Human-Computer Interaction for Development: …
Human-Computer Interaction for Development: A Brief History
Melissa R. Ho, mho@ischool.berkeley.edu
School of Information
University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
Thomas N. Smyth, thomas.smyth@gatech.edu
School of Interactive Computing, College of Computing
Georgia Tech, Atlanta, GA, USA
Matthew Kam, mattkam@cs.berkeley.edu
Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences
University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
Andrew Dearden, A.M.Dearden@shu.ac.uk
Communication & Computing Research Center
Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom
Abstract
Recent years have witnessed the emergence of an interdisciplinary, international body of research on the design of appropriate information and communication technology (ICT) systems for international development. Even more recently, a group of researchers has begun an effort to build a community around that evolving body of work, termed by some as ‘HCI4D’. This paper represents a first attempt at surveying this nascent community, its history, its members, and the work that defines it. Our review of the short history of HCI4D spans from beginnings in the early 1990s to the present day. We present a wide-ranging literature review, including a survey of high level topics and approaches. We then conclude with a reflective discussion. This work is intended to serve as both a useful reference and a seed for further dialogue within the growing HCI4D community. We also direct readers to the community portal and collaborative bibliography found at .
Introduction
The case has long been made that information and communication technologies have a role to play in the social, political, and economic development of the world’s developing regions. Indeed, United Nations Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 8 in part states: “In cooperation with the private sector, make available benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications.” Accordingly, a thriving body of research has grown up around this union of technology and development.
More recently, a geographically diverse and interdisciplinary body of work has appeared as a subset within this field, specifically focused on the design of interactive information and communications technology (ICT) systems in the service of development goals. Building on this momentum, something of a movement has been initiated by a group of researchers and practitioners to build a community around that evolving body of work. This community is termed Human-Computer Interaction for Development (HCI4D) by some, and the amount of work within it has increased considerably in recent years.
However, this nascent community is far from well-established, and is plagued, for instance, by basic issues of definition. For instance, what is development? The MDGs cited above offer us a practical, measurable means of looking at development. Yet, it seems too simplistic to boil down our work to simply increasing the number of telephone lines, cellular subscribers, and Internet users per 100 population in each country. Amartya Sen argues that we should look at development as “freedom” (Sen, 1999), and Anirudh Krishna further emphasizes the importance of social capital in giving poor people the freedom to aspire (Krishna, 2002). In any case, a hard and fast definition of development is inherently elusive.
Additionally, one might ask: what does it mean to be doing HCI research “for development”? The ACM definition of human-computer interaction is a good starting point:
“Human-computer interaction is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them.”[1]
But this definition seems quite broad compared to the body of work under consideration. It requires closer scrutiny.
ICT4D itself, perhaps not surprisingly, also suffers from identity problems, with two related acronyms circulating in common parlance: information and communications technology and development (ICTD) vs. information and communications technology for development (ICT4D). These two acronyms, although similar, carry different meanings, with the latter being more deterministic about ‘development’ resulting from the introduction of the ICTs in question. The broader acronym ICTD, then, encompasses also the study of information technologies in situ, such as Horst’s study of cell phone usage in Jamaica (Horst and Miller, 2006), Bell’s study of middle class computer usage in South Asia (2006), or Burrell’s study of Internet café usage in Ghana (2007). It would thus seem that the acronym HCI4D carries a level of determinism and purpose; seeking not merely to understand how humans and computers interact in developing regions, but also how this understanding can be used to actively improve lives and livelihoods for people in these developing regions.
HCI4D also has very diverse origins. Much early research was initiated within particular problem domains, for example Braa (1996) reports on user participation in the development of information systems for district clinics in South Africa, drawing on the participatory design tradition (Braa, 1996) Louis Liebenberg & Edwin Blake report on CyberTracker, a field computer system designed to support scientific data collection from expert animal trackers who were non-literate (Leibenberg, 1998; Blake, 2002). Following the first ICTD conference in 2006, and the User-Centered Design for International Economic and Community Development Workshop at CHI 2007, the community has finally started to coalesce. Indeed, one can observe that in the years following, there has been a veritable explosion of HCI4D publications. But as outlined above, the foundations for this community are far from being set.
In this paper, we seek to contribute to these foundations by reviewing its history, members, and the work that defines it. We first reflect on the genesis of the HCI4D community, laying out the historical context that has set the stage for the work being done today. It then undertakes a survey of what we consider to be HCI4D literature, highlighting papers that best illustrate broad trends. The paper concludes with a reflective discussion around the nascent community, exploring lessons learned, and ways in which we might challenge ourselves to do better and reach farther.
