Another Look at Rice



Another Look at Rice

Timothy A. Bragg

Biology 341

May 8th, 2007

Introduction

Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima are extremely important species of grasses, which are heavily relied upon as a staple food source for humankind. Rice is consumed by nearly one-half of the Earth’s population (Chang, 2000) and provides more than one fifth of the caloric intake of humans (Anonymous, 2007b). Production has reached a staggering 700 million metric tons as of 2005 with a steady increase in production and consumption over the last twenty-five years (Anonymous, 2007a). The area required to grow this vast quantity of rice is indeed quite large, requiring nearly 150 hectares of land is in use to support this crop from 53° north to 35° south latitude. Even though there are 112 countries which grow rice, roughly ninety-five percent of the worldwide production and consumption is in Asia. In impoverished countries such as Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam high levels of per capita consumption have been reached up to as much as 1-30-180 kg per year and this can be as much as 55-80 percent of these people’s caloric intake. This large consumption in East Asian countries is displayed in the international market by having a poor showing of rice in the global market. Under five percent of rice produced across the globe reaches the market, contrasting to another important cereal grain, wheat, in which sixteen percent of this grain’s total production is sold on the international market. Some low-income countries such as China and Pakistan import wheat and export their rice to increase their income (Chang, 2000). This labor-intensive crop has been grown and utilized for over 9000 years and continues to be heavily used in today’s society. Out of all the plants produced in the world, rice is the third most used, trailing behind maize, and the largest crop in production, wheat. There are three main variations of rice in the grasses family Poaceae, and these include two from the genus Oryza and a third coming from the genus Zizania (Anonymous 2007c).

Origination of Rice

In north Thailand there is a particularly famous site called ‘Spirit Cave’, where plant remains which date as far back as 7000 to 9000 B.C. were excavated in the last century by a man named Chester Gorman. Though it is difficult to say for certain that this is the very first location from which present day rice originated, it seems safe to say that the people from the area were of the first few to actually farm rice. Remains from this particular cave, such as cultivated materials haven’t truly stood up to natural deterioration over the time of nearly eleven thousand years, but it seems evident that both long grain and short grain rice were farmed by both the Ma-chia-pang and Ho-mu-tu people, whom resided along the Yangtze delta (Anderson 1988). According to Chang (2000), it appears as though the beginning of the cultivation of rice was either in India, China, or other tropical areas in southeastern Asia at least 10,000 years ago. It has been noted that rice had been cultivated in several parts of China around 6000 to 5000 B.C. and it is feasible to say it would have taken a few hundred-thousand years for rice to move north from the tropical regions of southeastern China to the regions known to have proof of rice cultivation at this range of time.

As the origins of rice are explored closer to the present time, further evidence has been concluded upon as less speculation of samples is able to be made. Rice cultivation was, until recently, considered to be a fairly recent event until some extensive excavations took place around the 1950s in China and also some in India. Before these excavations, it was assumed that the earliest cultivations of rice was about 4500 years ago, or 2500 B.C. During these excavations of Southern Asia it was noted that the oldest evidence for rice in India was estimated to be about 6570 to 4530 B.C. as evidence by remains of rice found in samples of ancient cow fecal matter. Other samples of old grains coming from Mohenjodaro of Pakistan dates back to around 2500 B.C. and is suspected to have spread from near the Ganges River, upper and middle regions around 2000 B.C. where it could have quickly and easily spread along via the irrigation systems through this area. It likely moved through this area, including the Orissa State to the surrounding areas of Andrha Pradesh and Tamil Nadu about the time of the Iron Age, 300 B.C. Also according to Chang (2000), excavations in and around Southeast Asia have shown numerous accounts with evidence of rice remains tracing from 3500 B.C. at Ban Chiang, Thailand, 1400 B.C. at Solana, Philippines, and in Ulu Leang, Indonesia and Ban Na Di, Thailand around A.D. 500. In addition, excavations in North Vietnam have yielded dates ranging from 4000 to 2000 B.C. Prior to the excavations recently completed around the 1950s, the antiquity of rice was backed only by old writings from the time of Emperor Shen Nung whom supposedly instructed his people to plant rice as one of the five cereals. From this plethora of excavation data it has been assumed that the origination of rice is concluded to be somewhere in Southeast Asia and without a reasonable doubt, came before the cultivation in the islands off the coast of Asia.

