Revision Notes: Appeasement



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The Peace settlements of 1919

Background: By 1914, Europe had been drawn up into two great alliances. Each great power in Europe sought to gain pre-eminence and this caused great tensions and jealousy. Throughout the period 1900-1914 there were a series of crises which could have sparked a major war, but it was only when the Archduke Franz-Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated by a Serb nationalist in Sarajevo in 1914 that war broke out.

The two main alliances were:

The Triple Alliance - Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy

The Triple Entente - France, Russia and Great Britain.

Many other countries were involved, including the USA (after 1917). The Empires of the Great Powers were also involved in the conflict which caused the war to widen into a World War. Once the war ended in 1918, peace treaties needed to be worked

out. They would be decided by the victorious nations: France, Britain and the USA.

The Aims of the Big Three:

France had suffered particularly badly in the war, so when diplomats from the victorious nations met at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the French delegation, led by Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, pledged to make Germany pay.

His aims were to gain revenge for all the suffering France had experienced, and to economically cripple Germany so that it would be too weak to attack France again.

Britain, led by Prime Minister David Lloyd George, was more sympathetic to Germany. This was because:

- If Germany was harshly punished this could cause the Germans to sek revenge in the future.

- A strong Germany would be a good trading partner for Britain,

- A healthy German economy would prevent the rise of extremist parties (Communists or Fascists).

However, Lloyd George had to listen to British public opinion which was calling for Germany to be 'squeezed until the pips squeak!'

The USA, led by President Woodrow Wilson. Wilson was an idealist who had proposed Fourteen Points: a blueprint for a fair peace settlement at the end of the war. One of its main ideas was to set up a League of Nations which would prevent major wars through negotiation.

Wilson did not want to punish Germany, but he was ill during the conference and overruled by Clemenceau and Lloyd George.

Summary of Versailles and the other peace treaties

|Treaty |Result |

|Treaty of Versailles – Germany |Severely punished (see notes above) |

|Treaty of St. Germain – Austria |Austria-Hungary split. Both ordered to pay reparations. |

| |Austria forbidden to unite with Germany. Loss of territory to new countries |

| |e.g. Poland & Czechoslovakia. |

| |Hungary lost land to Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia. 3 million Hungarians |

| |ended up in orther states |

|Treaty of Trianon – Hungary | |

|Treaty of Neuilly – Bulgaria |Loss of territory to Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia |

|Treaty of Sevres – Turkey |Loss of Ottoman Empire. Controversial – Turks challenged the Treaty and was |

| |given Smyna back as part of the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). |

Tip: Compare these maps of Europe in 1914 and 1919. A good knowledge of the changing borders of Europe will really help you!

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Effects of the Treaty on Germany

The German people were outraged by the Treaty of Versailles. They felt that it was deeply unfair, and that the politicians who had signed it had betrayed their country. They called these men the ‘November Criminals’, and the treaty they had signed a ‘diktat’ – a peace tat Germany had been forced to accept.

Why was there a crisis in 1923?

Despite Germany’s intentions to keep to the programme of reparations repayments, their economy was just not strong enough. In 1923 they could not make their reparation repayment.

Invasion of the Ruhr: France and Belgium became impatient for their money, and sent troops into the industrial Ruhr area of Germany to take what they were owed in the form of raw materials and goods.

The German government ordered passive resistance – the Ruhr workers went on strike. As a result...

• The French and Belgians were angered, and they reacted harshly, killing over 100 workers and expelling over 100,000 protestors from the region.

• Germany now had very limited goods to trade and thus very little income to buy things with or pay workers. This further damaged the German economy.

o To try and solve the problem, the German government printed more money. But this just caused a new problem – hyperinflation. The price of goods rose rapidly. Although those with debts found them quickly wiped out, people on fixed incomes (e.g. pensioners) found that their income and savings were now worthless.

Germany eventually resolved this problem and began making reparation repayments again. The French and Belgians withdrew from the Ruhr in 1925.

The League of Nations

The idea of Woodrow Wilson. In February 1918 he had put forward a proposal for peace known as the Fourteen Points. This had included plans for the establishment of a League of Nations.

The League of Nations was established so that the Great Powers and other member countries could discuss issues rather than resort to war. The League also had other responsibilities e.g. a world health programme and an international court of justice.

