Rhetorical Strategies/Devices



The Format of the AP English Literature Exam

Total Time: 3 Hours

Section I: Multiple Choice (60 minutes) – 45 percent of your grade; Total number of questions: approximately 55; Four or five prose and poetry passages: 10-15 questions per passage

Total scores on the multiple-choice section are based on the number of questions answered correctly. Points are no longer deducted for incorrect answers and, as always, no points will be awarded for unanswered questions.

Section II: Essay (15 minute reading period; 120 minute writing period) – 55 percent of your grade;

Three Essays: 1. Analysis of poetry (40 minute essay on a single poem or comparison of two poems that Educational Testing Service (ETS) provides)

2. Analysis of prose (40 minute essay on a story, novel excerpt, or essay that ETS provides)

3. Open Essay (40 minute essay on a literary topic that ETS provides, supported by the student’s own reading)

Each essay is scored on a scale from 0 to 9. The scores of each essay are added together and this total, anywhere from 0 to 27, is your essay section score.

Elements creators of text use to illustrate their theme

Repetition of certain words: Why, with all the words at his or her disposal, does a writer choose to repeat particular words?

Counterpoints/Dichotomies: Contrasting ideas such as black/white, darkness/light, good/bad.

Imagery: language that evokes one or all of the five senses: seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching.

Metaphor and symbolism: Non-literal, imaginative substitutions in which, for instance, a tree becomes a metaphor for family, or springtime symbolizes rebirth.

Indirect/Direct Characterization: The method used by a writer to develop a character. The method includes (1) showing the character's appearance, (2) displaying the character's actions, (3) revealing the character's thoughts, (4) letting the character speak, and (5) getting the reactions of others.

Plot development: Linear or fragmented, chronological or driven by a theme or some other unifying device.

Narrator: Usually first or third person. Is the narrator the same as the author? Is the author using a persona?

Style, tone, voice: Gut reactions are useful here. Examine your own responses. What is it that makes you respond as you do? What specific words/images does the author use? Are you the author’s intended audience? If not, who is? The attitude a writer takes towards a subject or character: serious, humorous, sarcastic, ironic, satirical, tongue-in-cheek, solemn, objective, nostalgic, reverent, etc.

Analogy: The comparison of two things (pairs) that have the same relationship. The key is to ascertain the relationship between the first so you can choose the correct second (pair). Part to whole, opposites, results of are types of relationships you should find.

Example: shells were to ancient culture as dollar bills are to modern culture OR shells: ancient culture:: dollar bills: modern culture

Parody: A humorous exaggerated imitation, or travesty.

The film, Airplane! is a parody of 1970’s era disaster films. Austin Powers films parody James Bond-type spy films. Kung Fu Hustle - a movie by Steven Chow parodying Chinese wuxia films, as well as gangster films in general. Some examples of parody in classic literature include   "MacFlecknoe," by John Dryden, A Tale of a Tub by Jonathan Swift,  The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope, Namby Pamby by Henry Carey, and  Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift.

Sarcasm: A cutting, often ironic remark intended to wound.

A form of wit that is marked by the use of sarcastic language and is intended to make its victim the butt of contempt or ridicule.

Satire: literary tone used to ridicule or make fun of human vice or weakness, often with the intent of correcting, or changing, the subject of the satiric attack. One of the most interesting features of satire is that it is almost universally believed to be a persuasive writing form. In actuality, it appears that most written satire actually fools most of its readers, so that, far from being persuasive, it is often not even understood.

TONE, STYLE AND SYNTAX

I.         Tone shift:  often a change or shift in tone will be signaled by the following:

·         Key words (but, yet, nevertheless, however, although)

·         Punctuation (dashes, periods, colons)

·         Stanza and paragraph divisions

·         Changes in line and stanza or sentence length.

 II.       Style:  when analyzing style, consider the following:

A.      Diction (word choice):  describe diction by considering the following:

1.        Words may be monosyllabic (one syllable in length) or polysyllabic (more than one syllable in length).  The higher the ratio of polysyllabic words, the more difficult the content.