Dispersal Across the World

The origination of rice in Southeastern Asia was the start of a long and lengthy journey before reaching the present day’s existence of rice in 112 countries across the world. Between 8000 and 4000 B.C., floodwaters in Northern Thailand and around the Gulf of Thailand can give reason to rice remains being found in these areas without otherwise traceable routes. Most species of rice are quite resistant to flooding which has allowed it to survive the heavily flooded valleys of Southeastern Asia as the dispersal of rice was proceeding (Achaya, 1998; Chang, 2000). About the time of the third millennium B.C., rice farmers were arranging themselves amongst the lowlands to the south of the Nanling mountain range. Artifacts found near this site were also found at Shaixa, which were dated to approximately 2800 B.C. and have similarities to farming tools found at sites of Yangzi. Further down along the Red River Valley of China and onto the flat lands of Vietnam, it is likely that agriculturalists crossed with a group of nomadic hunters as indicated by archeological evidence of rice and domesticated dogs. Along with this evidence, tracing the lingual roots of inhabitants of these areas can show the route, which was likely for rice, and the agriculturalists of rice, to have inhabited (Bird, et al., 2000).

Rivers and trade routes throughout China and Eastern Asia slowly and gradually developed as the spread of rice continued to be advanced by the humans utilizing it for food and other uses. Near the end of early civilization, rice was introduced as a crop of domesticated farming along with the already existing agricultural products of wheat, barley, fruits, and cotton. About this time, heard animals also accompanied these early domesticated farming settlements. People in these areas of Southern Asia were skilled craftsmen and likely enjoyed a fairly high standard of life around the time of 2600 B.C. and likely used these skills to acquire agricultural goods, allowing farmers to also enjoy a fruitful life. While some areas allowed for the use of primitive carts, the rivers and sea allowed for greater distance for travel and communication of goods and ideas (Bird, et al., 2000). Humans, along with the natural flow of water, gusts of wind, consumption and defecation of plant material by grazing species, and the interactions of these factors unified in the great, early dispersal of rice. As shown in Fig.1, the dispersal followed both land and water routes and consisted of several species. Each varied line represents the spread of a different variety of rice derived from the original ancestor along the base of the Himalayan Mountains as indicated by the shaded area.

[pic]

[Fig. 1 Photocopied from Chang (2000, p. 137)]

Rice also spread beyond Asia sometime around 2000 to 1000 B.C. and even though the link between Asian and African trade of rice is not entirely known, there are some minimal written records with dates as far back as 1500 B.C. around the Niger center, and also around the Guinean region of Africa. Today, the species of rice found in Africa commercially is known as Oryza glaberrima and is cultivated mainly in West Africa (Levetin, 2006). The spread of rice was further proliferated outwards from its origin in China via early trade routes over to the Korean peninsula at about 1030 B.C. and cultivation of rice in Japan is noted to have its beginning around 1000 B.C. Though specific routes aren’t known for certain, Fig. 1 shows a few possible routes that may have been used when first introducing rice as a new crop. Also shown by the map is the route of rice moving across the Indonesian Islands to the Philippines at about 1000 B.C. From this point in time, it is likely that the Middle East obtained rice from South Asia and furthermore to Europe via Persia around the fourth or fifth century B.C., from areas around Greece to Sicily around the eighth century A.D., or possible directly from Persia to Spain at around the eighth century and later to Italy about the thirteenth and sixteenth century A.D. Another possibility includes the direct trade from Southern Asia to parts west (Chang, 2000). From East Africa, rice was able to move to Madagascar and into Congo around the nineteenth century. Europe and the early European exploration crews played a large role in dispersal through trade about the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries over to the Caribbean islands and to present day United States of America. Once rice was introduced into the Americas, it spread from Virginia towards the south along the Atlantic coast. Further spreading towards the southwest and later to California during the gold rush. Other later dispersals included the introductions of rice into Australia, Hawaii, and New South Wales in the late 1800s (Bird, 2000; Chang, 2000).