Historical Context
In January 1982 Jean Jacques Servan-Schreiber established the World Center for Computer Science and Human Resources in France, specifically to design personal computers for Third World countries. On board with this mission were Nicholas Negroponte, Alan Kay, and Seymour Papert, with plans to develop computer-based education projects in Senegal, Kuwait, Ghana, and the Philippines. While the program faltered shortly thereafter (Eastmond and Mosenthal, 1985) it is apparent that this experience was not without its influence on the researchers, and seems to have revived itself as the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) project (Camfield, 2007).
Independently, another small movement was growing. Several researchers from Apple did a study in 1995 using the Newton as a record-keeping device for auxiliary nurse midwives in India, which was published in CHI in 1997 (Grisedale, 1997).
Contemporary with this work, Louis Leibenberg, Edwin Blake and other researchers were working on CyberTracker, a field computer system designed to support data collection from expert animal trackers who were not literate (Leibenberg, 1998, Blake, 2002). This project, as with many other development-related projects experienced difficulties gaining acceptance in the mainstream HCI community, and initial submissions to CHI were rejected by one reviewer because the premise of illiterate users seemed too implausible. Indeed, this problem was systemic, and Susan Dray notes that when one researcher complained how “no one seemed to take the ‘developing world’ seriously at CHI,” her follow-up challenge eventually led to a Development Consortium proposal for South Africa.
Gary Marsden went to University of Cape Town in South Africa to join Edwin Blake specifically to work on mobile computing for development, and together with Jacques Hugo and Marion Walton authored the CHI Bulletin summarizing the results of the CHI 2002 Development Consortium in South Africa (Hugo, 2002). This short bulletin is remarkably insightful, and continues to speak to ongoing challenges within both HCI4D and ICTD as a whole:
“In multicultural environments it is even more important to consider how our understanding of the complex dialectic between culture, economy and technological innovation influences our ability to empower our people.”
Their suggestion that software should be adapted for communal user rather than individual preferences (“communitization”) is later corroborated by Pal and Patra’s research on computer-aided learning in India (Patra, 2007). However, possibly because of the economic downturn in Silicon Valley at the time, they were unable to achieve their goal of hosting CHI 2007 in South Africa due to the high travel costs. Instead, they hosted a DIS 2008 in Cape Town with a large turnout. More importantly, DIS 2008 was arguably the first SIGCHI conference to be held in sub-Saharan Africa, and the organizers sought to make HCI4D a priority in the conference program.
However, even before DIS2008, we saw another very concrete outcome of this Consortium: a special issue of interactions in 2003 on “HCI in the developing world,” edited by Susan Dray, Paula Kotze, and David Siegel. With eleven articles based on work in China, South Africa, India, and Brazil this issue was ahead of its time (Dray, 2003). It would not be for another three years before we would see this many ideas around HCI4D presented in one place.
Relevant research was being done in other sectors as well. The International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) established a working group on Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries (IFIP WG9.4) which held its first full conference in Nairobi in 1992 (Bhatnagar and Odera, 1992), and has met biannually since that time. However, the work in this group typically focuses on the impact of technology, rather than exploring technology design. From 1996 onwards Jørn Braa and his team designed and deployed district health information systems in South Africa. This work was initially funded by the Norwegian development agency Norad, but has since attracted funding from international donors including the World Health Organisation. The software has now been extended and deployed to many countries including Mozambique, Tanzania (Zanzibar), India, Ethiopia, Sierra Leone and Cuba. Reports are published in venues like the Participatory Design Conference (Braa 1996), WITFOR (Braa and Blobel, 2003), and The Information Society (Braa and Hedberg, 2002). Similarly, educational technology received some recognition outside of traditional HCI venues, such as the series of five workshops so far titled “Technology for Education in Developing Countries” organized under the auspices of the IEEE, with the most recent two workshops held in 2006 and 2008 respectively in Tanzania and Uganda.
The situation in South Africa may be considered something of a special case. The political changes over the past 20 years in South Africa have resulted in a strong commitment from political leaders to apply the modern technological capabilities that were once the province of a racially defined minority, to an inclusive form of national development. This commitment is reflected in the creation of institutions such as the Meraka institute with its mission to “facilitate national economic and social development through human capital development and needs-based research and innovation, leading to products and services based on Information and Communication Technology” (.za), but may also have created an academic environment where research on ICT and Development is more highly valued than in many other countries.
Funding from international aid donors has also been directed to explore the potential of ICT in development. In 1999, the Fiankoma project () with funding from the UK Department for International Development (DfID) set up a partnership project between schools in Ghana and the UK to share digital stories, and to help youngsters in both countries recognize how much they had in common as well as how their lives differed. A similar project focusing on Muslim girls in London and Ghana was established in 2004 (). Since 2006, the European Union and UNESCO have sponsored annual e-Learning Africa conferences. From 2002 – 2005, the EU funded the Indo European Systems Usability Partnership, led by Andy Smith at Thames Valley University and Anirudha Joshi at IIT Bombay worked to develop capabilities in HCI in India, resulting in the first India HCI conference in 2004, and a growing network of practitioners and researchers. A similar partnership model is currently being used in the Sino European Systems Usability Network to develop HCI capacity in China (Smith et al., 2007).
