University of Colorado Boulder



Old MaterialEpitheliumFunctionsAbsorption and secretion:Both are active (cell uses energy)Absorption: active uptake of moleculesSecretion: active release of moleculesUsually involves micro-villi = extensions to increase surface areaDiffusion and filtration:Both are passive (no energy used by cell)Diffusion: molecules move down concentration gradientFiltration: plasma (fluid component of blood) leaks across capillary wallsPropulsion: cilia drive fluid along surface of epithelium in coordinated fashionSlidingProtection: has multiple layers for best protectionSensory reception: epithelial cell generates sensory signalClassificationBy layering:Simple: single layer (attached to basement membrane)Stratified: multiple layersBy shape:Squamous: squashed/skinnyCuboidal: cube-like (provides more room for organelles)Columnar: rectangular prism-like (provides even more room for organelles)Distribution of epitheliumSimple epithelium:Simple squamous: thinnest kind (best for diffusion/passive functions), no surface projections (cilia, microvilli)Lining of air sacs in lungs (alveoli)Glomerular capsule in kidney (where filtration occurs)Endothelium: inner lining of heart/blood vessels (minimal friction facilitates sliding)Mesothelium: lining of closed body cavities (space between organs)Simple cuboidalMost glandsKidney tubules (need room for mitochondria)Simple columnar:Lines most of digestive tract (non-ciliated)Lines small bronchi (air tubes in lungs; ciliated)Sweeps away debrisLining of uterine tube (ciliated)Goblet cells: secrete mucus (digestive and respiratory tracts)Pseudostratified columnarAll cells attached to basement membrane so not truly stratifiedUndifferentiated (immature) cells don’t reach apical surfaceNuclei occur at different levels so tissue looks “stratified”Lines trachea and upper respiratory tract (ciliated)*Major functions of simple epithelium:Simple squamousSimple cuboidal/columnar/pseudostratifiedAbsorption/secretionNoYesDiffusion/filtrationYesNoPropulsionNo (no cilia)Yes (if ciliated)SlidingYesNoStratified epithelium:Stratified squamous: thickest kindFunction: protectionSkin (keratinized)Ends of digestive and reproductive tracts (nonkeratinized)Stratified cuboidal:Function: protection/secretionLarge ducts of glandsStratified columnar:Function: protection/secretionUrethraTransitional:Function: protection/stretchableApical cells change shape when tissue stretchesUrinary bladderConnective Tissue ProperRelatively unspecialized (classic CT)Cells: fibroblasts (secrete matrix) -> fibrocytes (maintain matrix)Also other cellsSix types, varying in density and types of fibersLoose CT: lots of ground substance, fewer fibersAreolar: most widespread, generic CT*Gel-like matrix, lots of tissue fluid*Adjoins all epitheliaPlays role in exchangeAll 3 fiber typesHas defense cells to fight infectionsHas fat cells to store energyAdipose:Matrix as in areolar CTMostly fat cellsIn hypodermis (superficial fascia/deep to skin)Also “visceral fat” around internal organsEnergy storage, protection, insulation (fats)Reticular:Only has reticular fibersExclusively in lymphoid structures (parts of immune system like spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow)Labyrinth used by defense cellsDense CT: lots of collagen fibers, good at resisting tension (pulling)Dense regular CTAll collagen fibers run in 1 direction (axis)Resists tension in 1 direction (axis)Tendons and ligamentsFascia (deep fascia)Dense irregular CTCollagen fibers oriented in various directionsResists tension in various directionsIn dermis, and fibrous capsules of organs/jointsElastic CTMost fibers are elastic fibers (also has collagen fibers)Able to recoil after stretchingIn bronchial tubes in lungs, artery walls, some intervertebral ligamentsBody Cavities and MembranesBody CavitiesOpen body cavitiesAccessible to/continuous to outside world (ex: respiratory, digestive, reproductive, urinary tracts)Closed body cavitiesNot accessible/continuous to outside worldDorsal body cavity:Cranial cavity -> brainVertebral cavity -> spinal cordNot visceral organs, no serosa, special membranesVentral body cavity: visceral organs (viscera)Thoracic cavity -> heart, lungsAbdominopelvic cavity -> mainly organs of digestive, urinary, reproductive systemsMembranesA thin, pliable layer that covers or separates (ex: basement/plasma membranes)We are concerned with multicellular membranes that line the body’s cavities/surfacesMembrane composition: epithelium layer (avascular) + connective