Climate and Ideal Conditions for Rice Cultivation

Rice is a hardy grass and displays great ability to adapt to a multitude of environments and even spans as far north as 53° north and as far south as 35° south latitude. Rice is generally grown in paddies, which take advantage of this grass’s ability to withstand large amounts of water; up to two meters in some species. Although rice is capable of growing on dry land, it usually requires the accompaniment of fertilizers and chemical weed control. Paddy formations are generally found on hillsides in a sort of tier fashion, allowing water to flow from the top level and spill over into subsequent rice beds. While the excess water may serve as a breeding ground for insects, fish are sometimes added for insect control and to fulfill other beneficial tasks for the rice crop (Anonymous, 2007c; Chang, 2000; Harlan, 1992). It can assist with fertilization of the soil and accompany the rice harvest as an additional source of protein for the rice farmers and their families. Some species of amphibians and snakes can also accompany the rice paddies for pest control and help with nitrogen fixation as well. Other plants and algae growing along with the rice which were originally thought of as weeds now accompany rice intentionally as a source of nitrogen fixation which largely helps cut down the cost of expensive fertilizers (Levetin, 2006).

Worldwide Production

Over the past two and a half decades, worldwide rice production has increased from 200 million metric tons in 1960 to 420 in 1980 and up to nearly 700 million metric tons annually in 2005. The weight of this product is based on paddy weight and is reduced by 32% during the milling process. Leaders in production have continually led by China at (31%), India (20%), and Indonesia weighing in at (9%) of world production. While only about fiver or six percent of the world production is brought to the global market, it is still a major cereal product, able to demand a higher price than the more widely produced wheat grains. Some countries even import wheat by selling a portion of their rice surplus in order to have an overall larger supply of grains. The three largest exporters of rice are Thailand (26%), Vietnam (15%), and the United States of America (11%). Meanwhile, the three major importers are Indonesia at (14%), Bangladesh at (4%), and Brazil at (3%). In some countries such as Cambodia, rice is such an important crop, that it takes up nearly one-hundred percent (90%) of the agricultural farming area.

The rice plant itself, the paddy, forms gradually over about three months. In early stages of growth, the heads of rice begin as tiny flower clusters around the base of the plant and slowly travel up the center of the plant to emerge about a month later. As the flower opens and is pollinated within about a week, it then closes and forms a protective hull which gradually fills up with liquid protein and starch. Over the next five to six weeks, this liquidy starch and protein hardens and is encased in several nutrient rich layers. It is this complete grain formed which is notated as paddy (Anonymous, 2002a). As rice is harvested and collected for preparation as a food good, it is reduced to sixty-eight percent of the paddy weight and can be sold as many different products depending on the processing used on the paddy (Anonymous, 2007b). The hull of the rice is removed as the first step in the milling process as this portion of the plant is inedible for humans. At this point, the rice can be sold as wholegrain brown rice or the bran layer can be removed and processed as rice bran, which can be sold to supermarkets for a cooking ingredient, or it can be sold to manufacturers desiring to make a nutritious breakfast cereal. The bran can also be used in high quality livestock food or other industrialized animal food products. Once the bran layer is removed, the remaining part is the starchy endosperm, commonly eaten as plain, everyday white rice. Any broken pieces left over can be used in other food products which contain rice as well as being used for a further breakdown of the broken fragments to make rice flour for baking applications and baby foods (Anonymous, 2002a).