2.        Words may be mainly colloquial (slang), informal (conversational), formal (literary) or archaic (old fashioned).

3.        Words may be mainly concrete (specific) or abstract (general).

4.        Words may be euphonious (pleasant sounding), such as butterfly or cacophonous (harsh sounding), such as pus.

B.       Syntax (sentence structure):  describe the syntax by considering the following:

1.        Examine the sentence length.  Are the sentences telegraphic (shorter than five words in length), medium (approximately 18 words in length) or long and involved (30 or more words).  Does the sentence length fit the subject matter?  What variety of sentence length is present?

2.        Examine the sentence patterns.  Some elements to consider are:

a.        A declarative sentence makes a statement:  The king is sick.

b.       An imperative sentence gives a command:  Stand up.

c.        An interrogative sentence asks a question:  Is the king sick?

d.       An exclamatory sentence makes an exclamation:  The king is dead!

3.        Are sentences simple, compound, or complex?

a.        A simple sentence contains one subject and one verb:  the singer bowed to her adoring audience.

b.       A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or) or by a semicolon:  The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores.

c.        A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses:  You said that you would tell the truth.

d.       A compound-complex sentence contains two or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses:  The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores.

C.       A loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending:  We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences.  A periodic sentence makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached:  That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.

D.      In a balanced sentence, the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness or structure, meaning and/or length:  He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters.

E.       Natural order of a sentence:  the sentence is structured so that the subject comes before the predicate:  Oranges grow in California.  Inverted order (sentence inversion) involves constructing a sentence so that the predicate comes before the subject:  In California grow oranges.  This is a device in which normal sentence patterns are reversed to create an emphatic or rhythmic effect.  Split order of a sentence divides the predicate into two parts with the subject in the middle:  In California oranges grow.

F.       Juxtaposition is a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise and wit:  The apparition of these faces in the crowd:/Petals on a wet, black bought (“In a Station of the Metro” by Ezra Pound).

G.       Parallel structure (parallelism) refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence.  It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased:  He was walking, running, and jumping for joy.

H.      Repetition is a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once for the purpose of enhancing rhythm and creating emphasis:   . . . government of the people, by the people for the people . . .

I.         A rhetorical question is a question which expects no answer.  It is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement:  If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s arguments?

J.        Examine the following:

1.        sentence beginnings and endings:  is there a good variety or does a pattern emerge?

2.        the arrangement of ideas in a sentence.  Are they set out in a specific way for a purpose?

3.        the arrangement of ideas is a paragraph:  what is the structure?

KEY TERMS

Allegory—a narrative in which the characters, behavior, and even the setting demonstrate multiple levels of meaning and significance. Often allegory is a universal symbol or personified abstraction, such as Cupid' portrayed as a chubby angel with a bow and arrows.

Alliteration—the sequential repetition of a similar initial sound, usually applied to consonants, usually in closely proximate stressed syllables: For instance, "She sells sea shells by the sea shore."

Allusion—a literary, historical, religious, or mythological reference. For example, one might contrast the life and tribulations of Frederick Douglass to the trials of Job.

Anaphora—the regular repetition of the same words or phrases at the beginning of successive phrases or clauses.' The following is an example: 'To raise a happy, healthful, and. hopeful child, it takes a family, it takes teachers; it takes clergy; it takes business people; it takes community leaders; it takes those who protect our health and safety; it takes all of us" (Hillary Clinton, National Convention Address, 1996)

Antithesis—the juxtaposition of sharply contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel words, phrases grammatical structure, or ideas. For example, Alexander Pope reminds us that "To err is human, to forgive divine'

Aphorism—a concise statement designed to make a point or illustrate a commonly held belief. For example, "Spare the rod and spoil the child" is an aphorism. '

Apostrophe—an address or invocation to something inanimate—such as when the slave Frederick Douglass exclaims as he looks upon the ships in the Chesapeake Bay: "I would pour out my Soul's complaint, in my rude way, with an apostrophe to the moving multitude of ships"

Appeals to ... authority, emotion, or logic—rhetorical arguments in which the speaker claims to be an authority or expert in a field, or attempts to play upon the emotions, or appeals to the use of reason. Classically trained rhetoricians identify these appeals with their Greek names: ethos is authority, logos is logic, and pathos is emotion.