But, the League had a number of fatal weaknesses.

• Membership: USA, USSR and Germany were not members of the League.

o Although Wilson wanted American membership, many leading American politicians wanted to keep out of international affairs. This policy of keeping to themselves was known as isolationism.

o The USSR was not allowed to join until 1934 because its Bolshevik government was not recognised by the other Great Powers.

o Germany was not allowed to join initially as one of the punishments imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. (Germany was a member from 1926-1933).

• The League did not have an army.

o If a conflict arose, member states had to supply forces at their own expense. All were reluctant to do so, especially Britain and France who were effectively the only strong countries in the League.

o How could the League enforce its will? Economic sanctions were one method of control, but these were usually ineffective if non-League countries could supply goods instead.

• Organisation.

o All the main decisions were made by the Council, made up of permanent members Britain, France, Italy and Japan in 1920 (plus a number of temporary members). Each member of the council had the right of veto, which meant that one vote against could stop action being agreed.

o All member countries sent delegates to the Assembly. This only met once a year and all decisions had to be unanimous. This made decision-making very slow (if a decision was reached at all!)

How did the League of Nations work for a better world?

Through its agencies, the League aimed to fight poverty, disease and injustice all over the world.

Refugees

The League did great work in getting refugees and former prisoners of war back to their homelands. It is estimated that in the first few years after the war about 400,000 prisoners were returned to their homes by the Leagues’ agencies.

When a refugee crisis hit Turkey in 1922, hundreds of thousands of people had to be housed in refugee camps. The League acted quickly to stamp out cholera, smallpox and dysentery in the camps.

Working conditions

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) was successful in banning poisonous white lead from paint and in limiting the hours that small children were allowed to work. It also campaigned strongly for employers to improve working conditions generally. It introduced a resolution for a maximum 48-hour week and 8 hour day, but only a minority of members adopted it because they thought it would raise costs in their own home industries.

Health

The Health Committee, which later became the World Health Organisation, worked hard to defeat the dreadful disease leprosy. It started the global campaign to exterminate mosquitoes, which greatly reduced cases of malaria and yellow fever in later decades. Even Russia, which was otherwise opposed to the League, used the Health Committee to advise it on preventing plague in Siberia.

Transport

The League made recommendations on marking shipping lanes and produced an international highway code for road users.

Social problems

The League blacklisted four large German, Dutch, French and Swiss companies, which were involved in the illegal drug trade. It brought about the freeing of slaves in British-owned Sierra Leone. It organised raids against slave owners and traders in Burma. It challenged the use of forced labour to build the Tanganiyka railway in Africa, where the death rate among African workers was a staggering 50%. League pressure brought this down to 4% which they said was ‘a much more acceptable figure.’

Even in areas where it could not remove social injustice the League kept careful records of what was going on and provided information on problems such as drug trafficking, prostitution and slavery.

Successes in international disputes: The 1920s

The League did achieve some successes. In addition to its humanitarian work, it was successful in the following key cases:

Aaland Islands (1920): The League successfully dealt with a feud between Sweden and Finland over the Aaland Islands – Sweden accepted the League’s decision to give them to Finland.

Upper Silesia (1921): Dispute between Germany and Poland over Upper Silesia (on the border of the two countries) peacefully resolved by a plebiscite.

Greece and Bulgaria (1925): Greek troops had invaded Bulgaria after a border incident when some Greek troops were killed. Greece agreed to withdraw and pay compensation to Bulgaria.

However, the League’s weaknesses were also starting to show:

Vilna (1920): Poland disagreed that the city of Vlna should be in Lithuania as many Poles lived there. The Poles took control of it. The League did nothing. France did not act as Poland was a possible ally against Germany and Britain did not want to act alone.

Corfu (1923): Mussolini sent Italian troops to invade Corfu after some Italian soldiers were killed on the border of Greece. Mussolini’s actions were condemned by the League, but it said Greece should pay compensation to Italy if it was found that Greeks were to blame for the deaths. Until the investigation was complete, the League should hold the money. Mussolini went behind the scenes and managed to change the League’s ruling so that Italy received the money immediately. He then withdrew from Corfu. This showed that important powers could manipulate the League.