tissue layer (vascular)Functions: protection, exchange, sensation, partitioning, sliding, etc.Types:Mucous membrane (mucosa):Produces mucus, enzymes, etc. by secretion (active)Lines lumen (internal space) of open body cavities (ex: respiratory, digestive, reproductive, urinary tracts)*Tissue layers (deep to superficial):LumenEpithelium - mucous membraneLamina propria (CT) - mucous membraneMuscle etc.Serous membrane (serosa):*Lines the spaces between/around organs in ventral body cavity (closed body cavity)Ventral body cavity (an internal body region) contains:Visceral organs and serous cavity (a slit-like space)Has mesothelium (simple squamous) to allow organs to slide aroundProduces watery fluid mainly by filtration (passive)Lines outer surface of visceral organs (ex: heart, lungs, stomach, uterus, etc.)Also lines inner surface of body wall*Tissue layers (deep to superficial):Muscle etc.CT – visceral serosaMesothelium (epithelium) – visceral serosaSerous cavityMesothelium (epithelium) – parietal serosaCT – parietal serosaMuscle ans can have mucous membrane (mouth/nose), serous membrane (heart), both (stomach), or neither (bone, muscle)Cutaneous membrane: the skinDirectly exposed to outside worldHas glands that secrete (active)Tissue layers (deep to superficial):Muscle etc.Dermis (CT) – cutaneous membraneEpidermis (epithelium) – cutaneous membrane* Be able to label all 12 layers/spaces in target diagramInternal/external lining of GI tract and Structure of GI tract wall*Membrane: 2 layers (epithelium lines space; connective tissue nourishes epithelium)Mucosa (mucous membrane):Line lumen (interior space) of GI tractSimple columnar epithelium through most of its lengthEndocrine cells: release product into blood (inside body)Exocrine cells: release product into lumen (outside body)Ex: mucusHas other epithelial cells for absorptionRate of cell turnover is rapidLamina propria = CTMALT = mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (with immune cells)Blood/lymph vessels, nervesGlands (exocrine)Muscularis mucosaeLayer of smooth muscleUnique to digestive systemTwitches to dislodge sharp objectsSubmucosa = CT:Tough but flexibleSubmucosal nerve plexus (network of nerves)Part of enteric nervous systemBlood/lymph vessels, nervesGlands (exocrine)Muscularis externa = muscle layer:Ex: peristalsis = pushing food along the GI tractCircular muscle – contraction narrows tractLongitudinal muscle – contraction shortens tractMyenteric nerve plexus – part of enteric nervous systemSerosa (serous membrane): called the peritoneum in abdominopelvic cavityLines peritoneal cavity (space between organs)Cavity is narrow, crowded by organsVisceral peritoneum (deep inner lining of cavity/outer layer of organ wall): produces serous fluid by filtration (mostly)CTVisceral Mesothelium: simple squamousPeritoneal cavityParietal peritoneum (superficial outer lining of cavity/inner layer of body wall)Parietal Mesothelium: simple squamousCTRespiratoryFunctionRespiration: exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) with the environmentConsists of 4 processes:Ventilation: move air in/out of lungs (active process)External respiration: gas diffuses between lungs and blood (passive process)Two above processes are functions of respiratory systemGas transport via blood (active process)Internal respiration: gas diffuses between blood and cells (passive process)Two above processes are functions of cardiovascular systemZonesConducting zone: passageways for air, no diffusionVentilation: external nose through most tubes in lungsRespiratory zone: the anatomical zone where oxygen diffuses into bloodExternal respirationPulmonary alveoliRespiratory bronchiolesCardiovascular systemCirculatory routesPulmonary circuit:Delivers blood to and from the lungsFor external respirationSystemic circuit:Delivers blood to and from the rest of the bodyFor internal respirationGeneral circulatory principlesCapillary beds: where exchange takes placeArtery: delivers blood from the heart to the capillary bedsMost arteries have oxygenated blood but not allVein: delivers blood from capillary beds…Back to the heart (most veins)Or to another capillary bedPortal veinsMost veins have deoxygenated blood but not allHepatic portal systemChambers and vessels:Overview of heart, chambers, valves, and vessels (diagram)Atria: receive blood from veinsRight atrium: receives deoxygenated blood from:Inferior and superior vena cavaCoronary sinus: returns blood from heart tissueLeft atrium: receives oxygenated blood