A separate thread was a series of workshops on internationalization of products and systems – the IWIPS workshops starting yearly in 1999, and geared towards looking at product design from a more global and international culturally aware perspective.
A further thread of movement began approximately in 2003, when UC Berkeley professor Eric Brewer submitted a multi-disciplinary grant proposal to the US National Science Foundation (NSF) partnering social scientists and computer scientists in an endeavor to jointly design and evaluate a number of information technologies “for billions”. In addition to several systems and infrastructure projects, this also led to a live video-conferenced class jointly taught by staff at UC Berkeley and at Carnegie Mellon. The UC Berkeley group eventually became known as the Technology and Infrastructure for Emerging Regions (TIER) research group, with numerous publications and projects in the education, literacy, healthcare, and wireless infrastructure spaces. Meanwhile, early work from a group at the MIT Media Lab and Georgia Tech introduced novel interfaces for communications applications in the Dominican Republic (Escobedo and Best, 2003; Sin et al., 2004). Michael Best, from this group, would go on to found the Technologies and International Development Lab within Georgia Tech’s GVU Center, while Carnegie Mellon later created TechBridgeWorld (Dias 2006), a comprehensive experiential program for undergraduate and graduate students interested in developing regions projects.
In 2005 the UK Engineering & Physical Sciences Research Council began an initiative on Bridging the Global Digital Divide (). This initiative brought together an interdisciplinary group of 25 leading researchers to set out new research directions in ICT and Development. The participants in this initiative ranged from technical specializations such as speech synthesis and photovoltaics, through interaction design, to social scientists, economists and development geographers. The four projects that were created by this initiative each had strong elements of both participatory design and human-computer interaction. Each project had at least one researcher with a track record in HCI, and each project team committed strongly to participatory design principles. Drawing on this commitment a workshop at the Participatory Design Conference in 2006 was suggested to examine relations between participatory IT design and participatory development practice. Although this workshop was cancelled due to insufficient registrations, the idea was picked up by Susan Dray who proposed holding a similar workshop at CHI 2007.
It is not quite clear when either ICTD as a general field or HCI4D began to gain critical mass. As graduate students, Tapan Parikh at the University of Washington and Matthew Kam at UC Berkeley both strove to make their research gain acceptance in the HCI community, with some initial success reflected in a best paper award (Parikh, 2003). In 2005, Microsoft founded Microsoft Research India in Bangalore with a research portfolio that includes HCI projects for emerging markets. More importantly, Microsoft created funding avenues such as the Digital Inclusion Funding program and Latin American and Caribbean Collaborative ICT Research Virtual Institute, which enabled university-based research projects in ICTD to flourish. With the addition of the ICTD conference as a potential venue, it is almost no surprise that we see a veritable explosion of publications in HCI4D in 2006 and afterwards.
While our origins may be diverse, the community is beginning to coalesce. The first HCI4D workshop was held at CHI 2007. A major contributing factor to this workshop was funding from the US National Science Foundation to support a small number of researchers and practitioners from developing countries to attend and participate. This successful workshop was followed up by similar workshops at HCI 2007, DIS 2008, CHI 2008, and PDC 2008, as well as related panels and discussions at HCI International 2007 and Interact 2007. In 2008, IFIP Technical Committee 13 (Human-Computer Interaction) approved the establishment of a new special interest group on Interaction Design and International Development, thus providing an international organizational umbrella around which we can organize.
A Survey of the HCI4D Literature
As the previous sections have discussed, the quantity of research in HCI4D has grown substantially over the past decade. This section seeks to review the broad trends in that research, from the early first steps to the present day. Due to the volume of work, It is not practical to cite all articles here. Instead, we cite work we consider to be representative of a particular trend. Many more references can be found within our online bibliography at .
Cross-cultural HCI
Perhaps deserving of first mention in this section is the field of cross-cultural HCI, which investigates the relationship of culture to user interface design research and practice. This line of work grew out of efforts in the early 1990’s to develop systematic methods for adapting commercial software for sale on international markets. Several early books in this area (Nielsen, 1990, Apple Computer, 1992, Fernandes, 1995, del Galdo and Nielsen, 1996) serve as seminal references in this area. Researchers in the HCI community began to explore cross-cultural issues later in the decade. A workshop in 1992 (Kellogg and Thomas, 1993) considered broad issues, while in the same year, Christine Borgman (1992) issued a call to action in the pages of the SIGCHI Bulletin.
A considerable body of work emerged in following years. Several papers focused on the issue of meaning as it relates to usability. For example, Evers (1998) investigated the role of metaphors in interface design, while Bourges-Waldegg and Scrivener (1998) proposed a new HCI approach, dubbed Meaning in Mediated Interaction, to help understand culturally determined usability problems. Other works investigated cross-cultural usability of particular technologies, such as mobile phones (Katre 2006), ATMs (de Angeli et al. 2003), and digital libraries (Duncker 2002).