[pic] Benito Mussolini – Italian leader 1922-1945

International Agreements and Disarmament Conferences of the 1920s

NOTE: None of these agreements or conferences are brokered/

organised by the League. This can be a bit confusing, as they do involve some League members, but don’t make the mistake of including them in the League’s achievements of the 1920s. You can, however, say that they helped the work of the League, as they were an attempt to maintain peace and move towards disarmament, thus tying in with two of the League’s main aims.

Disarmament:

1921 Washington Conference: USA, Japan, Britain and France agree to reduce th size of their navies. But no further action taken by any nation to disarm.

The Locarno Treaties (1925)

Representatives of France, Britain, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia met and agreed the following:

• Germany accepted western borders laid out in Treaty of Versailles. Britain and Italy agreed to protect France if Germany violated these borders.

• Germany accepted that the Rhineland would remain demilitarised

• France and Germany agreed to settle future disputes through the League

The Treaties paved the way for Germany to join the League in 1926.

(But note – Germany was not required to accept its eastern borders in these treaties – this left Poland and Czechosloavkia vulnerable)

The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

Originally intended as an agreement between just France and the USA, it became a pact signed by over 60 countries (including Germany) not to use war as a way to resolve international disputes. Instead, solutions should be sought through peaceful means, such as the League of Nations (although nations did not have to go to the League).

This was seen as a ‘high point in international relations’.

Germany’s inclusion in the Pact must have helped to lessen tensions in Europe.

The League in the 1930s: From bad to worse...

The Manchurian Crisis 1931

Why was there a crisis?

Japan had been hit hard by the Depression and needed to find a new source of raw materials. In 1931 the Japanese sabotaged the Japanese owned Manchurian railway and blamed “Chinese bandits.” To ‘protect their interests’ the Japanese army took control of the whole region. Both China and Japan appealed to the League of Nations to arbitrate.

Why did the League fail to solve the crisis?

• Moral Condemnation? The League sent Lord Lytton to the region on a fact-finding mission. Lytton took a year to report back to the League. The report condemned Japan’s actions, but by this time the Japanese were entrenched in Manchuria. As a result of the report, Japan left the League in 1933.

• Economic Sanctions? Japan’s main trading partner was the USA. The USA was not a member of the League, and so economic sanctions would have been ineffective.

• Military Sanctions? The League was seriously weakened by the non-membership of the USA and Russia. Britain and France – the only two ‘Great Powers’ in the League - were both in the grip of depression and trying to maintain their own empires. They were not strong enough to force Japan out of China, and neither country wanted to risk their colonies in the Far East. Furthermore, it is very unlikely that the general public in Britain and France would have had the stomach for a major war with Japan in the Far East, literally thousands of miles from Europe.

Outcomes of the Crisis

• Highlighted the fact that the League was neither able nor willing to act decisively when dealing with aggressors, particularly when they were powerful members of the League.

• Japan acted as a role model for other aggressive nations e.g. Germany and Italy in the 1930s. If Japan could act without serious consequence, they expected that they would be able to in the future.

The Abyssinian Crisis 1935-36

Why was there a crisis?

Mussolini called himself ‘Il Duce’, the Duke, and had grand ambitions to make Italy great again. He wanted:

• Revenge for the humiliation of a failed Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1986.

• Resources – the fertile lands an mineral wealth of Abyssinia

• Glory of conquest - Mussolini liked to see himself as an heir to the Roman Emperors, like them he wished to build and maintain an Empire in the Mediterranean.

In December 1934 there was a dispute between Italian and Ethiopian soldiers in Abyssinia. Mussolini used this as his excuse to invade. He prepared to attack. The Abyssinia emperor, Haile Salassie (right), appealed to the League for help.

Why did the League fail to solve the crisis?

Answer: League Members’ own interests came before those of the League

• Britain and France wanted Italy as an ally. In April 1935 Britain and Franc formed an alliance with Italy - the Stresa Front – which was intended to oppose Hitler’s rearmament programme. They did not want to risk losing this alliance and therefore turned a blind eye to events in Abyssinia, despite public outcry against Italy’s behaviour.