 Aristotelian Appeals

Logos

Appeals to the head using logic, numbers, explanations, and facts. Through Logos, a writer aims at a person's intellect. The idea is that if you are logical, you will understand.

Ethos

Appeals to the conscience, ethics, morals, standards, values, principles.

Pathos

Appeals to the heart, emotions, sympathy, passions, sentimentality.

Assonance—the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds, usually in successive or proximate words. The alliteration example also demonstrates assonance: “She sells sea shells by the sea shore.”

 

Asyndeton—a syntactical structure in which conjunctions are omitted in a series, usually producing more rapid prose. For example: 'Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)," supposedly said by Julius Caesar.

 

Attitude—the sense expressed by the tone of voice or the mood of a piece of writing; the author's toward his or her subject, characters, events, or theme. It might even be his or her feelings for the reader. AP Exam essay prompts often require students to respond to some aspect of the attitude of the writer, speaker, or narrator.

  

Canon—that which has been accepted as authentic, such as in canon law, or the "Canon according to the Theories of Einstein'

   

Colloquial- term identifying the diction of the common, ordinary folks, especially in a specific region or area. For instance, -most people expect Southerners to use the colloquial expression, gall" to engage the attention of a group of people. In some parts of the United States, a  Coke® is a product of the Coca-Cola Company. In some parts of the country, coke means any type of carbonated beverage. Other people refer to Coke as "pop" or "soda pop." These are all colloquial terms for the drink.

  

Conceit—a comparison of two unlikely things that is drawn out within a piece of literature, in particular an extended metaphor within a poem. However, conceits can also be used in non-fiction and prose. For instance, Richard Selzer's passage 'The Knife" compares the preparation and actions of surgery to preparing for and conducting a religious service or a sacred ritual.

 

Connotation—the implied, suggested, or underlying meaning of a word or phrase. It is opposite of denotation which is the "dictionary definition" of the word.

 

Consonance-the repetition of two or more consonants with a change in the intervening vowels, such as pitter-patter, splish-splash, and click-clack.

 

Convention—an accepted manner, model, or tradition. For instance, Aristotle's conventions of tragedy.

 

Critique—an assessment or analysis of something, such as a passage of writing, for the purpose of determining what it is, what its limitations are, and how it conforms to the standard of the genre.

  

Dialect—the language and speech idiosyncrasies of a specific area, region, or group. For example, Minnesotans say "you betcha" when they agree with you. Southerners refer to the gathering of folks as "Y'all" Although dialect is most often found in fiction; sometimes it is evident in speeches from a different era or from a different culture.

 

Diction—the specific word choice an author uses to persuade or convey tone, purpose, or effect The 1982 English Language exam included Adlai Stevenson's famous "Cat Bill" veto addressed to the Illinois State Senate. Cats roaming without leashes were "feline delinquency," and irritated citizen reactions were referred to as "small game hunts by zealous citizens." On the AP exam you must relate how a writers diction, combined with syntax, figurative language; literary devices, etc,' all come together to become the authors style.

 

Didactic—(from the Greek, meaning "good teaching") writing or speech is didactic when it has an instructive purpose or a lesson. It is often associated with a dry, pompous presentation, regardless of its innate value to the reader/listener. Some of Aesop's fables are didactic in that they maintain an underlying moral or social message.

 

Elegy--a poem or prose work that laments, or meditates upon the death of, a person or persons. Sometimes an elegy will end with words of consolation. Many public elegies were presented in the aftermath of 9/11.