from:Pulmonary veinsVentricles: eject blood from heartRight ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to:Pulmonary trunk -> pulmonary arteriesLeft ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to:AortaCoronary arteries (supplying blood to heart tissues) are branches of aorta* A to V: arteries before veins, atria before ventriclesHeart valves: prevent backflow of bloodAtrioventricular valves (AV valves): between atrium and ventricleTricuspid valve (R AV): between R atrium and ventricleBicuspid valve (L AV, mitral): between L atrium and ventricleChordae tendinae:Hold AV valves in placeAnchored to papillary musclesPrevents eversion (prolapse) of AV valvesTry before you buySemilunar valves (SL valves): between great arteries and ventriclesAortic SL valve: between left ventricle and aortaPulmonary SL valve: between right ventricle and pulmonary trunkHeart sounds in each heart beat:First sound (“lub”): closing of both AV valves when ventricles begin contractingSecond sound (“dup”): closing of both SL valves when ventricles being relaxingLymphatic systemFunction:A system of vessels and nodes that returns excess tissue fluid to the bloodNeeded because plasma tends to leak out of blood capillaries (filtration)NOTE: Most cells get oxygen and nutrients directly from interstitial fluid (tissue fluid)Filters pathogens to be targeted by immune systemPathway of flow:Throughout most of body, tissue fluid (interstitial fluid) enters lymphatic capillariesThe fluid is now called lymphMoves through lymph vessels and lymph nodesBlood plasma -> tissue fluid -> lymphReturned to the blood at veins at the base of the neckStructures:Very low pressure system:Uses valves to maintain flow directionLymphatic capillaries:Wall: endothelium (simple squamous epithelium)Minivalves:Formed by loose edges of cellsLarge lymph vessels:Has valves (similar to those of veins)Lymph nodes:Contains reticular CT (with reticular fibers)Lymph flows throughPathogens are filtered out by immune cellsPathology:Lymphedema: accumulation of interstitial fluid due to poor lymphatic drainageEx: elephantiasis (extreme)Caused by parasitic wormTypes of neuronsFunctional classification:Sensory (afferent) neurons:Carry signals to CNSMake up the sensory division of PNSNOTE: axon terminal is (typically) in CNSMotor (efferent) neurons:Carry signal from CNS to effectorMake up the motor division of PNSNOTE: cell body is (typically) in CNSInterneurons: between sensory and motor neuronsFound entirely within CNSStructural classification:Multipolar (many things to cut):Many processesMost neurons (typical)Bipolar (two things to cut):One axon, one fused dendriteFound in some sensory organsUnipolar/pseudounipolar (one thing to cut):Typical sensory neuronsReceptive endings, no dendritesAxon with peripheral and central processesHistology of gross anatomy:Nerve: group of axons traveling together in the PNSNerve anatomy (deep to superficial):Endoneurium: surrounds axonPerineurium: surrounds each subgroup of axons (fascicle)Epineurium: wraps around outside of nerveFascicle: subgroup of axonsNerves vs. neurons:Each nerve contains the axons of many neuronsAxons are also called nerve fibersAxons carry signals toward the axon terminalsMost nerves carry signals in both directions because contain neurons oriented in both directionsOnly exceptions are some cranial nervesGanglion: collection of neuron cell bodies in PNSGrey and white matter: general types of nervous tissue in CNSWhite matter: myelinated axonsGray matter: everything else = unmyelinated axons, dendrites, cell bodiesTract: collection of axons traveling together inside the CNSWhite matterNucleus: collection of neuron cell bodies inside the CNSGray matterNew MaterialNervous System 2BrainTelencephalon:Most rostral region of brainCerebrumCerebral hemispheresOverview:Gyri: ridges of brain tissueSulci: grooves between gyriLobes: large regions separated (mostly) by deep sulciIn cerebral cortexFrontal lobe:Primary motor cortexConscious control of voluntary movementHas somatotopy (map = sensory homunculus)ContralateralPremotor cortexPlanning movementsCoordinating with sensory infoPrefrontal cortex: anterior association areaMost rostral regionLong-term planningProblem solvingSocial skills, etc.Clinical examples:Phineas Gage: injuryPrefrontal lobotomy: surgical destruction of prefrontal cortex or its connectionsParietal lobe:Integration of sensory informationPerception of spatial relationshipsSomatosensory cortex:Receives and interprets general somatic sensesTouch, pressure, etc.Has