• Economic Sanctions were limited. After Mussolini launched a full scale invasion of Abyssinia in October 1935, the League banned arms sales and loans to Italy, all imports from Italy and the export from Italy of rubber, tin and metals. But it did not ban oil exports as the USA would probably not support this sanction and it could damage Legaue members’ economies.

• Britain and France did not close the Suez Canal to Italian ships, giving them easy access to Abyssinia through the Red Sea.

• Britain and France’s Foreign Ministers put together the Hoare-Laval Pact to give Mussolini two-thirds of Abyssinia in return for him ending the invasion – but the plans were leaked – the public was outraged. US oil producers stepped up supplies to Italy in disgust.

Outcomes of the Crisis

• Mussolini completed the conquest of Abyssinia in 1936

• Continued sanctions against Italy led Mussolini to leave the League1937.

• Mussolini began to lean towards an alliance with Hitler. In 1936 Mussolini formed the Rome-Berlin Axis with Hitler, which led to a full military alliance, the Pact of Steel, in 1939

Hitler’s foreign policy aims

The Road to War

Hitler’s Aims

Hitler aimed to make Germany into a great power again and this he hoped to achieve by:

• destroying the hated Versailles settlement,

• building up the army/rearming

• recovering lost territory such as the Saar and the Polish Corridor, and

• bringing all ‘Germans’ together within a ‘Greater Germany’ (Grossdeutschland), and carving out an empire in Eastern Europe to give Germans extra ‘living space’ (lebensraum).

This last aim would involve the annexation of Austria and the acquisition of territory from Czechoslovakia and Poland, both of which had large German minorities as a result of Versailles.

The table below summarises the main steps to war. More detailed information follows.

|1933 |Hitler comes to power in Germany and promises to get back all that was lost by the Treaty of |

| |Versailles. He promises to make Germany powerful and to gain lebensraum (living space) for the Aryan |

| |master-race. |

|1934 |Hitler introduces conscription for the army. He orders the build up of submarines, tanks and an |

| |airforce. This rearmament was strictly forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. |

|1935 |Germany regains the Saar after 15 years under international rule following a plebiscite in which its |

| |people chose to rejoin Germany. Hitler claims the credit. |

| | |

| |Hitler announces the existence of the Luftwaffe (airforce). Britain and Germany sign the Anglo-German|

| |Naval Agreement. The German navy was limited to 35% of Britain’s. Mussolini attacks Abyssinia and |

| |falls out with Britain and France. League of Nations seriously weakened. |

|1936 |Hitler remilitarises the Rhineland. The League takes no action even though this is forbidden by the |

| |Treaty of Versailles. |

| | |

| |Hitler and Mussolini sign the Rome-Berlin Axis. Mussolini promises not to intervene in Austria. |

| | |

| |Germany and Italy support Franco in the Spanish Civil War and take the opportunity to test out/show |

| |off their new techniques of aerial bombing. |

|1937 |Anti-Comintern Pact signed by Germany, Italy and Japan. Each pledges to support the others in |

| |conflicts against communism. |

|1938 |Hitler forces the Anschluss with Austria. Britain let Hitler do this. Nobody in Britain wanted a war |

| |with Germany. |

| | |

| |In September 1938 Hitler forces Czechoslovakia to give up the Sudetenland. Britain’s Prime Minister, |

| |Neville Chamberlain, agrees to Hitler’s demands. Chamberlain believed that if Hitler got what he |

| |wanted, Britain could avoid war with Germany.This was called appeasement. |

| | |

|1939 |In March 1939, Hitler invades the rest of Czechoslovakia. |

| | |

| |Hitler and Mussolini sign the Pact of Steel. |

| | |

| |In August 1939 Hitler and Stalin sign the Nazi-Soviet Pact. |

| | |

| |Hitler invades Poland. The Second World War begins. |

Rearmament 1934-1939

After the appalling casualties of the First World War a view developed that the most effective way to avoid war in the future would be to reduce weapons through a world disarmament. But no country was willing to give up its arms if other countries were not going to follow suit.

Germany was still militarily weak in 1933, so Hitler moved cautiously at first. He withdrew from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations on the grounds that France would not agree to German equality of armaments. Hitler insisted that Germany was willing to disarm if other states agreed to do the same, and that he wanted only peace.