 

Epistrophe—in rhetoric, the repetition of a phrase at the end of successive sentences. For example: "If women are healthy and educated, their families will flourish. If women are free from violence, their families will flourish. If women have a chance to work. their families will flourish." (Hillary Clinton, October 1, 1995)'

 

Epitaph—writing in praise of a-dead person, most often inscribed upon a headstone.

 

Ethos—in rhetoric, the appeal of a text to the credibility and character of the speaker, writer, or narrator. (Who is this person saying what, and what makes him able to say so?)

 

Eulogy—a speech or written passage in praise of a person; an oration in honor of a deceased person. Elegy laments; eulogy praises. Many eulogies were spoken in honor of the brave New York Fire Fighters who heroically lost their lives on 9/11.

 

Euphemism—an indirect, kinder, or less harsh or hurtful way of expressing unpleasant information. For instance, it is much nicer for a person who has just been given a pink slip to hear that she has been made redundant, rather than she has hereby been terminated.

 

Exposition—the interpretation or analysis of a text

 

Extended metaphor—a series of comparisons within a piece of writing. If they are consistently one concept this is also known as a conceit.

 

Figurative language/Figure of speech—figurative (in contrast to literal) language has levels of meaning expressed through figures of speech such 8,personification, metaphor, hyperbole, irony, oxymoron, litotes, and others.

 

Genre—a type or class of literature, such as epic, narrative, poetry, biography, history.

  

Hyperbole—overstatement characterized by exaggerated language, usually to make a point or draw attention. If in a state of exhaustion you say "I'm really beat" that is hyperbole.

 

Imagery—broadly defined, any sensory detail or evocation in a work; more narrowly, the use of figurative language to evoke a feeling to call to mind an idea, or to describe an object Basically, imagery involves any or all of the five senses. A writer generally uses imagery in conjunction with other figures of speech, such as simile and metaphor. "Her cheeks were rosy and so was my love—bursting with fragrance and softness" Here metaphor is used, with the images of rosy cheeks (the visual color) and the smell and feel of roses.

  

Irony (ironic)—the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant The intended meaning Is often the opposite of what is stated, often suggesting light sarcasm. The most famous classical ironist is Jonathan Swift in his "Modest Proposal' Irony is used for many reasons, often to create poignancy or humor. There are three major types of irony:

              

Verbal irony—what the author/narrator says is actually the opposite of what is meant

Situational irony—when events end up the opposite of what is expected.

Dramatic irony—in drama and fiction, facts or situations are known to the reader or audience but not to the characters.  

 

Juxtaposition—the location of one thing adjacent ' to or juxtaposed with another to create an effect, reveal an attitude, or accomplish some other purpose.

 

Litotes—a figure of speech that emphasizes its subject by conscious understatement; for instance, the understated "not bad" as a comment about something especially well done. George Orwell wrote, "Last week I saw a woman flayed and you would hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse'

 

Loose sentence—(a term from syntax) a long sentence that starts with its main clause, which is followed by several dependent clauses and modifying phrases; for example, 'The child ran, frenzied and ignoring all hazards, as if being chased by demons'

 

Metaphor–one thing pictured as if it were something else, suggesting a likeness or analogy. Metaphor is an implicit comparison or identification of one thing with another, without the use of a verbal signal such as like- or as. Shakespeare's Romeo says, "It is the east and Juliet is the sun," directly comparing Juliet to the sun. Sometimes the term metaphor is used as a general term for any figure of speech.

 

Metonymy–a figure of speech in which an attribute or commonly associated feature is used to name or designate something, as in "Buckingham Palace announced today....

 

Mode of discourse—the way in which information is presented in written or spoken form. The Greeks believed there were only four modes of discourse: narration, description, exposition (cause and effect, process analysis, comparison/contrast), and argumentation. Contemporary thought often includes other modes, such as personal observation and narrative reflection.