In most of this work, the focus lies on differences in culture, that is, in translating user interface designs and principles from one culture to another, or designing interfaces which are as immune as possible to cultural differences. In most cases, the cultures of interest were those of other developed nations with distinct cultures, such as Japan, and the concept of international development is rarely mentioned as a goal. Nonetheless, many lessons from this body of work are applicable to HCI4D research, as much of such work is carried out by researchers whose cultures differ from those of target users. It is also likely that these first steps in interface internationalization were a necessary precursor to the later, development-focused research discussed below.
Approaches and Techniques
Authors in HCI4D have approached the field from a wide array of perspectives, backgrounds, and methodological traditions. This section reviews the various approaches and techniques which have characterized the research in the area.
Interaction Design and Usability Evaluation
The majority of papers examined took the form of exercises in interaction design and evaluation. Work of this sort involved the design and construction of an interactive technological artifact of some sort, with explicit focus given to the user interface.
This considerable body of work was spread across several application areas, as discussed below. It was also characterized by the feature which chiefly defined it as related to development. Some work mainly addressed needs presented by the environment in a particular area. For instance, Escobedo and Best (2003) described a novel interface to facilitate VoIP communication over poor quality networks. To address an inadequate supply of PCs in some Indian classrooms, Pawar et al. (2006) described a system for connecting multiple mice to a single PC. Meanwhile, Sterling et al. (2007) introduced a device called ‘AIR’ (Advancement through Interactive Radio) which allows women in Kenya to contribute commentary to local radio programs without needing a phone. While the application domains of these projects are diverse, the common thread they share is a primary focus on environmental constraints.
On the other hand, some work was primarily motivated by unique needs of the users in a developing region. Much of such work was motivated by the illiteracy or semi-literacy which is widespread in developing regions. An early example was an investigation by Parikh et al. (2003) of design considerations for record-keeping in microfinance groups, whose members were often illiterate or semi-literate. Additionally, Katre (2004) developed a mnemonic-based system to allow illiterate villagers to identify themselves to a computer kiosk. Medhi et al. (2007) also worked with semi-literate populations in India, this time on the design of two systems: one for conducting job searches, and one for creating city maps. One system, called ‘Jadoo’ (Chand and Dey, 2006), focused on computer literacy as opposed to print literacy, by allowing users unfamiliar with computers to access online information via a paper-based interface and a computer-literate facilitator.
While these systems may be interpreted as being designed around concepts of lack or 'deficiency', other systems have sought to build on the unique skills and capabilities of users in developing regions. For example, Blake (2002) reports on a handheld system provided to allow experienced animal trackers in South Africa to report their findings in electronic form. Sharma (2007) reports on a computer aided design system to support women involved in Chikan embroidery.
Finally, several projects span both of these categories, with both environmentally-based and user-based motivations. For instance, the Braille writing tutor developed by Kalra et al. (2007) is designed to be low-cost, low-power, and robust, but also addresses the language needs of Indian users in supporting right-to-left writing.
Design Methodology
A considerable number of papers focused on general design methodologies for developing world contexts, rather than on particular artifacts or systems. Authors discussed the challenges of conducting user research in rural settings, outside the laboratory, and in foreign cultures.
Many papers took the stance that existing HCI methods were not suitable out of the box, and need to be adapted. A group of South African researchers has pioneered in this area. Chetty, Tucker, and Blake (2004) described “a user centered design approach and modified software development lifecycle” which they tailored for use in the design of a telemedecine system in rural South Africa. Similarly, Blake and Tucker (2006) proposed a so-called “socially aware software engineering” model for the developing world based on principles from the participatory design and action research traditions. Finally Maunder, Marsden, Gruijters, and Blake (2007) introduced a methodology termed “UCD4Dev” which builds on previous work and incorporates elements from the Real Access/Real Impact criteria developed by , an international NGO working in this space. Relatively early work in India by Chavan (2005), which introduced several novel methods for conducting usability evaluation within the Indian cultural context, is also notable here.
Several papers focused on the task of designing for rural users, highlighting the additional challenges that a rural setting poses. In addition to Chetty et al. mentioned above, Maunder et al. (2006) evaluated the aforementioned Real Access/Real Impact criteria as a tool for determining needs of rural end users. At the same conference, Heukelman (2006) reported on a study about the applicability of UCD methods to rural user interface design problems, finding that users with little computer experience could evaluate designs, but not effectively produce them.