Why did Britain and France not intervene?

• Rearmament was seen as a legitimate way to reduce unemployment – all nations were suffering from the effects of the Depression – surely Hitler was just trying to get Germany back on its feet?

• Britain especially felt that the Treaty of Versailles had been to harsh – Germany should be allowed to rearm itself so that it was not vulnerable to attack.

• A strong Germany would be a buffer against Communism.

The Saar 1935

The Saar was returned to Germany (January 1935) after a plebiscite resulting in a 90% vote in favour. Though the plebiscite had been provided for at Versailles, Nazi propaganda made the most of the success, and Hitler announced that now all causes of grievance between France and Germany had been removed.

The Rhineland 1936

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Encouraged by Mussolini’s fall out with Britain and France, Hitler took the risk of sending troops into the demilitarised zone of the Rhineland in March 1936. Though the troops had orders to withdraw at the first sign of French opposition, no resistance was offered beyond the usual protests. This was a vital step in rebuilding German power. Strong fortifications and forces here would stop France coming to the help of her East European allies.

Why did Britain and France not intervene?

• The French were nervous of going to war without Britain’s backing.

• Many British politicians felt that Hitler should be allowed to go “into his own back garden”.

• The British public did not yet see Hitler as a threat, rather he seemed a strong potential ally against Bolshevik Russia.

The Spanish Civil War 1936-1939

The Spanish Civil War was a conflict between Right-wing/Fascist army rebels, lead by General Franco, against the Left wing Republican government, backed by armed workers' militias.

Hitler was quick to see the opportunity and respond. He provided aircraft and 6,000 German troops to help Franco. This was the first time that aerial bombing had been used against civilians most notably in the bombing of the Basque town of Guernica by the German Condor Legion.

The Spanish Civil War ended in a Fascist victory for General Franco in 1939.

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Picasso’s painting ‘Guernica’ commemorating the German destruction of the town during the Spanish Civil War.

Anschluss with Austria 1938

The Austrian Nazis staged huge demonstrations in Vienna, Graz and Linz, calling for union with Germany which Chancellor Schuschnigg’s government could not control. Schuschnigg announced a plebiscite about whether or not Austria should remain independent. Hitler decided to act before this took place, in case the vote went against union; German troops moved in, supposedly to ensure a trouble-free vote. Unde the watchful eye of Nazi troops, 99.75% of Austrians supported the union with Germany.

Britain did not protest – even Chamberlain felt that Germany and Austria had the right to be united and many politicians agreed that the Treaty of Versailles had been wrong to separate them.

The Anschlusst dealt a severe blow to Czechoslovakia, which could now be attacked from the south as well as from the west and north.

Appeasement and Chamberlain

Appeasement = the policy of giving in to some of the demands of dictators like Hitler and Mussolini in the hope that they would be satisfied and not ask for more. This policy has been most closely identified with British and French foreign policy in the 1930s. The leading figure in Britain was Neville Chamberlain.

Appeasement was a very popular part of British foreign policy. No one wanted a repeat of the First World War. Chamberlain had total faith in the policy of appeasement and believed that eventually Hitler could be controlled.

The Sudetenland and the Munich Agreement 1938

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Why Czechoslovakia?

After the Anschluss Hitler turned his attention to Czechoslovakia and the three million Sudeten Germans. The region was now bordered by Germany on 3 sides.

Czechoslovakia was a new country, created as part of the Treaty of St. Germain (the treaty which had dealt with Austria-Hungary in 1919.) Note that it had NEVER BEEN PART OF GERMANY BEFORE WW1 and therefore has nothing to do with Hitler breaking the terms of the Treaty of Versailles..

Czechoslovakia was ethnically diverse with large numbers of Czechs, Slovaks, Poles and Hungarians. One of the largest minority groups was the Sudeten Germans who lived in the mountainous region of western Czechoslovakia. This region was relatively wealthy compared to the rest of the country and contained all the major industrial complexes such as Skoda.

Why was there a crisis?

Hitler encouraged and supported the Sudeten Germans’ demands to join Germany. There were a number of riots and marches led by the Sudeten Nazis in opposition to Czech control of the region.

In an effort to calm things down, Chamberlain flew to meet Hitler in a series of three meetings.