 

Mood–a feeling or ambience resulting from the tone of a piece as well as the writer/narrator's attitude and point of view. It is a "feeling" that establishes the atmosphere in a work of literature or other discourse.

 

Narrative–a mode of discourse that tells a story 6f some sort and it is based on sequences of connected events, usually presented in a straightforward, chronological framework.

 

Onomatopoeia–a word capturing or approximating the sound of what it describes; 'buzz' is a good example. The purpose of these words is to make a passage more effective for the reader or listener; for example, "Recta whacked the ball over the fence and took her time walking the bases'

 

Oxymoron–a figure of speech that combines two apparently contradictory elements as in "wise fool," "baggy tights," or "deafening silence'

 

Paradox–a statement that -seems contradictory but may probably be true. A popular paradox from the 196Ys was that war protesters would "fight for peace!

 

Parallel structure–the use of similar forms in writing for nouns, verbs, phrases, or thoughts, for example, lane enjoys reading, writing, and skiing.' in prose, parallel, recurrent syntactical similarity where several parts of a sentence or several sentences are expressed alike to show that their ideas are equal in importance. A Tale of Two Cities opens with 'It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness. . .

 

Pathos–that element in literature that stimulates pity or sorrow. In argument or persuasion it tends to the -evocation of pity from the reader/listener. Think of if as the 'poor starving children" approach to convincing you.

 

Periodic sentence–a long sentence in which the main clause is not completed until the end; for example, 'Looking as if she were being chased by demons, ignoring all hazards, the child ran" "The child, who looked as if she were being chased by demons, frenzied and ignoring all hazards, ran"

 

Personification–treating an abstraction or nonhuman object as if it were a person by endowing it

with human features or qualities. William Wordsworth speaks of the stars 'Tossing their heads in a

sprightly dance' Or, looking at a prose speech: "Once again the heart of America is heavy. The spirit of America weeps for a tragedy that denies the very meaning of our land" (Lyndon B. Johnson)

 

Point of View—the relation in which a narrator/author stands to a subject of discourse. Point of view in nonfiction requires the reader to establish the historical perspective of what is being said.

 

Prose—the ordinary form of written language without metrical structure, in contrast to verse and poetry.

 

Realism—attempting to describe nature and life without idealization and with attention to detail. Mark Twain is an author of this school. Thoreau, with his romantic outlook toward nature is not

  

Rhetoric—the art of using words to persuade in writing or speaking. All types of writing may seek to persuade and rhetoricians study these genres for their persuasive qualities.

 

Rhetorical question—a question that is asked simply for the sake of stylistic effect and is not expected to be answered.

 

Sarcasm—a form of verbal irony in which apparent praise is actually critical. Sarcasm can be light, and gently poke fun at something, or it can be harsh, caustic, and mean.

 

Satire—a literary work that holds up human failings to ridicule and censure. Jonathan Swift and George Orwell were masters of satire.

 

Simile—a direct, explicit comparison .of one thing to another, usually using the words like or as to draw the connection. For instance, Charles Dickens wrote: 'There was a steamy mist in all the hollows, and it had roared in its forlornness up the hill like an evil spirit!

 

Style—the manner in which a writer combines and arranges words, shapes ideas, and utilizes syntax and structure. It is the distinctive manner of expression that represents that author's typical writing style. This is often queried on the English Language test In particular, when two passages on the same topic are presented, you must, pay the most attention to their styles.

 

Symbolism—use of a person, place, thing event, or pattern that figuratively represents or "stands for" something else. Often the thing or idea represented is more abstract or general than the symbol, which is concrete. Everyone recognizes the symbol of the Golden Arches representing McDonald's", restaurants.

 

Synecdoche—a figure of speech in which a -part signifies the whole, such as "50 masts" representing 50 ships or "100 heed of steer had to be moved to their grazing land'

 

Syntax—the way words are put together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is sentence structure and how it influences the way the reader receives a particular piece of writing. It is important in establishing the tone of a piece and the attitude of the author/narrator. See Loose sentence, Parallel structure, and Periodic sentence.

