What Is Anthropology? - SUNY Morrisville

[Pages:40]Chapter 1

What Is Anthropology?

A nthropology is the scientific study of the origin, the behaviour, and the physical, social, and cultural development of humans. Anthropologists seek to understand what makes us human by studying human ancestors through archaeological excavation and by observing living cultures throughout the world. In this chapter, you will learn about different fields of anthropology and the major schools of thought, important theories, perspectives, and research within anthropology, as well as the work of influential anthropologists. You'll also learn methods for conducting anthropological research and learn how to formulate your own research questions and record information.

Chapter Expectations

By the end of this chapter, you will: ? summarize and compare major theories, perspectives, and research

methods in anthropology ? identify the significant contributions of influential anthropologists ? outline the key ideas of the major anthropological schools of thought,

and explain how they can be used to analyze features of cultural systems ? explain significant issues in different areas of anthropology ? explain the main research methods for conducting anthropological

research

Key Terms

bipedalism culturally constructed culture ethnocentric ethnography ethnology

fossil hominin hypothesis informant kinship objective

participant observation radiometric dating reflexivity subculture subjective

Landmark Case Studies

Richard Lee: The Dobe Ju/'hoansi

Primatology Dian Fossey (1932?1985) Birut? Galdikas (1946?)

Jane Goodall (1934?) Sue Savage-Rumbaugh (1946?)

Paleoanthropology Raymond Dart (1893?1988) Donald Johanson (1943?) Louis Leakey (1903?1972) Mary Leakey (1913?1996)

Richard Leakey (1944?)

Figure1-1Paleontologist Marco Avanzini measuring fossilized footprints created 385 000?325 000 years ago by an ancestor of modern humans. Why do you think anthropologists are interested in finding out about the origin and development of humans?

Physical Anthropology

Archaeology Prehistoric Historic

Forensic Anthropology

Fields of Anthropology

Archaeology

Cultural Anthropology

Human Variation Charles Darwin (1809?1882)

Ethnology Ruth Benedict (1887?1948)

Franz Boas (1858?1942) Napoleon Chagnon (1938?) Marvin Harris (1927?2001)

Diamond Jenness (1886?1965)

Richard Lee (1937?) Bronislaw Malinowski

(1884?1942) Margaret Mead (1901?1978)

Linguistic Anthropology Noam Chomsky (1928?) Edward Sapir (1884?1939)

Pass 5

MHR 15

Spotlight on Anthropology Yanomam? and the Anthropologists

Before You Read

You have just read a brief introduction to anthropology. Scan these two pages and predict what this chapter is about. Record two questions that you expect will be answered as you read.

W hen American anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon (1938?) (see Figure 1-2) went to Venezuela in 1969 to study the Yanomam? (sometimes called the Yanomami), isolated hunter-gatherers who live in the Amazon rainforest, he had little idea of the controversy his research would generate among anthropologists. Chagnon spent years living with the Yanomam?, participating in their culture, providing them with goods such as axes and machetes, and vaccinating them against deadly diseases. His book Yanomam?: The Fierce People described the Yanomam? as an extremely violent society, where aggression and conflict between men was valued. Chagnon suggested that aggression in males was both culturally and biologically determined. The males who were most aggressive had more wives and children than those who were less aggressive. Chagnon reasoned that cultural success (in this case, being aggressive and violent) led to increased genetic success (meaning that more of the children born would be disposed toward violence). Chagnon's book went on to become a best-selling anthropology text and is often studied in universities.

Fast forward to 2000 and the publication of Darkness in El Dorado: How Scientists and Journalists Devastated the Amazon. Author and journalist Patrick Tierney condemns Chagnon's work, criticizing his methods and accusing him of manipulating data to reach the conclusions he wanted. Tierney, who also spent time with the Yanomam?, claimed that Chagnon had incited the violence and conflict he observed by providing (or bribing) the Yanomam? with goods and creating competition between them and neighbouring tribes. Tierney has also suggested that the vaccines did more harm than good since some of the Yanomam? became ill after they were inoculated.

Did Chagnon's participation in Yanomam? society alter the behaviour of the people he interacted with? It's important to remember that Tierney studied the Yanomam? decades after Chagnon. The differences

Figure1-2Napoleon Chagnon (left) was criticized for his dealings with the Yanomam? people. To what extent is the criticism of Chagnon's work justified?

between the Yanomam? culture that Tierney observed and the one Chagnon described might not be caused only by the actions of anthropologists, but by the massive social changes caused by missionary work, forestry, gold mining, and changes to their environment.