somatotopy: body mappingThe map = sensory homunculusContralateral:Represents opposite side of bodyAlzheimer’s Disease:Primary cause of dementiaAbnormal protein accumulationsOccipital lobe:Primary visual cortex:Receives and processes information from eyesHas map of visual field (contralateral, inverted)Visual association area:Further visual processingEx: form, movementTemporal lobe:Auditory cortex:Receives and interprets auditory stimuli (hearing)Exhibits tonotopyMapping by sound frequencyOlfactory cortex:Receives and interprets olfactory stimuli (smell)Close relationship with the limbic systemEmotion and emotional memoryHigher level of visual processing:Ex: face recognitionInsula:Taste (gustatory cortex), general visceral senses, the conscious experience of balanceIntegrate sensory information3 general layers:Cerebral cortex: outer region, gray matterMost complex part of nervous systemRegional specializations discovered by:LesionsElectrode studiesImaging studiesEx: fMRI = functional resonance imagingDetect neuron activityCerebral white matter (deep to cortex): myelinated fibers/tractFor communication among different brain regionsCommissural fibers/tracts:Connect corresponding areas of two hemispheresEx: corpus callosumSplit-brain experiments:Language processing is mostly in left hemisphereSpatial processing is mostly in right hemisphereCommunication between L and R requires corpus callosumAssociation fibers/tracts:Connect regions within one side of cerebral cortexProjection fibers/tracts:Connect cerebral cortex to the rest of the nervous systemEx: internal capsuleDeep gray matter of cerebrum: nuclei surrounded by white matterBasal ganglia:Not really ganglia -> nucleiUnconscious control of movementEx: repetitive rhythmic movement, habitsDiencephalon:Thalamus:Relay station and gateway to cerebral cortexAll incoming sensory inputs go through thalamus (except smell)Amplify/filter sensationsHypothalamus:Center of homeostasis/control center of basic drives:Hunger, thirst, sex, etc.Secretes hormonesBiological clock:Master clock of circadian rhythmEpithalamus:Pineal gland:Secretes melatonin (hormone):Conveys circadian rhythm from hypothalamus to rest of bodyMesencephalon: midbrainCorpora quadrigemina: four rounded protrusions in dorsal midbrainSuperior colliculi: visual reflexesInferior colliculi: auditory reflexesMetencephalon:Pons: “bridge”Between midbrain and medulla oblongataHas tracts indirectly connecting cerebrum, cerebellum, spinal cordCerebellum: “ll” smaller than cerebrumMajor coordinator of movementSends “smoothed out” blueprint to cerebral cortexDamage -> clumsy movement, poor balance, etc.Half of all neurons in brain!Also plays a role in cognitionMyelencephalon:Medulla oblongata: most caudal region of brainRelay between spinal cord and rest of brainControl of heart rate, blood pressure, ventilation rateFunctional brain systems:Scattered throughout brain but serve closely (related function)Reticular formation:Primarily brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla)Arousal, alertness (reticular activating system = RAS)Limbic system: emotion, memoryAmygdala: fearCingulate gyrus: reward-based decision makingHippocampus: forms long-term memoriesSpinal cordFunction:Two way conduction pathways between PNS and brainAscending pathway: TO brainDescending pathway: FROM brainA major reflex center:Ex: knee jerk reflexAnatomy:NOTE: nerves are NOT part of spinal cordGray matter: has deep locationContains unmyelinated axons, cell bodies, dendrites, etc.Dorsal horns:InterneuronsAxon terminals of sensory neurons (somatic and visceral)Ventral horns:Somatic motor neurons (cell body) and interneuronsSends signals out to skeletal musclesLateral horns:Visceral motor neurons (cell body) and interneuronsSends signals our to visceral organsNot used on somatic pathwaysWhite matter:Superficial to the gray matterContains myelinated axons to and from brainDorsal, ventral, and later funiculi (columns)Meninges:Epidural spaceDura materSubdural spaceArachnoid materSubarachnoid space (contains CSF)Spinal tap (lumbar puncture): take CSF sample from subarachnoid spacePia materPeripheral Nervous SystemIntroNerves: groups of axons in PNSGanglia: groups of neuron cell bodies in PNSReminder:Most nerves carry both afferent and efferent axonsExceptions are all in head (cranial nerves)Spinal nerves and associated structuresDorsal root ganglion:Contains cell bodies of sensory neuronsDorsal root: sensoryVentral root: motorSpinal nerve: shortDorsal ramus (back): sensory