Chamberlain met Hitler on three occasions before a peace deal could be thrashed out:

1) Berchtesgaden – 15th September 1938

Chamberlain made it clear to Hitler that Britain would accept self-determination for the Sudetenland. But Hitler wanted more than this, secretly he was looking for an excuse to invade Czechoslovkia and not just the Sudetenland.

2) Godesberg – 22nd September 1938

Britain and France planned to give Hitler the parts of the Sudetenland that he wanted, but now this was not enough – he wanted the entire Sudetenland.

3) Munich – 29th September 1938

This conference involved the leaders of Britain, France, Italy and Germany – but not Czechoslovakia or the USSR (who had pledged to protect Czechoslovakia). They decided to give Hitler the Sudetenland.

In a separate meeting afterwards, Chamberlain also agreed a pact with Germany which promised peace between the two nations – this was the ‘piece of paper’ with which he returned, triumphant, to London

.

Outcomes of the Sudeten Crisis

• Hitler became increasingly popular in Germany - he had achieved victory without a war.

• Czechoslovakia was destroyed. Benes resigned.

• The USSR had not been included in the Munich Agreement and Stalin felt compelled to come his own arrangement with Germany (Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939).

• Chamberlain bought time at Munich, time in which Britain could rearm for conflicts in the future.

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Hitler annexes Czechoslovakia: March 1939

In March 1939, Hitler completed his conquest of Czechoslovakia, as he had wanted all along. Hitler took direct control of the western Czech lands, and a puppet state was set up in Slovakia. It was clear that Hitler could not be trusted from now on.

The Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939

Hitler and Stalin were enemies – why did they sign this Pact?

• Hitler wanted to invade Poland, but did not want to get caught up in a war with the USSR.

• Stalin did not trust Hitler, and this pact gave him time to prepare the USSR’s defences.

• Stalin did not trust Britain or France to support him against Hitler .

• Stalin also wanted to take back territory in Poland for the USSR – the Pact agreed that he and Hitler would split Poland between them.

Why did it lead to war?

Britain had promised to support Poland if it was attacked. This was intended as a warning to Hitler that appeasement had gone far enough.

Tension mounted when Mussolini, supported by Hitler, invaded Albania in April 1939, and in May 1939, Italy and Germany signed a military alliance known as the Pact of Steel.

On August 31st Hitler ordered some SS soldiers to dress up as Polish soldiers. These men crossed into Poland secretly and attacked a German radio station on the border. This gave Hitler the excuse to declare war on Poland.

On September 3rd 1939 both Britain and France issued an ultimatum to Hitler to end his attack on Poland. It was ignored. The Second World War had begun.

Test yourself

Make sure you have completed your revision. You should then be able to answer the following questions without too much trouble:

• Which British Prime Minister is most closely associated with appeasement?

• Name three countries that were appeased by Britain in the 1930s.

• In which year did Japan invade Manchuria?

• How large an army was Germany restricted to by the Treaty of Versailles?

• Which African state was invaded by Italy in 1935?

• Why did Britain try to turn a blind-eye to Mussolini's aggressive foreign policy in 1935?

• In which war did both Germany and Italy support the fascist dictator General Franco?

• Which clause of the Treaty of Versailles was broken by Germany in 1936?

• Which country became part of Germany after the Anschluss of 1938?

• What was the name of the largely German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia?

• Essentially what was agreed to at the Munich Conference of 1938?

• Which agreement between Germany and Russia prevented Russia from declaring war on Germany in 1939?

• What is the German word for the eastward expansion of Germany's frontiers in the 1930s and 40s which aimed to provide new lands for the German people?

• Why did Britain not want to form an alliance with Russia in the 1930s?

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The Treaty of Versailles

This was the peace settlement with Germany, it was very harsh.

Germany had to:

- accept total blame for starting the war (the ‘war guilt’ clause)

- lose territory: all of its colonies and huge amounts of territory along its borders in Europe (e.g. Eastern border moved westwards to the Oder-Neisse line)

- Reduce its military capability by: cutting its army to 100,000 men, cutting its navy to 6 battleships and giving up all its airforce and armoured vehicles

- accept that the Rhineland was to be a demilitarised zone

- pay reparations of £6.6 billion.

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