 

Theme–the central or dominant idea or focus of a work. The statement a passage makes about its subject. e.g. the battle between good and evil: the general idea or insight about life a writer wishes to express. All of the elements of literary terms contribute to theme. A simple theme can often be stated in a single sentence.

Tone–the attitude the narrator/writer takes toward a subject and theme; the tenor of a piece of writing based on particular stylistic devices employed by the writer. Tone reflects the narrator/author's attitude.

 

Voice–the acknowledged or unacknowledged source of the words of the story; the speaker's or narrator's particular "take" on an idea based on a particular passage and how all the elements of the style of the piece come together t6 express his or her feelings.

 

Zeugma–a grammatically correct construction in which a word, usually a verb or adjective, is applied to two or more nouns without being repeated. Often used to comic effect (the thief took my wallet and the Fifth Avenue bus).

 

 

MULTIPLE CHOICE TESTING STRATEGIES

Questions or Passage First

Many debate the comparative wisdom of skimming the questions before reading the passage or of quickly reading the passage first and then tackling the questions. That is something that you will have to decide for yourself.

If you are a slow reader, you may not have enough time to look at the questions first. You may have to eliminate that first step. On the other hand, some students find that skimming the questions really helps them to focus better when they read, so their reading time is actually shorter. While you practice the multiple-choice sections in class or look at passages and questions online at AP Central, try it both ways and decide what works best for you.

Read Critically

Whether you read the passage first or second, read actively and critically—that is, by marking key words and ideas.

Know What the Question Asks

Read the question carefully. Sometimes it helps to mark that as well, to help you to decide just what it is you are being asked.

Predict an Answer

Try to formulate the answer in your mind before you look at the choices given.

Read Every Answer Choice

Next, read every answer choice, even if the correct response jumps out at you right away. It is not unusual to have more than one acceptable answer but only one best answer.

Don't Waste Time on Hard Questions

If you have no clue about a question, skip it and move on to the next one. If you just need a bit of time to "work it out," mark it in the book and move on. Return to any you have marked before going on to the next passage. If you are pushing the time limit (an average of 12 minutes per passage for 5 passages; 15 minutes per passage for 4 passages), go on to the next passage and return at the end of the multiple-choice section if you have any time.

Read the Explanations and Look for Patterns

On practice sets, review your performance. Can you detect a pattern to your errors? If so, what do you need to do? What types of questions are you missing? Try to refurbish those shaky areas.

Multiple-Choice Poetry Questions

|Type of Question |Examples |

|Dramatic situation |Who is speaking? |

| |Where is she? |

| |To whom is the poem addressed? |

| |Who is the speaker in lines 5-8? |

| |Where does the poem take place? |

|Structure |How are stanzas 1 and 2 related to stanza 3? |

| |What word in line 20 refers back to an idea in lines 5, 10, and 15? |

| |Which of the following divisions of the poem best represents its |

| |structure? |

|Theme |Which of the following best sums up the meaning of stanza 2? |

| |With which of the following is the poem centrally concerned? |

| |This poem rejects the notion of an indifferent universe because . . . |

|Grammar and Meaning of words |Which of the following best defines the word “glass” as it is used in |

| |line 9? |

| |To which of the following does the word “which” in line 7 refer? |

| |The verb “had done” may best be paraphrased as . . . |

|Images and Figurative language |To which of the following does the poet compare his love? |

| |The images in line 3 and 8 come from what area of science? |

| |The figure of the rope used in line 7 is used later in the poem in line |

| |. . . |

|Diction |Which of the following words is used to suggest the poet’s dislike of |

| |winter? |

| |The poet’s use of the word “air” is used to indicate . . . |

| |The poet’s delight in the garden is suggested by all of the following |

| |words EXCEPT. . . |

|Tone, Literary Devices, and Metrics |The tone of the poem (or stanza) can best be described as . . . |

| |Which of the following literary techniques is illustrated by the phrase |

| |“murmurous hum and buzz of the hive”? |

| |The meter of the last line in each stanza is . . . |

 