The controversy raises questions for anthropologists, such as: How does a researcher's presence influence a society? Anthropologists agree that they must always carefully consider their impact on the people they study and try to protect the safety, dignity, and privacy of their subjects. The ongoing disagreement among anthropologists whether Chagnon's research practices were ethical, that is, whether his research adhered to accepted principles and conduct, demonstrates that what anthropologists consider to be ethical has changed over time.

Questions

1. Why was Chagnon's research criticized? Is the criticism of Chagnon's work justified? Why or why not?

2. To what extent can anthropologists conduct research ethically in another culture? Explain.

16 MHR Unit 1 ? What Is Social Science?

Pass 5

Research and Inquiry Skills

People become social scientists to understand people and cultures and to gain insight into human behaviour. To do this, a social scientist must do a great deal of research. Social scientists review case studies and other published material and do their own primary research in the field.

Creating a Central Research Question

The first step is coming up with a central research question on a topic that interests you. A research question must be testable and as unbiased as possible. We all have biases. They can come from our culture, our point of view, and our interests. Social scientists have established research methods and practices to try to reduce these biases. Here are some examples of research questions:

1. Why are men violent? This question assumes that men are violent. It would be very difficult to test since "violence" is not defined.

2. Are men violent in all cultures? This question is better since it does not assume that all men are violent. But it is better to define violence and culture more specifically.

3. Do men in industrial countries commit more deadly violence than men in hunter-gatherer societies? Phrasing the question this way provides a basis for further research. You have ways of investigating this example by counting and comparing the number of murders in different communities.

After creating a central research question, the next step is conducting a literature review to discover the research that already exists on your topic. This will allow you to refine your question and further develop a hypothesis.

hypothesis: a tentative assumption made from known facts as the basis for investigation

Activities 1. In small groups, brainstorm an issue or problem in

your school or community that could be investigated.

2. Once you have your list, create at least three research questions that are testable and unbiased.

3. How would you go about researching the problem? What kinds of information would you need to gather?

Recording Data and Analyzing Information

When you are doing research, you will need to collect data (small factual pieces of information) and information to test your hypothesis. Data becomes information when it is interpreted by someone. Record how you collected your data and where you found your information. Summarize the information and think about how it answers your research question.

Assessing and Recording Sources It is very important to record where you got your information and to cite your sources correctly. In the social sciences, we generally use APA style. For more information about APA style, see Chapter 3.

Summarizing Information Summarizing your information is critical to helping you understand what you've found and avoid plagiarism. Here are a few examples to help you:

Point-form notes Start with a title and include subtitles to organize the information. Summarize the information in your own words. Write down where you found your information, so you will remember to properly cite it.

Mind mapping A central idea can branch off into subtopics. This technique is helpful to see connections.

Diagrams and flow charts These can show a process or record how information is related. For visual learners, diagrams and charts may be preferred over point-form notes.

Evaluating Your Information When researching, it's helpful to note how the information will help you answer your research question. Doing so helps you to keep focused and avoid irrelevant research. After you finish collecting your data, you will need to analyze and synthesize it. It's also important to evaluate your sources. Note who the author is, his or her qualifications, and where it is published.

Activities 1. As you read through Chapter 1, create a mind map

that organizes the main theories and ideas of all the anthropologists mentioned in the chapter.

2. Create a graphic organizer to help you understand the different schools of thought in anthropology.

Pass 5

Chapter 1 ? What Is Anthropology? MHR 17

Section 1.1 Cultural Anthropology and Understanding Human Culture and Behaviour

A s anthropologists gather more and more information about culture throughout the world, we can see what characteristics are universally human, how cultures adapt to new challenges in innovative ways, and how culture is learned and passed on to new generations. In this section, you will learn about the different fields of cultural anthropology, different theories and schools of thought, and the tools cultural anthropologists use to conduct their research.

culture:

the total system of ideas, values, behaviours, and attitudes of a society commonly shared by most members of a society

Cultural Anthropology

What do you think of when you hear the word culture? Maybe you think about the ballet, the theatre, or a concert. Culture is not just the artistic activities a society considers valuable, like playing an instrument. Culture is made up of what people do, what people make, and what people believe. Culture includes all behaviour of people in their everyday lives, from daily rituals (for example, washing dishes) to beliefs about abstract concepts (for example, time), and is learned and transmitted from one generation to the next. It can be the food people eat, the clothes they wear, the shelter they live in, how they move from place to place, how they defend themselves, what they learn, and the languages they speak.