Another group of researchers based in the U.S., short of proposing novel methodologies, instead reported a series of lessons learned in the course of participatory design exercises in developing regions. Kam et al. (2006) discussed lessons in carrying out participatory design with rural school children. Ramachandran et al. (2007) reflect on three field studies from Uganda and India and offer techniques for eliciting feedback and securing participation from rural users. Meanwhile, Schwartzman and Parikh (2007) described practices for establishing and maintaining crucial relationships with local partners, and Kam (2008) endorsed the practice of involving local undergraduates in fieldwork.
A third cluster of papers evaluated past applications of participatory design to information systems projects in the developing world. Three such papers were a result of the Health Information Systems Project (HISP) begun in 1995 in South Africa. Puri et al. (2004) investigated three instances of the project and concluded that there is no single algorithmic best practice to participatory design in a developing world context. Braa et al. (2004) conducted an in-depth case study of the project in Cuba, revealing how the participatory process was restricted by political and organizational constraints. Elovaara et al. (2006) compared two project instances in Tanzania and Sweden, finding extensive differences. Byrne and Alexander (2006) examined the ethical considerations of participatory research in community settings, revealing several important considerations.
Indeed, participatory principles are ubiquitous in much of the work discussed in this survey. This is not surprising, as participation has a rich history in international development more broadly. Dearden & Rizvi (2008) present a useful survey of this history. Nonetheless, the extent to which the true spirit of participation has been embodied by HCI4D research is up for debate. We examine this issue later in the paper.
Reviews
Despite the relative newness of HCI4D, several papers have taken a step back to reflect upon the challenges and opportunities within the field itself. One of the earliest to do so was Hugo (2002), who extolled South Africa as a kind of “virtual laboratory” where a changing socioeconomic landscape made for plentiful research opportunities in HCI. Similarly, Kotzé (2002) spoke of the world-class HCI education, practice, and research activities underway in southern Africa. Indeed, considerable contributions to the field would flow from that area in the years to follow. Wang (2003) provided a similar review for China.
A more comprehensive review of early HCI4D activities was authored by Dray et al.(2003), in the form of an introduction to the interactions special issue on HCI4D, which was discussed above. Later, two survey papers from the TIER research group at UC Berkeley (Brewer et al. 2005, Brewer et al. 2006) described first the “case” for technology research in developing regions, and second the various challenges that such research often encountered. Both articles contained substantial sections on HCI related topics.
Ethnographies
Several researchers, many of them affiliated with commercial research labs, have undertaken the study of technology in developing regions from an ethnographic perspective. Their work, while not always intended to inform the design of a specific artifact, is intended to broaden our understanding of technology use in the developing world.
A popular topic of inquiry for this work has been the mobile phone, which is not surprising given the phenomenal growth of mobile technology in recent years. Genevieve Bell has examined mobile phone use, among other technologies, in south and southeast asia. Jan Chipchase, in his capacity as a researcher for Nokia, focuses exclusively on mobile phone use throughout the world, including many developing regions. His findings are shared mainly in the form of presentations at various venues (Ichikawa et al., 2005, Chipchase, 2007). Heather Horst has investigated mobile use in Ghana, India, Jamaica, and South Africa (Horst and Miller, 2006), and Kutoma Wakunuma (2006) has worked in Zambia, studying in particular the effect of mobile phones on gender relations. Other topics of inquiry have included internet cafés (Salvador et al., 2005), and technology use among Ghanaian diaspora (Burrell, 2007).
Perhaps the most important functions of this fascinating body of work have been first to highlight the surprising extent of ICT adoption in the developing world, and second, to reveal the wide ranging and fascinating differences in the character of that adoption. In doing so, the work has challenged the assumptions of those accustomed to traditional uses of technology in a developed world setting, and likely served as an inspiration for some of the other research discussed in this paper.
User studies
While much of the work described above involves formal experimentation with users, such studies were usually based on an artifact or system presented in the same publication. Relatively few papers presented user studies conducted for their own sake. One such paper is due do Medhi et al. (2007), and investigates optimal audio-visual representations for illiterate users. Other examples include the work of Walton and Vukovic (2003) on information scent, and an investigation by Cheng et al. (2008) of participant and interviewer attitudes toward handheld technology as used in surveys.
Application Domains
HCI4D research spans many domains, most of which mirror typical domains of international development more generally. Projects focusing on education (e.g. Kam et al., 2006, Furtado et al., 2008) and health (e.g. Braa et al., 2004, DeRenzi et al., 2008) were most plentiful. Microfinance (e.g. Parikh et al., 2003), illiteracy (e.g. Medhi et al., 2007), economic efficiency (e.g. Javid and Parikh, 2007), agriculture (e.g. Plauché and Prabaker, 2006) and communication (e.g. Sin, 2004) also received considerable attention. On the other hand, several areas received surprisingly little attention. Few papers dealt with gender, despite the prominence of that issue in the Millennium Development Goals. Also surprising was the near lack of work in e-government (only one paper (Katre, 2004) by our count), an area which has received considerable attention in the broader development literature (Heeks (2006) presents a good survey).