Multiple-Choice Prose Questions

|Type of Question |Examples |

|Situation and Content |The main subject of the passage is . . . |

| |The primary distinction in the first paragraph is between. . . |

| |According to lines 3-7, which of the following is the chief . . . |

| |In the third paragraph, the author is chiefly concerned with . . . |

|Meaning of words or phrases |As it is used in line 2, the word x can best be understood to mean . . . |

| |In line 7, the word x employs all of the following meanings EXCEPT . . . |

| |The phrase xyz is best understood to mean . . . |

|Grammar |In the opening clause, the word “which” refers to . . . |

| |In line 12, the antecedent of “it” is . . . |

| |The subject of the long sentence that makes up the third paragraph is . . . |

|Diction |The speaker’s choice of verbs in the paragraph is to stress the . . . |

| |The speaker’s anger is suggested by all of the following EXCEPT . . . |

|Figurative language |The comparison in line 1 to 3 compares . . . |

| |The analogy of the second paragraph compares . . . |

| |The phrase xyz is best read as a metaphor relating to . . . |

| |The purpose of the astronomy metaphor in line 9 is to . . . |

|Structure |The transitions from the first to the second and the second to the third |

| |paragraph are dependent upon . . . |

| |The last paragraph of the passage is related to the first chiefly by . . . |

|Literary techniques |In the third paragraph, the description of the cat on roller skates is an |

| |example of . . . |

| |All of the following phrases are paradoxes EXCEPT . . . |

| |The phrase “silent scream” is an example of . . . |

|Rhetoric |The rhetorical purpose of lines 1-6 is to . . . |

| |The argument of the passage can best be described as progressing from. . . |

| |Which of the following best describes the function of the last sentence? |

| |The effect of shifting from the past to the present tense in the third |

| |paragraph is . . . |

| |The happiness of the speaker is conveyed primarily by the use of . . . |

|Tone |The tone of the passage may be described as . . . |

| |In discussing x in the second paragraph, the speaker adopts a tone of . . . |

FREE-RESPONSE TESTING STRATEGIES

1.       Don’t present yourself as an immature writer

·         AP readers see beyond handwriting to the larger issues of style and content, but handwriting can reflect problems.

·         Is the handwriting so excessively large or small that it is difficult to decipher?  

·         Is the handwriting excessively florid?  

·         If you have poor, difficult to read handwriting, strive to be certain the writing is clear enough to read.  

·         AP readers must grade 20+ essays an hour and your handwriting may affect attentiveness.  Don’t make it difficult for the reader to “see” your thinking

·         Brief, scant responses are the worse error you can make as the AP reader is left with no way to evaluate your ability.

2.       Avoid those serious errors, which will mark you as an unprepared writer.

·         A very serious error is repeated comma splices – running two independent clauses together without a conjunction and with only a comma. (Run-on sentences omit the comma and present the same problem.)

·         Another serious error is repeated occurrences of sentence fragments.

·         Spelling errors are serious, but a few are acceptable; too many may cost you points.  Spelling errors combined with a lack of sentence control are more apt to count against you.

·         Errors of usage – e.g., affect/effect – affect how the readers evaluate your language competence.

3.       Write sentences that are smooth, flowing, clear, sensible; avoid short, choppy sentences.

·         Proofread to ensure that you have not omitted words that render sentences unclear or nonsensical.

·         Proofread to make sure that your wording is not so confused, awkward, or ineffective that the reader cannot figure out what you are saying.

·         Sentences which are sharp, precise, and clear but which at the same time show complexity characterize the best writing.  Sentences whose structures enable you to express intricate, layered understandings effectively will mark you as a mature and capable writer.  