Wild Rice

Another type of rice, which is related to the more common Oryza sativa, is wild rice. Zizania aquatica is a species of rice that at first glance might seem like a plant which is native to the United States, but it is more likely that it was brought to the United States via the land bridge sometime after the first cultivations of Oryza sativa in Southeastern Asia. According to Harlan (1992), late in the 19th century, Indian tribes of Wisconsin harvested rice via a canoe to row their way out to the paddies and would claim their share by tying off sections of the aquatic plant with cedar bark twine, while the rice was still in its milk stage. Later, the women of the tribes would row out to their twined rice and collect it in their canoe by beating the stalk over the canoe with a straight stick. In this process, two people in the canoe would exchange between rowing and harvesting roles until the canoe was heavily laden with their large piles of wet rice. The men of the tribes were responsible for de-husking the rice and drying it out on a platform built over a fire. In this way, the tribes were able to store food until the following harvest.

The wild rice cultivated today is no longer a truly ‘wild rice’, but it has been domesticated in parts of Canada and the United States. Unlike Oryza sativa it is almost always sold as a whole grain, rather than being hulled and milled. The nature of the hardier wild rice insists that it be cooked longer to be able to enjoy the dense grain. The nutritional value of Zizania aquatica has influenced domestic producers to increase production and cultivation has since spread to California, Minnesota, around the Great Lakes, Canada, Australia, and Hungary. In China, the plant is used more for its value as a vegetable, rather than a protein source and is only minimally cultivated in comparison to their production of O. sativa (Anonymous, 1997a; Anonymous 2007d).

Golden Rice

This new genetically altered rice may be the very thing needed by millions worldwide whom are suffering from deficiencies in Vitamin A. Given the phylogenic name of Oryza sativa, GR, this new sub-species of rice contains β-carotene (provitamin A) in the endosperm portion of the rice plant. Oryza sativa, while normally a white starchy food after processing, with this altercation, appears as a yellow-orange color, which signifies the presence of the desired Vitamin’s presence. While further research to enhance this new variety of rice is underway, developers of the genetically modified grass are already attempting to integrate it into the hands of current producers of Oryza sativa in order to assist in the relief of Vitamin A deficiencies (VAD). It is in some of the more impoverished countries of Asia and through the targeting of specifically deficient populations, there is hope that this genetically enhanced rice will be introduced and sustained as a replacement or supplement along with the current use of O. sativa. This large implementation of introducing a genetically modified organism on such a large scale may prove to be difficult, but it will greatly assist in the figurative fight against VAD (Al-Babili, 2005).

In Conclusion

The importance of such a widespread crop can not be so easily stated. The mere fact that this plant has spread from a single country in Asia to the 112 currently inhabited countries signifies the vast desirability of this magnificent cereal grain. A staple food source for well over a billion people, and not only is it the third most largely produced plant, but it is also one of the most human consumed foods in the world. Keeping production high, while maintaining a fair market for producers, pseudo-limited population control, and continued research in the fields of botany and agriculture will all assist with meeting the production needs for the quickly rising population on Earth.

Literature Cited

Achaya, K. T. 1998. A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.

Al-Babili, S., & Beyer, P. (2005, December). Golden Rice – Five Years on the Road – Five Years to Go? TRENDS in Plant Science, 10(12), 565-573.

Anonymous. 2007a. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Anonymous. 2007b. Rice.

Anonymous. 2007c. Rice.

Anonymous. 2002a. SunRice: The Rice Food Experts.

Anonymous. 1997a. Alternative Field Crops Manual: Wild Rice.

Anonymous. 2007d. Wild Rice.

Anderson, E. N. 1988. The Food of China. Yale University Press, New Haven & London, England.

Bird, C., Bogucki, P., Duke, P., Edens, C., Gill, D., Higham, C.,Higham, T., Hoffecker, J., Karner, S., McCafferty, et al. (2000). The Atlas of World Archeology (P. G. Bahn, Ed.). The Brown Reference Group plc. London, England.

Chang, T.T. (2000). Rice. In K. F. Kiple & K. C. Ornelas (Eds.),

The Cambridge World History of Food, I: 132-149. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Harlan, J. R., 1992. Crops & Man. 2nd Ed. (Peterson, G.A., Baenziger, P.S., Dinauer, R.C. Eds.). The American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Madison, WI.

Levetin, E., McMahon, K., 2006. Plants and Society. 4th Ed. McGraw Hill Co., New York, NY.

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