the topic:
• 2011 and 2007 – What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933-9?
• 2009 – How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?
• 2008 – What contribution did Joseph Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl make to Nazi propaganda?
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RECAP
• Know ALL the Case Studies AND associated elements! N.B: Jarrow question 2011……
• Politics and administration: Vichy France OR Origins and growth of the fascist regimes
• Society and Economy: Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust OR The Soviet alternative
• Culture, Religion and Science: Nazi propaganda- state control/use of mass media OR possibly Crosby/Chaplin?
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