Cultural anthropologists are anthropologists who study both past and present cultures. They ask questions such as: Why is there social and political inequality? How does language affect and express culture? What can we learn about a culture from what the people leave behind? Researchers attempt to answer these questions by immersing themselves in a culture for months or years while conducting interviews and taking detailed notes as they study the history and structure of languages and the physical remains of past cultures. The mind map below (see Figure 1-3) explains the different fields of cultural anthropology.

Cultural Anthropology

Ethnology Ethnologists immerse themselves in a culture for months or years and take meticulous notes.

Linguistic Anthropology Linguistic anthropologists study the history and structure of language, and the ways humans use language.

Figure1-3The different fields of cultural anthropology

Archaeology Archaeologists study the physical remains of a past culture through excavation and reconstruction.

18 MHR Unit 1 ? What Is Social Science?

Pass 5

Figure1-4Look carefully at the photos above. What aspects of culture can you see? In what ways are people's beliefs, behaviours, and attitudes evident?

The Language of SociaL ScienceS

Introducing Social Sciences

As you are introduced to social sciences in Unit 1, you may see certain terms used to describe different theories and practices of anthropology, psychology, and sociology, such as schools of thought, branches, fields, and disciplines. These terms are closely related and used often. A school of thought is a common view or approach taken by a group of like-minded people on a specific topic. A branch is a division of a subject, an area of specialized skill or knowledge. A field is a topic,

subject, or area of academic interest. A discipline is a branch of learning or a field of study. Each of these terms is used to describe different elements of the social sciences and is important to understanding social science.

Questions

1. Write the following terms in your notebook: school of thought, branch, field, and discipline. As you go through Unit 1, find an example for each one.

REflEct And RESpond

1. Examine an item belonging to someone in your class. Make some predictions about the beliefs and values of his or her culture based on this item.

2. Look at the images on this page. Choose two images, and develop a research question that a cultural anthropologist might ask for each one.

Pass 5

Chapter 1 ? What Is Anthropology? MHR 19

Before You Read

Why do you think police rely on informants or tips from the public when they are investigating a crime? Are all of these sources reliable? Why or why not?

informant: a reliable and knowledgeable person who provides specific information to an anthropologist studying his or her community

Research Tools of Cultural Anthropologists

Finding Informants

When anthropologists conduct their research within a community, it is impossible for them to talk to everyone from every group. They rely on informants, people in the community who are willing to share information about their culture and their community. Informants should be reliable and knowledgeable about what the anthropologist is studying. For example, if you were studying hockey in rural Ontario, you would want to find informants who had specific knowledge of the game, players, fans, or community volunteers. It can be very difficult to find an informant. Anthropologists have to be aware that informants will react to their presence as researchers and may be distrustful of them or unwilling to share critical information. There has to be a certain level of trust between an informant and an anthropologist. The relationship between an anthropologist and an informant is a partnership and without the help of an informant, an anthropologist cannot conduct his or her research. It is essential to choose reliable informants and to verify their information through other methods.

Interviews

Interviews are important tools used by anthropologists (and other social scientists) to understand the culture they are studying and obtain valuable information. There are different kinds of interviews, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Before interviewing, it is important for the anthropologist to inform the subjects about the purpose of the research, how the information will be used, and the confidentiality they can expect. This is called informed consent, and it is critical to obtaining information ethically.

Connecting Anthropology

to Sociology

In the past, anthropologists were concerned mainly with documenting non-Western cultures while sociologists analyzed social problems within Western cultures. Today, many Canadian universities have joint anthropology?sociology departments where researchers can work together on understanding culture and social problems in Canada and in other countries. The difference between the disciplines is often in the research methods used.

Unstructured Interviews

Unstructured interviews are between an anthropologist and an informant. Unstructured interviews allow the researcher to test out his or her initial ideas and can lead to a greater understanding of the topic. The researcher should have some knowledge going into the interview, but unstructured interviews provide an excellent way for new directions to emerge and are often a first step to more structured interviews and surveys. It is important that there is no deception between the interviewer and the interviewee. The interviewee knows why the anthropologist is interviewing him or her and the outline of the project. For example, in your research on hockey you meet with the local coach every morning so he can tell you about his experiences. Over several months, you take detailed notes and let him direct the content of the interviews. This is a useful method when you are at a field site for several months or years and have a lot of time (Bernard, 2006). However, no questions can be preestablished and the researcher has little control over a respondent's answers.