Sterling’s (2007) work on interactive radio is one of few HCI4D papers in the area of public media. Two papers (Blake, 2002 and Pascoe, 2000) studied the work of trackers and ecologists in African wildlife reserves, and appear to be the only two papers in our survey with an environmental bent. This is notable given the growing prevalence of ‘sustainability’ in the broader CHI literature (Blevis, 2007). Finally, two publications (Bell, 2006 and Wyche et al., 2008) examined the role of technology in religion from an HCI perspective. Considering the overwhelming popularity of religion in many developing regions, this is likely to be a growth area.
Discussion
In the previous sections of this paper, we have surveyed what we believe to be the extent of the field of HCI4D. In this section, we take time to reflect on the stories and trends we have observed, and to look ahead to the future of the field.
Some Notable Trends
We have categorized HCI4D research along two major axes, the first being the technique or approach taken by the research. Categories along that axis are interaction design and evaluation, design methodologies, user studies, ethnographies, and reviews. Several of these categories are notable. A tendency towards methodology papers is visible in much early work. This is likely a natural result of the considerable and unique challenges posed by the field. As researchers encountered these challenges, they were keen to publish their experiences in dealing with them. In some cases, this may be compounded by the lengthy time or difficulty required to obtain a positive empirical result suitable for publication. Nonetheless, much work remains to be done in this area, and much of it cannot be expected to generalize, as the cultures of many developing regions are as distinct from each other as they are from any developed nation.
We also observed a small number of stand-alone user studies, of the kind found in classical HCI research. Upon reflection, this is not very surprising, for several reasons. First, research 'for development' is naturally likely to favor applied projects. Second, one could make an ethical argument to the effect that such research carries benefits only for the researcher and not the participants, at least in the short run. Nonetheless, we believe that there remains a compelling case for the development of some types of basic knowledge regarding users in developing regions. Illiteracy (Medhi et al., 2007) serves as a key example.
Areas of application define the second category axis. In addition to the areas that we mentioned earlier as lightly treated (gender, e-government, environment, public media, religion), there were also several application areas that we considered notable for their absence from the survey. We list them here, and note that this list is certainly not an exhaustive one. E-Democracy, which involves the use of ICTs to enhance democratic processes such as transparency, participation in public policy decision-making, etc., is one such area. These processes seem both important to development and amenable to technological support. Also, no papers discussed post-conflict reconciliation, which is unfortunately a growth area in many developing regions (the authors are aware of at least one project underway on this topic). Finally, as developing regions undergo modernization, the area of cultural preservation seems to grow in importance, and has obvious connections to HCI through media technologies. We look forward to learning of future explorations in these and other fields.
Participation and Power
Earlier in this paper, we described the prevalence of the notion of participation throughout the surveyed research. Indeed, the term 'participatory' appears with striking frequency in the literature. However, we believe that the true nature of the participation carried out by many of these projects deserves discussion, specifically with reference to power relationships.
Oakley's (1991) characterization of the different aims of participatory working in development is a useful starting point. He suggests that participation may refer to three very different forms of engagement:
Level 1: Participation as contribution or passive participation: Here participants make voluntary contributions to a predetermined project in return of some perceived future benefit.
Level 2: Participation as organization or externally driven participation: Here, the external development actor leads the reform or creation of some new organization through a process of participation.
Level 3: Participation as empowering and leading social inclusion: Here participation aims to develop skills and abilities within the community to enable people to manage their own needs better and decide on aspects that they select and determine. This type of participation seeks to build the capacity of the community to act on their own in the future.
These different forms of participation imply very different types of relationship between project staff and beneficiary groups, and have very different outcomes from the perspective of development.
Much of the work reviewed in this survey may fit into Oakley’s model at Level 1. The general aims of the project are defined before engaging with any specific community, and participants have only a marginal input to make. The difficulty with participation at Level 1 is that the project has been defined outside of the community that is meant to benefit and often will miss the real local needs of the people. Of course, the detailed contextual, ethnographic and participatory methods used in design all aim to avoid this situation, but the level of detailed study and relationship building required are rarely practical within the constraints of a few short visits by designers to the community. In any case, this form of participation can only provide for discussions of the means by which technology might be used to achieve some given ends, but does not open the question of whether the ends themselves should be prioritized.
Development projects of any sort always involve a range of stakeholders, and these individuals and groups have different goals and are subject to different rewards and incentives. When they come together within a particular project, it is a mistake to suppose that they are equal participants in a free negotiation. There are large differentials in power. Crucially, the technology designers and donors are free to make major decisions and deploy substantial resources that the beneficiaries will find hard to counter. Decisions that seem small to the external designers may have considerable impact on local conditions.