·         A fluent, clear style is a primary characteristic of higher-level writing.

·         Use sentence variety to develop a more sophisticated style.

4.       Pay attention to organization and content:  THE MOST IMPORTANT ISSUES.

·         Respond exactly to the question asked.  The literature and questions are logical and focused.  Your answer is in the question.  Accept that guidance; interpret and illustrate the question

·         Keep your focus clear throughout your essay; make certain the thoughts are in a logical sequence that is continually connected to the focus, thus yielding a unified essay.

·         Use specific details both to offer commentary and interpretation about the literary piece and to support and illustrate your points.

·         Explain through examples and comments on the details of the text.

·         Plan to spend about five minutes brainstorming and structuring your response; then write from your outline or list of ideas.  Think through your whole answer before you begin.

·         Once you begin writing, try to maintain a continuous, logical, and focused flow.  You may have new insights as you proceed, but try to connect continually where you began, where you are, and where you are going with your central idea.

5. Keep track of time- try to complete each essay in about 40 minutes.

The Classic Essay Question

Here it is in its most basic form:

Read the following work carefully. Then, write a well-organized essay in which you discuss the manner in

which the author conveys ideas and meaning. Discuss the techniques the author uses to make this passage

effective. Avoid summary.

This can be broken down into three questions:

1. What does the poem or passage mean?

2. How did the author get you to see that?

3. How do the answers to question 1 and 2 direct your knowledge to adequately answer the question?

The first question is often “hidden”, but is always there. It is implied that you will start with the poem’s or passage’s meaning.

(Your high-scoring essay answers those three questions in that order.)

The Princeton Review developed a method for approaching the AP essay called “The Idea Machine”. It is a series of questions that directs your reading to the material needed to write a high-scoring essay.

The Idea Machine

1. What is the meaning of the work?

a. What is the literal, face-value meaning of the work?

b. What feeling (or feelings) does the work evoke?

2. How does the author get that meaning across?

a. What are the important images in the work and what do those images suggest?

b. What specific words or phrases produce the strongest feelings?

c. What elements are in opposition?

Identifying the classical essay question in the question on your exam:

Prose: The passage below is taken from the novel Tom Jones (1749) by the English novelist and playwright Henry Fielding.

In this scene, which occurs early in the novel, Squire Allworthy discovers an infant in his bed. Read the passage carefully. Then, in a well-organized essay, analyze the techniques that Fielding employs in this scene to characterize Mr. Allworthy and Mrs. Deborah Wilkins.

1. What does the passage mean? What was I supposed to get from it? What did I get from it? (Mrs. Deborah Wilkins’ complicity concerning society’s standards of manners and morality does not necessarily make her as good and moral an individual as Mr. Allworthy, who may at times be forgetful on issues of propriety.)

2. What techniques of characterization are used to develop my (the reader’s) understanding of the characters? (The juxtaposition of each character’s reaction to the presence of the baby and their proposed solution to its being there, as well as their interpretation of the infant state . . .)

3. How did the author’s characterization bring me to the understanding of the passage’s meaning? (Fielding’s contrast of each character’s observance of propriety and subsequent sentiments regarding the presence of the baby, he clearly impresses upon the reader his view that strict adherence to social and moral mores does not always equate to good judgment or good character.)

Poetry: Read the poem below carefully. Notice that the poem is divided into two stanzas and that the second stanza reapplies

much of the first stanzas imagery. Write a well-organized essay in which you discuss how the author’s use of language, including his use of repetition, reflects the content and tone of the poem.

(Remember: Always look at the prompt as a modified version of the classical essay question. Your first task is to get at the author’s meaning.)

1. What does the author want you to get from the whole poem? (Once you answered that for yourself, you can think about how the author got that across with the repeated imagery.)

2. What specific language does the poet use (in stanza one, then in stanza two) to help convey the meaning of the poem? How does repetition play a role?

3. How do the answers to the above questions contribute to the overall tone and theme of the poem?

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