Semi-structured Interviews

Semi-structured interviews are often used by anthropologists who stay in a community for only a few weeks and need to use their time efficiently. These types of interviews allow the researcher to prepare some questions in advance

20 MHR Unit 1 ? What Is Social Science?

Pass 5

and end up with reliable qualitative data. The researcher goes in with an

outline of what types of information are wanted, but not a strict list of

questions. The interview is semi-structured because it is flexible, allowing

both the interviewer and the subject to follow leads that may come up in

the course of the interview and for the subject to express personal views. Australopithecus afarensis [3.85 ? 2.95 mya]

Howeve-r,bipietdalcan be easy to stray away from the topic you need information - may have survived dramatic climate change

on. For your hockey research, you might want to interview the mayor, but she can't meA- uefisrsttrtahlwoopmitiihnteinchufossaysfirloicfoauunnudsei3n.v3Afe?ric2ra.y1 mmya orning. The semi-structured interview is a good method --ibmfipaeyydhaoalvue suhrvivaedvderamoatnic cllyimaote nchaengechance to interview her.

More to Know...

You will learn more about Richard Lee and the Ju/'hoansi on pages 26?27.

Paranthropus robustus [1.8 ? 1.2 mya]

Structu-rneotdtoolIunsetrse, mravssiivee jwawssand ape-like skull - may have died out in competition with homo erectus

StructurHeodmo hianbitlise[2r.v4 ?ie1.w4 msya]are interviews that use a set list of questions that do n- foirstt decfihnitae tnoogl uese.r This method should be used when the researcher

-larger brain size than Australopithecines

is very clear on the topic and there is other information that is easily Homo erectus [1.89 mya ? 70 000 ya]

available- h.adTfirhe ese interviews can be conducted efficiently by non-experts, trained t--oastpeefaconieimslaltolomliwveeattheolonngleyst the instructions on the interview questionnaire. This me-tfhirsot todleadveoAfericsa not require the development of a relationship between interviewH- osmoeleorssuaarpviienvninsdg[2h0oi0mni0nt0in0eyravtoiperewsenet]e, and it can produce consistent data that can easily be- lecft Aofrmica 1p00a0r0e0dyearbs aegtoween respondents. However, since the questions

are set inHomao dneavndaenrthcaleens,isthey cannot be adapted to changing situations and few [200 000 to 28 000 years ago]

are open- -adeapntedd teo cdondqitiounseinsEtuiroopne s, so the researcher might obtain limited answers. - first to wear clothing - first to bury dead

counting people, photographs, and Mapping

At the beginning of their research, anthropologists often count all the

people they are studying and map their physical locations. They take

photographs and draw diagrams, such as the ones shown in Figures 1-5

and 1-6, of how humans use physical space and the relationships between

people in the society. Anthropologists collect this type of information on the

activities of the people in the society to help them understand the society

they are studying. For example, by counting the hours of work over a

month of one community of hunter-gatherers in Southern Africa, the

Ju/'hoansi, anthropologist Richard Lee discovered that most of the people

spent an average of 20 hours a week gathering food. Women brought in

55 percent of the total calories, in addition to doing other kinds of work,

including making clothing, processing food, and child care. Lee found out

that the Ju/'hoansi worked no more than 40 hours a week in all tasks,

which helped him to draw conclusions about the equality of labour within

their society. This kind of information can be compared to information

gathered through interviews or informants, which can help anthropologists

verify what people are telling them.

0

1 2 3 4

5

6 0 central plaza, chu/o 1 circle of huts and fireplaces, da/tsi 2 ash dumps 3 cooking pits 4 empty area 5 zone of defecation, z/o 6 the bush t,si

Figure1-5A plan of a Ju/'hoan village. What kind of information about people's culture and daily lives is available in this diagram? How is the information different from the information provided by the photograph?

REflEct And RESpond

1. Create a chart comparing the advantages and disadvantages of different research methods used by cultural anthropologists.

2. Select which type of interview you would do if you were going to conduct research today in the Ju/'hoan village and explain your reasons.

Figure1-6Anthropologist Richard Lee interviewing Ju/'hoansi hunter about cooking debris. How does Figure 1-5 help you make sense of this photo?

Pass 5

Chapter 1 ? What Is Anthropology? MHR 21

 ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download