Several questions come to mind: Who decides on the overall aims of a participatory project? How might someone in the beneficiary community be able to change focus of the project? What budgetary control does the community have over the project? To what extent are the software and hardware designers contracted to deliver benefits to the community, or vice versa? And finally, who will judge the project's success or failure? We present these questions both as a practical reference for use at the outset of a participatory HCI4D project, and to stimulate discussion around this issue within the HCI4D community.
We should also recognise the enormous cultural diversity between different people in the developing world, probably far greater (if these things can be measured) than in the G7 countries. There is no a-priori reason to expect a solution that works well with Xhosa farmers in South Africa to be appropriate Kikikuyu farmers in Kenya, Dinka farmers in Sudan, or Marathi farmers in India. f there was a technology design that had a reliably beneficial impact on development outcomes, then we would have a magic bullet!
Because of this, it is more likely that results in this area will build up slowly as a library of techniques, methodologies, toolkits and design solutions that have worked in one place and may be transferrable to others. We should also expect to see negative results showing how some seemingly compatible ideas fail to transfer. Another possibility is the build up of knowledge about technology use and design in particular cultural settings - in the same way as knowledge about domains like hospitals, air transport, schools builds up over time. A framework such as Carroll, Rosson & Sutcliffe's claims work may be useful here.
Documenting Our Experiences
As researchers, it is incumbent upon us to document our experiences, how we achieved our results, and even what may not have worked as well. As some of our previous discussion may indicate, however, not all of our experiences are publishable as research – in effect, they cannot be framed as “contributions” because they fall more into the category of practical work (“social work, engineering”) than generalizable research. So success for a researcher, therefore, is moving the field forward, often proxied by publication; in HCI, preferably publication in CHI. Yet, methods that procure good, replicable, and reliable research results are not necessarily compatible with development projects. As HCI “for development” researchers, we face a key tension between the goals of ‘development’ and research. Indeed, pilot projects abound – many papers that have “succeeded” (e.g. gotten published in CHI) have not lasted beyond their initial pilot deployments. For the scope of a given research project, then, we must frame our contributions not necessarily as a direct contribution to sustainable development (although that is a laudable goal) but to prioritize contribution to the knowledge that can be used by other people seeking to use technology effectively in developing regions. However, the question remains – do paradigms of HCI4D change in the context of sustainable deployments?
We should also consider both our ethical stance as researchers and the long term implications of our work once we leave the field. How do we withdraw gracefully without negative implications for the project, for the field as a whole and future development projects? Chetty (2006) remarks that upon leaving the field “we took away a method of communication that the doctor and nurse enjoyed and found useful for work. Removing MuTI returned them to a system which they disliked, and further one that was subject to failure…” While we can set expectations appropriately, our inevitable departures entail disappointments, and over time can set up false expectations or even cyncism towards future researchers or development practitioners. One means of addressing this issue is to “codesign, codeploy,” implying the development of strong partner relationships, in which the researchers and the partners embrace the project jointly (Brewer, 2006). However, this requires significant investment of time on the part of the researcher.
Defining HCI, Revisited
In the introduction to this paper, the definition of HCI4D was left as something of an open question. While it would be foolhardy to ever attempt to completely close it, we feel that having conducted the review presented above, we are better positioned to revisit the topic.
It seems natural to define HCI4D in parts: the HCI, and the 4D. The latter is sure to be the most contentious component of the acronym. Many different definitions of human development have been proposed, from Bentham through to Sen (1999) and beyond. Moreover, any definition is unavoidably political. In discussions on this topic amongst the authors, one author proposed a thought experiment: Could the design of a more usable electronic surveillance system for an oppressive developing-country regime could ever be considered '4D'? He insisted not. But a second author countered that some oppressive regimes have been demonstrably more successful than their democratic counterparts at bringing about the social stability that is conducive to economic development. Would improving the efficiency of such a regime's system of governance not be considered development? While there can be no definitive resolution to this ensuing debate, it reveals the value judgement inherent in any definition of development, and thus of HCI4D.
Admittedly, the work reviewed in this survey have tended toward a more liberal definition of development. There are no papers on electronic surveillance systems. The focus has instead been on either minimally contentious development goals, such as health care or agriculture, or on marginalized groups, such as micro-credit borrowers or urban domestic workers. In any case, with such a political concept at our base, we have two options: take a firm and exclusive political stand, or allow ourselves to be defined amorphously by the character of the research which finds its way into our collective discourse. The latter is likely to be the reality as nobody is in a position to impose the former. Moreover, given the newness of HCI4D as a field, it is important to embrace an inclusive working definition in order not to dismiss potentially important work in a plurality of areas.
The second part of the acronym, HCI, is easier to define, although not trivial. As stated, the ACM definition holds that HCI is "a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them". Again, this seems overly broad for the work covered in this paper, as the 'major phenomena' surrounding interactive systems could be taken to encompass all of ICT4D research. Instead, it seems that we have treated HCI most basically as a body of established methods to guide the task of design. Perhaps a more suitable definition would define HCI4D as any research that uses conventional HCI methods, or proposes new methods, in the design of interactive systems, '4D'. But again, at this early stage, the wisest stance is likely an inclusive one.