and motorVentral ramus (front): sensory and motorAutonomic nervous system:Afferent (sensory): carry impulses to CNSEfferent (motor): carry impulses to effector organsSomatic motor nervous systemEffectors: skeletal muscleUsually voluntary1 synapse between CNS and effectorVisceral motor (autonomic) nervous systemEffectors: glands, cardiac muscle, smooth muscleNever voluntary2 synapses between CNS and effectorSympathetic: fight or flightArises from thoracic and lumbar spinal nervesGeneral features:Preganglionic axon/fiber: shortGanglion: near the spinal cordPostganglionic axon/fiber: longAxons highly branchedNeurotransmitters:Preganglionic neurotransmitter: acetylcholine (ACh)Postganglionic neurotransmitter: norepinephrine (NE) = noradrenalinePhysiological responses:Triggered by exercise/emergenciesUsually a coordinated responseIncrease heart rateIncrease blood flow to skeletal muscleDecrease blood flow to many organsDilate bronchiolesRelease of glucose reserve by liverDigestion/peristalsis shuts downSweaty skinAdrenal medulla:Largest sympathetic ganglionModified ganglionic neurons secrete into bloodi.e. hormonesMainly epinephrine (adrenaline)Parasympathetic: rest and digestArises from cranial nerves and sacral spinal nerves90% is via the vagus nerves (Cranial Nerve X(10))General features:Preganglionic axon/fiber: longGanglion: within or near effector organPostganglionic axon/fiber: shortAxons have few branchesNeurotransmitters:Preganglionic neurotransmitter: acetylcholine (ACh)Postganglionic neurotransmitter: acetylcholine (ACh)Physiological responses:Triggered at restEach organ controlled separatelyDecrease heart rateConstrict bronchiolesIncrease GI tract secretions and motilityOnly innervates visceral organs and other organs shown in diagram (not general body periphery)Sensory SystemSensory receptors:Convert stimuli into electrical signal (transduction)Consist of:Receptive ending of sensory neuronReceptor cell (which then signals sensory neuron)Classification of sensory receptors by stimulus type:Mechanoreceptors: touch, pressure, vibration, stretchThermoreceptors: temperatureChemoreceptors: chemicalsPhotoreceptors: lightNociceptors: painSomatic vs visceral senses:Somatic senses:Monitor external environmentSkinBody wallLimbsVisceral senses:Monitor visceral organsGeneral senses:Receptors are distributed widelySpecial senses: have compact, specialized sense organsSpecial visceral senses for chemoreceptionOlfaction: smellGustation: tasteSpecial somatic senses:Mechanoreception: hearing, equilibrium (balance)Photoreception: visionSpecial SensesHearing and equilibriumExternal ear:Auricle (pinna): “funnels” sound into external acoustic meatusExternal acoustic meatusTympanic membrane (eardrum)Vibrated by soundMiddle ear: an air-filled spaceOsiccles:Malleus: receives vibration from eardrumIncusStapes: transmits vibration to oval windowOval window: transmits to internal earRound window: where pressure in internal ear pushes back outPharyngotympanic tube (Eustachian tube):Connects middle ear to pharynxAllows middle ear pressure to equalize with atmosphereInternal ear:Bony labyrinth: cavities in temporal bonePartly filled with perilymphSemilunar canals (balance/equilibrium only)Vestibule (balance/equilibrium only)Cochlea (hearing only)Membranous labyrinth: sacs/ducts within bony labyrinthFilled with endolymphSemilunar ducts (in semicircular canals):Sense of rotation onlyCristae ampullares: sensory epitheliaStimulated by flow of endolymphSaccule and utricle (in vestibule): Sense linear acceleration onlyEx: gravityMaculae: sensory epithelia*sensory pathways from maculae and cristae ampullares:-> vestibular nerve (branch of CN VIII) -> brainCochlear duct (membranous labyrinth/scala media):In cochleaAnatomy of cochlea:Cochlear duct:Basilar membrane: the “floor”Spiral organ (of Corti): sensory epitheliumHair cells with stereocilia (sensory receptor)Tectorial membraneRemaining space is divided into:Scala vestibule: “superior” to cochlear ductFilled with perilymphScala tympani: “inferior” to cochlear ductFilled with perilymphPathway of sound sensation:Oval window vibratesPerilymph of scala vestibule vibratesEndolymph of cochlear duct vibratesBasilar membrane vibrates-> perilymph of scala tympani vibrates -> round window vibratesHair cell vibratesStereocilia bend against tectorial membraneHair cell releases neurotransmitterCochlear nerve (branch of cranial nerve VIII) excitedCarry information to thalamus, then to temporal lobe of brainDiagram of internal ear:All