Systemic Issues
One of the systemic obstacles that impede the development of HCI4D in the so-called developing world is the dearth of HCI employment opportunities and programs in higher education there. Realistically, it is not possible for HCI4D as a field to grow in a balanced direction if it continues to be largely driven by researchers and practitioners from the so-called industrialized nations. Fortunately, this state of affairs appears to be changing.
What can we do collectively as a community – spread across both the developing and developed world – to accelerate the mainstreaming of HCI in the developing world? We cite three possible approaches by way of illustration. First, more HCI researchers, educators and professionals who work in the developing world could recruit local undergraduates to participate in their projects (Kam 2008). There could be more plentiful internship opportunities in developing regions that the strongest students would find challenging, and hence give them an outlet for their ambition to achieve. More important, such opportunities will provide them with an exposure to HCI that they are otherwise unlikely to have.
Second, more HCI practitioners could volunteer their time to make relevant work in HCI accessible to other practitioners in developing regions. Case in point: uiGarden () is a bilingual website that aims to foster greater interaction between the HCI community in China and elsewhere in the world. One of the primary activities of its editorial staff is to coordinate with volunteers in translating relevant HCI articles from English to Chinese, and to publish articles in both languages on its website. Through such efforts, HCI articles written in English can achieve a wider readership throughout the rest of the world.
Third, the global HCI community can undertake more collaborations that are specifically oriented toward HCI4D. The Playpower Foundation () illustrates one possible model. The goal behind the Playpower Foundation is to create an open-source community around an inexpensive $12 computer with television displays. This community comprises local working groups whose members experiment with this technology platform and explore how e-learning games can be locally developed for it to target locally relevant educational needs.
In short, we encourage more members in our community to explore how they can establish and contribute to local chapters that are part of a larger network. Through such collective efforts, we can promote greater knowledge exchange, and hence local capacity building.
Broader Issues
While much progress has been made within the HCI4D community, we are still not at critical mass. Susan Dray’s early efforts and the more recent workshops and conferences have brought together a number of researchers, but many efforts are still disjoint. Particularly important locations in terms of Interaction Design for International Development (ID4ID) are South Africa (and to some extent other countries in Southern Africa), India, China, the US, UK and Scandinavia. In other regions, international agencies, national governments and non-governmental agencies (NGOs) are engaged in a range of activities dealing with particular development domains (health, education, agriculture, economic development, etc.) but few organizations are connecting to HCI research. The European-based International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) may be able to play a key role in helping to make these connections.
As a community we are also trying to build a common vocabulary, consistent ways of describing the scope and variety of work that we do as HCI4D researchers. Some work is about interaction techniques for difficult settings, other work is about institutional support. There are clearly big differences between working with government agencies, private sector, community based organizations and private individuals. These differences need to be explored, and in some ways may be more significant in the long run than differences between domains (agriculture, trade, education etc.).
Most importantly, over the past couple of years, we also need to recognize people within the community that contribute in non-standard capacities, who are contributing their personal expertise to development activities, but have not found a way to or have chosen not to turn that into recognizable ‘high quality research output' in the traditional sense. The CHI workshop formats tend to attract people in this category. Specific examples of researchers in this category are Susan Dray, who as a consultant cannot publish much of her research due to confidentiality issues, and Jan Chipchase, who contributes prolifically via his blog and presentations posted on his website.
The creation of respectable research forums and publication opportunities like ICTD, ITID, the ID4ID special interest group of IFIP are very important in building a sustainable research environment. However there remains a gap in terms of the availability of peer-reviewed technical venues specifically for HCI4D researchers.
Conclusion
The next 10 years will prove crucial for the nascent community of HCI4D, as it tries to establish itself as a legitimate field of research. Significant momentum has built over the last five years, and the excitement and enthusiasm around the area is palpable. Nonetheless, it would be foolhardy to claim that a critical mass has been reached. Sustainable availability of research funding remains an important concern, and much work remains in building a cohesive community to unite the disjoint pockets of relevant work distributed around the globe, and across various sectors (academia, international agencies, governments, NGOs). Meanwhile, considerable numbers of researchers are contributing their personal expertise to development activities, but have not found a way to turn that into recognizable 'high quality research output' in the traditional sense. The creation of respectable research forums and publication opportunities like ICTD, ITID, and the ID4ID special interest group of IFIP are essential to building a sustainable research environment. Most importantly, all this must be done in a way that is truly supportive of real, inclusive, needs-driven development goals. This paper, in surveying the history, members, and work of the HCI4D community, is intended as a next logical step in this progression. As members of this exciting community, we look forward to the future ahead.
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