parts of perilymph are connectedAll parts of endolymph are connectedPerilymph is not connected to endolymphVisionLayers of the eye:Fibrous layer: outermostSclera: the “white” of the eyeCornea:TransparentPerforms most of the light bending!Vascular layer: middle layerChoroid:Provides nutrients and oxygen to inner layerHas melanin to absorb scattered lightCiliary body: mostly smooth muscleAttached to lens by ciliary zonule (fibers)For accommodation (change shape for lens to focus light)At rest, lens is stretched flat by ciliary zonule -> distant focusContract ciliary body -> near focus-> less tension in ciliary zonule -> lens recoils to more spherical shapeIris:Smooth muscle: regulates size of pupil (opening)Ex: smaller for bright lightInner layer: retinaPigmented layer (outer):Melanin: absorbs light to prevent scatteringNeutral layer (inner layer of retina):Photoreceptors: are on the side away from lightRod cells:Do not sense colorCan sense dim lightCone cells:Sense colorCannot sense dim lightFovea centralis: pit in retina corresponding to center of visual fieldSharpest visual acuity100% conesPath of nervous signal in retina:Photoreceptors -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cellsAxons of ganglion cells leave eye as optic nerve (cranial nerve II)Optic disc: where optic nerve leaves the eyeNo photoreceptors -> blind spotSegments of the eye:Anterior segment:Become cornea and lensFilled with clear liquid: aqueous humorIs secreted by ciliary body into posterior chamber (space between iris and lens)Flows through anterior chamber (space between cornea and iris)And drains out via scleral venous sinusPosterior segment:Between lens and retinaFilled with jelly-like substance: vitreous humorSupports the retinaIs not circulated or renewedNeural pathway:Photoreceptors -> -> -> optic nerve -> optic chiasma -> optic tract -> thalamus -> occipital lobeUrinary SystemFunctionRegulate volume and chemical composition of bloodDispose of waste in urineThe major organs of excretionComponentsKidney -> ureter -> urinary bladder -> urethraKidneyGross anatomy:Cortex: superficial region (light)Medulla: deeper region (dark)Consists of renal pyramidsMicroscopic anatomy:Basic structure:Nephron:Starts and ends in cortexLoop descends into medulla and back to cortex ->Collecting duct:Runs through cortex and medulla -> out of kidneyFunction: 3 processesFiltration: blood plasma passively squeezed into nephron -> becomes filtrateResorption: move molecules back to blood (mostly actively)Secretion: actively pump molecules into filtrateResulting fluid = urineRenal corpuscle:Glomerulus: fenestrated capillariesGlomerular capsule:PodocytesThese together (glomerulus and glomerular capsule) form a “sieve” for filtrationProteins and cells do not pass throughFiltrate = water and other small moleculesProximal convoluted tubule:Resorption and secretionSimple cuboidal epithelium with microvilliLoop of Henle (nephron loop):Thin segment:Resorbs water (passive diffusion)Simple squamous epitheliumThick segment:Resorbs saltSimple cuboidal epitheliumDistal convoluted tubule:Similar to proximal convoluted tubuleFunction:Epithelium:Collecting duct:Resorption of water (passive diffusion)Simple cuboidal epitheliumEx: alcohol -> less water absorption -> more urineReproductive SystemEmbryonic developmentDevelopment of homologous structures in male and female external genitaliaGenital tubercle ->:Male: penisFemale: clitorisUrethral folds ->:Male: penile urethraFemale: labia minoraLabioscrotal swellings ->:Male: scrotumFemale: labia majoraMale anatomyTestis: produces spermEpididymis: sperm maturation and storageDuctus deferens: delivers stored sperm by peristalsisSeminal vesicle (gland): produces majority of semenEjaculatory duct:Combines sperm with semenEmpties into urethraProstate (gland): contributes to semenBulbourethral glands: produce pre-ejaculatory fluidPenis: erectile organContains most of urethraExcretion of urine and ejaculation of semenFemale anatomyOvary: releases oocyte during ovulationUterine tube: transports oocyte to uterusHas fimbriae (finger-like projections) to pull oocyte inCiliated simple columnar epitheliumSite where fertilization usually occursUterus (womb): site of embryonic/fetal developmentVagina: passageway for sexual intercourse and giving birthTwo pairs of folds at vaginal orifice:Labia majora: outer foldsLabia minora: inner foldsGreater vestibular glands: secrete lubricantClitoris: erectile organ ................
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